774 matches found for How People Learn Brain,Mind,Experience,and School Expanded Edition. in 5. Family, Community, and Peers
Select a page to see where your word(s) or phrase(s) are located in the OpenBook. Excerpts from the chapter provide context.
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...Family, Community, and Peers...
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...High schools can increase students' engagement in learning by creating...
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...schools cannot achieve the high levels of engagement and standards for...
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...learning currently asked of them by themselves (e.g., Cohen and Ball, 1999;...
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...Comer, 1997; Epstein, 2001b; Gold, Simon, and Brown, 2002; Hill,...
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...Campbell, and Harvey, 2000; Shirley, 1997; Steinberg, 1997~. Patricia Gra-...
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...The battleship, the school, cannot do this alone. The rest of the education-...
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...tion, and the business community. Only then will all of our children be...
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...and accomplishment in learning....
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...In some respects it makes little sense to discuss what schools can do...
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...to engage students in learning without considering the settings in which...
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...both schools and students live. Ideally, schools would build on the...
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...knowledge and interests youth develop at home and in the community...
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...and create opportunities for students to extend and apply school-...
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...learned skills in contexts outside of school. They would take advantage...
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...of resources and supports for learning in the community and be a...
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...Elsewhere in this volume we discuss how schools can expand curricu-...
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...lum offerings by embedding learning opportunities in authentic work envi-...
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...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
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...ronments (Chapter 6), and how they can collaborate with health and social...
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...students (Chapter 71. In this chapter, we focus on how schools can increase...
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...students' engagement in learning by involving their families and connecting...
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...suggests, however, that peer effects on school engagement can be as positive...
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...as they can be negative, and that adults can affect the nature of that influ-...
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...SCHOOL-FAMILY-COMMUNITY CONNECTIONS...
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...Many efforts to improve schools are "school-centric" in the sense that...
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...they focus exclusively on school resources and programs (Honig, Kahne,...
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...and McLaughlin, 20011. Although school-focused efforts are certainly nec-...
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...many of the factors that shape students' behavior in school are based in...
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...their experiences outside of school. This observation does not let schools...
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...school reforms that are likely to have substantial positive effects (Cibulka...
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...and Kritek, 1996; Honig et al., 2001; Kahne, O'Brien, Brown, and Quinn,...
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...2001; Wehiage, Smith, and Lipman, 19921....
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...Advocates of school reform initiatives that emphasize families and com-...
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...munities as partners generally view schools as part of a wider social ecology...
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...that includes neighborhoods, community organizations, and families (Na-...
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...tional Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 20021. They seek to...
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...marshal the energy, resources, and support of families and communities to...
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...promote learning and positive youth development. We will discuss evidence...
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...suggesting the value of deep, institutionalized connections among schools,...
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...families, and the community. Be forewarned that the kind of connections...
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...advocated by many experts require fundamental changes in most schools-...
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...in how they are organized, how decisions are made, and even how instruc-...
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...tion is implemented (see Comer, 1980; Connell, Gambone, and Smith,...
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...2000; Giles, 1998; Gold, Simon and Brown, 2002; Heckman, 1996; Honig...
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...et al., 2001; Lewis, 1996; Murnane and Levy, 1996a; Wehiage et al., 19921....
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...Adolescents need many sources of support, and they need consistency...
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...in the messages they receive from the important people in their lives....
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...Lawrence Cremin (1976) is among the many educators and researchers...
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...who over the years have described the school as but one educating institu-...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...Gaitan, 1987; Mehan, Hubbard, and Villanueva, 1994; Phelan et al., 1998~....
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...lum "which it teaches quite deliberately and systematically over time."...
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...Religious institutions also socialize youth to certain values and beliefs, as...
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...do workplaces, radio and television, and youth organizations. The funda-...
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...see Aber, Gephart, Brooks-Gunn, and Connell, 1997~. Findings from a...
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...value of congruence between parent and peer support for academic matters....
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...In their study of nine high schools in Wisconsin and Northern California,...
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...students who received academic encouragement from both parents and...
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...peers performed better in school than those who received encouragement...
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...from only one source (see also Lee and Smith, 19991....
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...Darling and Steinberg's (1997) findings on social integration illustrate...
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...both the value of coherence in the messages adolescents receive and the...
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...tunity for nonteacher adult contact, and parents had the opportunity to...
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...meet their adolescents' friends and their parents. The undesirable effects of...
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...Family social integration was associated with adolescent school engage-...
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...ment and lower levels of substance use only in communities where other...
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...adolescents were engaged in school and were not involved in substance...
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...and more substance use when community adolescents were more deviant...
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...and less involved in school. In other words, social integration exaggerated...
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...families and school staff and of involving families in school activities that...
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...school and at home, school-initiated activities can help families build the...
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...social networks that have been shown to support youth development and...
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...learning....
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...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
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...Creating strong linkages between schools and families may support...
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...values adolescents are exposed to at home and at school. Although most...
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...that children benefit from their parents' involvement in their school (e.g.,...
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...Ames, Khoju, and Watkins, 1993; Baker and Soden, 1998; Booth and...
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...Dunn, 1996; Clark, 1983; Dornbusch and Ritter, 1988; Eccles and Harold,...
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...1996; Epstein, 2001a; Lee, 1994; Lee and Croninger, 1994; Morgan and...
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...Sorensen, 1999; Scott-Tones, 1987; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, and...
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...Darling, 1992; Stevenson and Baker, 1987; Tocci and Englehard, 19911. In...
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...doing well in school, their involvement also appeared to contribute to...
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...In their study of 14,217 sophomores in 913 public, Catholic, and private...
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...schools from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS...
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...88), Rumberger and Palardy (2002) found lower dropout rates in schools in...
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...rates after controlling for the academic and social-class background of...
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...students as well as school resources (e.g., student-teacher ratio, proportion...
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...of teachers with advanced degrees) and structural characteristics (e.g., size...
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...and urbanicity)....
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...ents, educators, and policy makers (Epstein, 2001a), and at least nominal...
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...(Keesling and Melargano, 19831. Parental involvement was listed as a ma-...
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...Act, as well as in some local legislation, such as the 1988 Chicago School...
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...Reform Act. The Chicago legislation mandated that parents and commu-...
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...nity leaders be involved in their local school's budget making, hiring, and...
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...firing decisions, and in the development of school improvement plans (Bryk...
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...and Schneider, 2002; Bryk, Sebring, Kerbow, Rollow, and Easton, 19981....
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...mostly elementary and middle-school children, and often do not differenti-...
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...activities at school; at-home involvement in children's learning; participat-...
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...ing in school decisions through parent-teacher organizations and other...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...venues; communicating about children's educational progress and plans;...
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...obtaining advice from school personnel about child-rearing or parenting...
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...practices; and working with the school to collaborate with other commu-...
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...nity organizations (Baker and Soden, 1998; Epstein, 2001a, p. 4091. A...
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...learning at home, collaboration with the community) and shows that differ-...
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...and overseeing their academic program from home did not appear to...
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...triggered by academic problems and thus experienced by the student as...
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...type of parental involvement that drew parents into the school physically-...
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...to attend teacher conferences and school programs such as back-to-school...
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...nights and extracurricular activities. Other studies, however, indicate that...
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...students who rate their own parents' involvement and encouragement at...
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...home as high have higher academic self-concept, greater motivation, and...
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...more positive attitudes toward school (e.g., Sanders, 1998; Wiest, Wong,...
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...Cervantes, Craik, and Kreil, 2001; Wong, Wiest, and Cusick, 20021....
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...ment, there is a dearth of research at the high school level. Longitudinal...
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...needed, and studies that differentiate particular kinds of parent involve-...
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...schools decreases markedly during middle school and high school (Baker...
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...and Stevenson, 1986; Epstein and Dauber, 1991) and that low-income and...
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...poorly educated, single and minority parents have relatively low rates of...
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...involvement in their children's schools (Comer, 1988; Epstein, 2001a;...
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...Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler, and Brissie, 1987; Lareau, 1987,1989; Leitch...
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...and Tangri, 1988. There is also considerable evidence that school prac-...
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...tices and policies affect the level of parent involvement (Cole and Griffin,...
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...1987; Comer, 1980; Dauber and Epstein, 1993~. One recent comprehensive...
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...study (Sui-Chu and Wilims, 1996), examined what student-level and school-...
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...iFor case studies about what schools do and don't do to promote parental involvement of...
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...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
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...sion, home supervision, school communication, and school participation-...
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...and the impact of these measures on 8th-grade school achievement. The...
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...study found that schools had influence on school participation, although...
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...sures, and that home discussion of school activities was the most strongly...
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...and how parents become involved in their children's education." School...
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...rates of parents with children who are most at risk of school failure....
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...Schools may not facilitate the involvement of low-income parents as...
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...much as they do more affluent parents. Jordan and Plank (2000) found that...
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...school about course selection decisions, postsecondary education, or career...
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...were also less likely to attend a school-sponsored program on postsecondary...
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...educational opportunities and financial aid, suggesting that they did not...
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...take as much advantage of opportunities the school did provide....
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...does not suggest less interest or concern about their children's school...
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...achievement, and most parents want to be more involved (Epstein, 1990;...
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...MetLife, 19871. We speculate that language and culture play a role. For...
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...fortable in school contexts and have more challenges in participating. So-...
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...cial class differences between parents and teachers could produce another...
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...and neighborhood safety may also come into play (e.g., Heymann and...
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...by parents and providing translators at school events; making the schoo!...
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...physically and socially hospitable to the families; and providing transporta-...
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...tion and babysitting. Because the obstacles to parent involvement most...
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...likely vary among communities, high schools need to assess the needs of...
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...their own parent community and identify local resources to address the...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...involvement programs and their implementation, as well as strategies for...
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...(Morris and Taylor, 19981....
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...Communication is probably a first and necessary step to involving...
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...tional values and goals of parents often are different from the values and...
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...goals expressed by the parents, and some teachers complain that they do...
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...not understand what information parents would like from them (Dauber...
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...and Epstein, 19931. Parents, in turn, report that they do not fully under-...
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...stand what teachers are trying to do (Epstein, 2001a). Improved communi-...
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...cation among parents, teachers, and students about educational objectives...
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...and strategies might lead to greater participation by parents as well as...
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...foster congruence between messages and supports for learning at home and...
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...at school (see Darling and Steinberg, 1997; Lamborn, Brown, Mounts, and...
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...Steinberg, 1992; Moll and Greenberg, 1990; Rosenfeld et al., 20001....
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...Special efforts may be required for schools to connect with some par-...
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...studies at the elementary and middle school levels have documented the...
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...benefits of teachers' efforts to collaborate with single- and low-income...
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...parents, and other parents perceived as hard to reach (e.g., Clark, 1983;...
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...Comer, 1980; Epstein, 1990; Epstein and Dauber, 1991; Rich, Van Dien,...
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...and Maddox, 1979; Scott-Tones, 19871. Moreover, teachers who find ways...
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...to work with low-income and single parents are much less likely than...
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...school in activities that will lead to better outcomes for their children...
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...(Becker and Epstein, 1982; Epstein, 19901. Presumably the breakdown of...
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...such stereotypes contributes to better communication and connections be-...
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...tween teachers and parents....
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...parents and other adults who have caretaking roles seriously limits the...
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...effects of even the most inspired school reform. Most parents want to be...
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...involved, and schools that reach out aggressively to parents and reduce...
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...engagement and learning.2 Murnane and Levy (1996b) suggest that an...
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...outside "agent" (e.g., community organization) can sometimes help schools...
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...2For an example of how schools can connect with parents and other caretaking adults, see...
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...the description of First Things First's family advocacy system in Chapters 6 and 8....
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...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
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...groups of parents to increase connections between parents and the school...
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...and Levy, 1996b). An example of a high school that used a coalition of...
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...Several national, and many state and local, organizations now provide...
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...support and guidance for school-community partnerships.3 The types of...
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...and resources of schools and communities. Our goal here is to give a flavor...
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...involve tinkering around the edges improving communication and build-...
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...point for serious reforms. School-community collaborations that have sub-...
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...stantial impact on youth engagement in school, however, involve changes...
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...at the core, in how schools define their role and how they function....
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...meet students' nonacademic needs (see Chapter 7, this volume), schools can...
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...develop close connections to after-school and other youth-serving programs....
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...Involving students in well-organized after-school and summer activities...
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...may promote positive attitudes about school shared by groups of students...
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...because organized activities are consistent with the values and norms of the...
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...school. They can provide a positive social context for youth to demonstrate...
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...their competence and experience a sense of belonging; furthermore, partici-...
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...activities where they could develop shared beliefs and attitudes that are...
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...different from, and possibly in opposition to, those of the school (Lamborn...
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...et al., 1992; McLaughlin, 2000; National Research Council and Institute of...
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...High schools can also involve community members and create support...
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...by serving as a resource for the community. Many high schools provide...
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...evening courses for adults in everything from carpentry and computers to...
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...Spanish and sewing. Athletic facilities can be made available and perfor-...
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...mances can be advertised throughout the community. School personnel and...
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...students can show their commitment to the community by participating in...
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...3Examples include Coalition for community Schools (http //www.communityschools.org)...
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...and the National community Building Network (http //www.ncbn.org)....
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...clean-up and beautification projects, inviting community members to ac-...
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...tivities, such as fairs and pancake breakfasts, and taking their performances...
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...out into the community. Parents and other community members can be...
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...school. Community members can be enlisted to advocate for school re-...
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...sources, and school personnel and students can assist in efforts to bring...
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...School-community connections can also be established to enrich the...
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...instructional program. College faculty, students, and local business people...
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...can come to the school to work directly with students or participate in...
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...classroom instruction. Local artisans and artists can visit classes to demon-...
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...strate their craft and to work directly with students. Students can expand...
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...their knowledge and learn how to apply new skills by working as interns or...
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...More powerful strategies for school-community connections transform...
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...schools so that they become one among many coordinated settings in which...
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...The first example involves a sustained collaboration between a school and...
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...vice to the community. The second is a description of a school-community...
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...school reform mode! called Project GRAD. The third example illustrates...
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...the growing practice of service learning. All three examples address some or...
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...all of the principles of engagement described in this volume and they all...
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...promote productive links between schools and their communities....
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...E! Puente Academy for Peace and lustice...
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...The E! Puente Academy for Peace and Justice was established in 1993...
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...City's New Visions initiative. An after-school program is so well connected...
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...to the academic curriculum of the school that it is difficult to differentiate...
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...where one ends and the other begins. Teachers and youth organization staff...
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...collaborate with each other and work with youth both during and after the...
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...regular school day....
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...Students learn basic skills in part through projects. For example, as part...
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...of a math and science unit, they spent afternoons and weekends creating a...
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...skills in the context of planning and budgeting and science skills in the...
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...process of selecting and growing plants. In another activity students devel-...
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...own values and concerns and to build leadership skills by assessing commu-...
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...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
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...nity needs and making decisions about where to invest their time. One...
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...children. Another group surveyed 500 residents and subsequently devel-...
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...oped a walking tour that included historic, economic, and environmental...
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...School in Houston, Texas, Project GRAD (Graduation Really Achieves...
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...Dreams) is a national program promoting school-community collaboration...
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...and the vertical integration of reform efforts, from kindergarten through...
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...urban schools with a history of poor performance in eight cities across the...
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...graders in Project GRAD high schools go on to graduate and that 50...
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...percent of graduates enter and complete a program of postsecondary edu-...
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...A brief history illustrates the many ways a high school can be con-...
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...nected to and benefit from the resources of the community. Since 1981 Jeff...
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...Davis High School had been involved in a business partnership with...
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...Tenneco Corporation, which was located near the school. The partnership...
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...provided Davis with tutors, mentors, and some college scholarship money....
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...But when Emily Cole arrived as principal in 1989, Davis High School had...
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...school. Students were wandering the hallways and absenteeism was ram-...
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...pant. Nearly 20 percent of Davis students dropped out every year, and...
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...Cole made a number of changes at the school, which serves a predomi-...
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...nantly Hispanic and low-income community. Internally, she looked for...
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...ways to implement research-based programs and practices reflecting the...
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...as an elementary school principal. To personalize relationships of students...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...create small learning communities, and restructured the administrative team....
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...To increase students' responsibility for learning, a well-researched coopera-...
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...outcomes and the lives of her students, she also would need the help of...
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...parents and members of the community. She initiated changes in school...
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...governance that allowed parents and teachers to be involved in decision...
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...making about the school reform process. With the addition of new partners...
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...and new outreach strategies, the high school's business partnership with...
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...Among the new partners was "Communities in Schools,"5 which pro-...
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...vided on-site staff at Davis to help students stay in school by connecting...
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...provided medical services and worked to help cultivate students' interest in...
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...School to improve communication with parents and also to garner support...
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...from Hispanic business professionals, church groups, and other key ele-...
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...ments of the local community. With guidance and assistance from TMO,...
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...Davis High School implemented its first "Walk for Success" in 1989. Davis...
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...staff, including Cole and TMO volunteers, visited the home of every Davis...
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...for up to 4 years) and their requirements. Parents were asked to sign an...
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...school student attends two summer institutes at the nearby Downtown...
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...comes for Davis students. Annual dropout rates from the school have de-...
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...creased, and college enrollment has increased markedly. The percentage of...
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...students who graduate on time has improved, as have standardized test...
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...ementary and middle schools that was begun in 1993 is gradually increas-...
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...5Communities in Schools is a national model with local affiliates around the country. Its...
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...purpose is to connect community resources with schools to promote student learning and...
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...healthy development and to prevent students from dropping out (http://www.cisnet.org)....
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...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
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...in their 9th-grade classes, and beyond. Davis' efforts demonstrate the prom-...
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...ise, the complexity, and the need for patience and persistence in school...
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...Service Learning...
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...Service learning is another strategy for creating ties between schools...
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...and their communities and making the instructional program relevant to...
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...students' lives outside of school.6 Students are placed in various commu-...
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...U.S. high schools use service learning as part of the curriculum (Pearson,...
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...2002; Skinner and Chapman, 19991....
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...Like work-based learning (see Chapter 6, this volume), service learning...
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...provides students with different experiences and information that can make...
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...schooling more meaningful and help them to formulate future options. It is...
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...based in part on research showing that learners become more motivated...
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...when they perceive that what they are learning may be useful to others...
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...(Cognition and Learning Technology Group of Vanderbilt University, 1998;...
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...McCombs, 1996; National Research Council, 1999; Pintrich and Schunk,...
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...19961. Advocates for service learning focus on four kinds of student engage-...
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...personal engagement with individuals they serve, and academic engage-...
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...service learning (Ammon et al., 20021....
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...The evidence on the effects on school engagement, although sparse, is...
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...positive. Melchior's (1997) national study showed greater self-reported...
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...teachers included service learning than among students whose teachers did...
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...not. A large portion of the service learning students (87 percent) reported...
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...having learned a new skill that they believed would be useful in the future....
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...In addition, statewide studies in Florida and California showed increased...
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...school attendance among students while they were engaged in service learn-...
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...pating in service learning (Foliman and Muldoon, 1997; Weiler, LaGoy,...
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...6Service learning is distinguished from community service in that service learning, although...
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...it may meet community needs, is deliberately designed to develop skills and understanding of...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...Crane, and Rovner, 19981. The authors concluded that service learning...
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...makes the curriculum more interesting and more relevant for students and...
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page 132...
...vice experiences with classroom discussions about careers and relationships...
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...has been studied more than most service learning programs. Studies using...
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...matched comparison of students in 35 states (Allen, Philliber, and Hoggson,...
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page 132...
...and Kupermine, 1997) found advantages of program participants in rates...
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page 132...
...of school suspension, school dropout, school failure, and even pregnancy....
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...why service learning might be a particularly effective strategy for engaging...
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...youth in school. They suggest that students are more motivated in part...
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...because they are applying learning in contexts (hospitals, construction sites)...
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...youth develop in these settings build their confidence as learners, and that...
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...they develop social, emotional, and other nonacademic competencies and...
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...greater personal and social responsibility, which facilitate success in school....
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page 132...
...Three qualities of service learning programs appear to contribute to...
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page 132...
...dents have regular structured time to discuss the content and the process of...
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...their practical experiences. Second, successful programs give students op-...
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...portunities for personal agency to develop their own ideas and pursue...
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...their own interests. Third, effective service learning programs are closely...
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...Documentation of efforts to develop and sustain school-family-com-...
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...2001; Kahne et al., 2001; White and Wehiage, 19951. Differences in cul-...
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...tures, competition for resources and control, limitations in time, mistrust,...
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...bureaucratic and funding barriers, and other obstacles need to be over-...
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...come. Short-term collaborations and activities are easier, although the pay-...
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page 132...
...off in terms of enhancing youth engagement in school and promoting posi-...
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...appropriate control group and disentangle the effects of initiatives to col-...
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...laborate with families and the community from the effects of other initia-...
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...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
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page 133...
...short of standards for rigorous scientific evidence, but looking broadly, the...
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...The Coalition for Community Schools compiled information on 49...
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...evaluation reports of school-community programs (Dryfoos, 20021. The...
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...programs varied substantially in the nature of the activity involved and the...
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page 133...
...level of implementation (e.g., national, state, local school district). Taken...
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...together, the programs evaluated showed evidence of achievement gains,...
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page 133...
...(e.g., drug use), improved parenting practices and parent involvement in...
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page 133...
...school, and lower neighborhood violence rates....
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page 133...
...Clearly, programs vary in their value and effects on students. Honig et...
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...al. (2001, p. 1019) summarize succinctly evidence on the qualities of school-...
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page 133...
...community connections that engage youth and promote positive develop-...
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page 133...
...school....
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...strengths-based, prosocial, and developmental;...
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...responsive to specific youth and neighborhoods;...
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...youth-centered; and...
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...filled with expanded opportunities to learn from adults in and out of...
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...organizations, including schools, see themselves as partners in supporting...
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page 133...
...positive youth development, efforts to increase student engagement in school...
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...will have limited success. Moreover, organizations, models, and lessons...
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...learned from previous efforts are available now to assist schools and com-...
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...ment in learning to the extent that the social relationships in those settings...
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...are emotionally supportive and cultivate values consistent with those of the...
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...7A source for such models and lessons learned is the National Network of Partnership...
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...Schools at Johns Hopkins University, which has documented many research-based, goal-...
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...oriented approaches to improving family and community involvement in the schools. The...
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...network offers many ideas for school and district personnel to implement that have success-...
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...fully increased family and community participation, such as after-school tutoring programs,...
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...parent surveys, and back-to-school picnics (http://www.partnershipschools.org)....
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...school (Comer, 1980; Connell, Gambone, and Smith, 2000; Giles, 1998;...
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page 134...
...Gold et al., 2002; Heckman, 1996; Lewis, 1996; Murnane and Levy, 1996a;...
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page 134...
...National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 20021. Because peer...
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...interactions take place inside of schools as well as in community settings,...
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page 134...
...and friendships support or undermine engagement in learning. lust as they...
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...of learning, they also can influence the social world of peers....
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...Peer influences are as complex and multilevel as the peer social world...
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...itself. To better understand how peers affect adolescents' engagement in...
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...learning, we review four lines of research on peer cultures, peer crowds,...
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...gangs, and friendship groups....
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page 134...
...schools support, at least at some modest level, academic achievement rather...
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page 134...
...high school students in one study reported that their peers generally encour-...
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page 134...
...aged them to study their school subjects rather than not to do so (Brown,...
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page 134...
...Clasen, and Eicher, 19861....
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page 134...
...For~ham and Ogbu (1986) have proposed that an antiacademic peer...
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...ethnographic study of a Washington, D.C., high school where nearly all of...
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...the students were Black and many were from low-income families. They...
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page 134...
...the time and effort required to do well in school and from adopting the...
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...attitudes and standard practices that enhance academic achievement. They...
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...oppose adopting appropriate academic attitudes and behaviors because...
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...they have to give up value priorities, preferences, and styles of speech and...
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...appearance to master mainstream (predominantly white) culture, and that...
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...Ogbu, 1989; see also Romo and Falbo, 1996, and Valenzuela, 1999)....
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...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
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...Misidentification occurs in a school, it can spread like the common cold.......
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page 135...
...with school identification" (p. 751....
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page 135...
...study of 10 schools engaged in voluntary detracking, some of the Black...
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page 135...
...school she studied expressed concern about losing their ethnic identity as...
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...economically depressed areas of Los Angeles (Graham, Taylor, and Hudley,...
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...19981. When asked to name classmates whom they admired, respected, and...
In the middle of
page 135...
...as peers whom they admired, respected, and wanted to be like. The data for...
In the middle of
page 135...
...girls are inconsistent with For~ham and Ogbu's (1986) hypothesis because...
In the middle of
page 135...
...their ethnographic study suggests that both boys and girls experience a peer...
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...Survey evidence contradicts For~ham and Ogbu's (1986) hypothesis....
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...nearly 17,000 high school sophomores who participated in the first follow-...
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...up of NELS (Ainsworth-Darnell and Downey, 1998; see also Downey and...
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page 135...
...whether African-American high school students who were high in academic...
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page 135...
...likely to report that they were popular, socially active, and among the social...
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page 136...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...leaders in the school. Moreover, the relationship between academic achieve-...
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page 136...
...ment (i.e., being a very good student) and popularity was even stronger for...
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page 136...
...Also using NELS data, Cook and Ludwig (1998) found no difference,...
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page 136...
...and white 10th graders who expected to go to college, or the amount of...
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page 136...
...tionately alienated from high school....
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page 136...
...schools that more of the Black students than those from any other ethnic...
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page 136...
...group checked "very important" to a question about how strongly friends...
In the middle of
page 136...
...who liked school than claimed to have friends who thought that doing well...
In the middle of
page 136...
...in school was not "cool" (24 percent). The students' ethnicity and their...
In the middle of
page 136...
...report that they had friends who liked school than were white (62 percent)...
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page 136...
...of the school population. In schools with high minority (more than 66...
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page 136...
..."hang out with people who believe that doing well in school is not 'cool',"...
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page 136...
...compared to 30 percent of the students in schools with 34-66 percent...
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page 136...
...minority students, and 20 percent of the students in schools with less than...
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...Taken together, the findings from these and other studies (e.g., Arroyo...
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page 136...
...and Zigler, 1995; Cook and Ludwig, 1997, 1998; Downey and Ainsworth-...
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page 136...
...Darnell, 2002; Farkas, Lleras, and Maczuga, 2002; Spencer, Cross,...
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page 136...
...Harpalani, and Gross, in press; Spencer et al., 2001) suggest that the hy-...
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page 136...
...pothesis of a distinctly oppositional peer culture in high schools with large...
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page 136...
...Viewed from a different perspective, however, the peer culture may be...
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page 136...
...somewhat antiacademic for high school students from all ethnic groups.9...
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...9For examples of cultural subgroups that foster or at least reflect poor school attitudes, see...
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...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
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page 137...
...in particular, the norms of the high school peer group are likely to be...
At the top of
page 137...
...suggest that parents of urban high school students think their children...
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page 137...
...should spend more time studying and doing homework than their children...
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page 137...
...differences between adolescents' and their parents' values are rare because...
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page 137...
...few researchers assess both students' and parents' views about academic...
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page 137...
...achievement and even fewer use comparable measures for both. There is,...
At the top of
page 137...
...however, some relevant evidence. Coleman (1961) reported that more par-...
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page 137...
...school than their children did. In another study conducted in junior high...
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page 137...
...schools (Berndt, Miller, and Park, 1989), students said their parents would...
In the middle of
page 137...
...reports and survey data suggest that many students believe their peers have...
In the middle of
page 137...
...a negative view of students with high academic achievement (Arroyo and...
In the middle of
page 137...
...groups of students, especially in urban high schools serving low-income...
In the middle of
page 137...
...communities, and its negative effects on engagement and learning, suggest...
In the middle of
page 137...
...the importance of investigating its origins and how schools can address the...
In the middle of
page 137...
...demic orientation actually wish to fail in school. A possible explanation is...
In the middle of
page 137...
...that they perceive the demands of academic work as threatening, perhaps...
In the middle of
page 137...
...because they are asked to carry out academic tasks they do not understand...
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...worth the effort required. Whatever the reason and however small the...
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page 137...
...studies are on white middle-class youth, and few studies examine subgroup...
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page 137...
...differences. In addition, the effect of the school climate, as discussed in...
At the bottom of
page 137...
...tant exception is the research of McDill and Rigsby (1973), which showed...
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page 137...
...school climate on student academic behavior depended on the measure of...
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page 137...
...peer influence used, and how the constructs are operationalized. As McDill...
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page 137...
...and Rigsby's work suggests, it is likely that the positive effects of high...
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page 137...
...school climates characterized by high expectations and a press for academic...
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page 137...
...own values related to learning and achievement and the values their peers...
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page 138...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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page 138...
...espouse. More research is needed on how the climate promoted by adults...
At the top of
page 138...
...der, class, ethnicity, and cultural backgrounds....
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page 138...
...social class, and other attributes, including academic achievement, school...
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page 138...
...engagement, extracurricular activities, and activities outside of school. Col-...
In the middle of
page 138...
...such as ethnicity (in ethnically diverse schools; e.g., "Mexicans"), social...
In the middle of
page 138...
...status (e.g., "populars"), or academic achievement (e.g., "brains". Because...
In the middle of
page 138...
...members of the same crowd interact socially. In a large high school, some...
In the middle of
page 138...
...included thousands of high school students from ethnically diverse rural...
In the middle of
page 138...
...and urban high schools (Brown, Mounts, Lamborn, and Steinberg, 1993),...
In the middle of
page 138...
...students named five crowds to which their classmates belonged: brains,...
In the middle of
page 138...
...populars, druggies, outcasts, and jocks. Students in the brain and popular...
In the middle of
page 138...
...crowds generally had high grades; students in the druggie and outcast...
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page 138...
...crowds had low grades, and the jock crowd was in the middle....
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page 138...
...Belonging to a particular crowd could influence high school students'...
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page 138...
...result of the treatment received by adults and members of different crowds...
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page 138...
...Valenzuela and Bowditch, 19931. The status hierarchy of crowds within a...
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page 138...
...school is strongly reinforced by the adults there. Principals and teachers...
At the top of
page 139...
...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
At the top of
page 139...
...are vocal in their support for school activities and they bring positive forms...
At the top of
page 139...
...of attention to the school. For example, adults in the school are usually...
At the top of
page 139...
...because they are more difficult to manage and they sometimes bring nega-...
At the top of
page 139...
...tive forms of attention to the school....
At the top of
page 139...
...Most students know in which crowds their peers place them and where...
At the top of
page 139...
...their crowd falls in the status hierarchy (O'Brien and Bierman, 1988), and...
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page 139...
...the relationships between high-status and low-status crowds are often hos-...
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page 139...
...tile (Coleman, 1961; Eckert, 19891. Consequently, high school generally is...
At the top of
page 139...
...disliked by their teachers and rejected by their higher status classmates. Not...
At the top of
page 139...
...surprisingly, many are disengaged from school or actively hostile toward...
In the middle of
page 139...
...students and teachers. Stated colloquially, they can see that they are not...
In the middle of
page 139...
...wanted, and they drop out at the first opportunity (Brown, 1990; Eckert,...
In the middle of
page 139...
...The school organization can reinforce the effects of crowd member-...
In the middle of
page 139...
...achievement from peers who are academically engaged and value achieve-...
In the middle of
page 139...
...tarian, and less supportive and encouraging of low-status students....
In the middle of
page 139...
...Rather than reinforce a status hierarchy that adolescents create, schools...
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page 139...
...that are affirming and decrease the salience of the status hierarchy. Such...
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page 139...
...activities can contribute to a school climate that is cohesive and supportive...
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page 139...
...of individual students and of academic values....
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page 139...
...Recognizing students for various talents and achievements can also...
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page 139...
...talents (e.g., drawing, break-dancing) and skills (e.g., woodwork, restoring...
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page 139...
...cars) that can be encouraged, publicized, and built on to improve academic...
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page 139...
...sponsibilities in cooperative learning activities, by arranging for them to...
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page 139...
...tutor younger children, and by drawing out their unique experiences and...
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page 139...
...cultural knowledge. In these and other ways, adults in schools can reduce...
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page 139...
...and thus encourage their sense of belonging and commitment to school....
At the top of
page 140...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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page 140...
...gagement. In many urban high schools, members of youth gangs use their...
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page 140...
...clothing and behaviors to signal their membership to others, especially...
At the top of
page 140...
...students in rival gangs (Howell and Lynch, 20001. Even if school adminis-...
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page 140...
...to be worn on school grounds), gang members usually find a way to iden-...
At the top of
page 140...
...crowds characterized by drugs and violence, but a gang is qualitatively...
At the top of
page 140...
...rules (e.g., about what clothes to wear) and norms (e.g., about what to do...
In the middle of
page 140...
...ior, drug abuse, and other deviant behaviors (Bat/in-Pearson, Thornberry,...
In the middle of
page 140...
...Hawkins, and Krohn, 1998~....
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page 140...
...gang presence in schools can undermine the ability of all students to be...
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page 140...
...engaged in academic work (Floras-Gonzalez, 2002; Howell, 1998~. Disrup-...
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page 140...
...tions caused by fights, for example, are common, and occasionally nongang...
In the middle of
page 140...
...members are caught in the crossfire. National surveys have shown that...
In the middle of
page 140...
...students who report gang activity in their high schools also report that they...
In the middle of
page 140...
...do not fee! safe at school (Howell, 1998; Howell and Lynch, 2000), a...
In the middle of
page 140...
...Interventions, some implemented in school-based curricula, have been...
In the middle of
page 140...
...effectiveness is rarely evaluated systematically (Howell, 1998~. The focus of...
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page 140...
...aging students to leave a gang and join more socially sanctioned peer groups....
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page 140...
...ful than comprehensive changes in the school climate and instructional...
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page 140...
...program. Adolescents' experiences in school are highly predictive of whether...
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page 140...
...status crowds those least likely to experience high school as a personally...
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page 140...
...tudinal study of 800 youth in high-crime neighborhood Hill, Lui, and...
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page 140...
...of marijuana in the neighborhood) was a learning disability. Students with...
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page 140...
...learning disabilities were 3.6 times more likely to join a gang than were...
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page 140...
...students without learning disabilities; students with low academic achieve-...
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page 141...
...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
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page 141...
...classmates. Not feeling attached (twice as likely) or committed to school...
At the top of
page 141...
...findings suggest that creating high schools that help students learn in a...
At the top of
page 141...
...caring, respectful, and supportive social climate may be the best strategy for...
At the top of
page 141...
...preventing gang involvement. Adolescents join gangs to meet social and...
At the top of
page 141...
...the degree that schools can better meet these needs, their students will be...
In the middle of
page 141...
...They also fee! closer and share more intimate information with their best...
In the middle of
page 141...
...friends than with other peers (Newcomb and Bagwell, 19951....
In the middle of
page 141...
...index of how much friends influence one another (e.g., Ide, Parkerson,...
In the middle of
page 141...
...Haertel, and Walberg, 19811. Influence, however, cannot be assumed from...
In the middle of
page 141...
...similarity (e.g., Kandel, 1978, 19961. The old saying, "birds of a feather...
In the middle of
page 141...
...flock together," applies well to friendships (McPherson, Smith-Lovin, and...
In the middle of
page 141...
...More recent longitudinal studies, however, provide credible evidence...
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page 141...
...other peers. Berndt and Keefe (1995) used a longitudinal design to examine...
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page 141...
...the influence of best friends on the school adjustment of junior high school...
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page 141...
...students. In the fall of a school year, the students named their best friends...
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page 141...
...and reported their positive involvement in school and their disruptive be-...
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page 141...
...disruption, and report-card grades. Because most students listed friends...
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page 141...
...spring of the same school year. Analyses showed that students' adjustment...
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page 141...
...was fairly comparable in the fall and the spring. Most students who were...
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page 141...
...high in involvement and academic achievement and low in disruption in the...
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page 141...
...fall showed a comparable profile in the spring. Some students' adjustment...
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page 141...
...changed, however, and the direction of the changes were predicted by the...
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page 142...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...strongly suggest that the students' adjustment to school was influenced by...
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...samples of high school students suggest that their positive engagement and...
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...disruptive behavior are influenced by the engagement and behavior of their...
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...friends (Epstein, 1983; Hallinan and Williams, 1990; McFarland, 2001;...
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...Steinberg, Brown, and Dornbusch, 19961....
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...have either a positive or a negative influence on high school students'...
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...tary through high school gracles who were relatively high or low in aca-...
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...clemic achievement and who haci friends who were relatively high or low in...
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...friends' influences on students' engagement in school can be as strong in the...
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...High school students tend to form friendships within their academic...
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...track or set of courses Makes, Gamoran, and Page, 19921. The negative...
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...tures and programs that create concentrated groups of acaclemically clisen-...
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...the program encleci, some students clecicleci to drop out of school, and when...
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...programs, Dishion, McCorci, and Poulin (1999, p. 762) conclucleci, "there...
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...is reason to be cautious and to avoid aggregating young high-risk acloles-...
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...ventions of this kind with urban high school students could strengthen...
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...FAMILY, COMMUNITY, AND PEERS...
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...negative attitudes toward school, tendencies to drop out of school, and...
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...other facets of school disengagement....
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...Again, the research points to potential harmful effects of tracking and...
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...other policies that isolate students at risk of becoming disengaged and...
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...prevent them from having opportunities to interact and develop friendships...
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...with peers who are more committed to schooling. The strength of peer...
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...networks and youths' need for peer support, however, make it difficult to...
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...vanced and honors courses with white students in part because they did not...
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...from different backgrounds and crowds. Concerted efforts need to be made...
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...curriculum are made to fee! psychologically safe and comfortable in such...
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...Schools can increase adolescents' engagement by harnessing the re-...
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...sources of families and the larger community. The evidence reviewed in this...
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...chapter suggests the value of efforts to improve communication and coordi-...
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...time including schools, homes, religious institutions, as well as the vari-...
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...ous organized extracurricular activities sponsored by schools and commu-...
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...the community are inclusive, informed by positive values, and supportive of...
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...the healthy development of young people, productive engagement in school-...
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...based learning is likely to be promoted (Cornell and Klem, 2000; Connell,...
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...Gambone, and Smith, 2000; National Research Council and Institute of...
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...Both parent and peer influences can be positive or negative, and school...
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...policies and activities affect the direction of these influences. Parents are...
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...more likely to be involved, and thus to reinforce the messages from school,...
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...in schools that reach out and make proactive efforts to include them. Peer...
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...the organization of schools, community organizations, and other settings...
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...where youths interact. Adults can work to structure school environments...
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...that are affirming, supportive, and deliberately designed to make all stu-...
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...dents fee! that they are valued members of the school community. This can...
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...be achieved by heterogeneous grouping for classes, collaborative learning...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...activities in and out of class that bring together students with different...
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...than academic competence, and in many other ways. Careful attention...
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...needs to be given to how class assignments and activities promote student...
A total of pages of uncorrected, machine-read text were searched in this chapter. Please note that the searchable text may be scanned, uncorrected text, and should be presumed inaccurate. Page images should be used as the authoritative version.