680 matches found for How People Learn Brain,Mind,Experience,and School Expanded Edition. in 6. Meeting Students' Nonacademic Needs
Select a page to see where your word(s) or phrase(s) are located in the OpenBook. Excerpts from the chapter provide context.
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...Students who come to school hungry, tired, chronically ill, depressed,...
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...curriculum. Pregnancy and drug and alcohol addiction can also interfere...
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...with attention to schoolwork. Youth from families living in poverty are...
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...with the care of siblings and grandparents, and with other roles that middle-...
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...our only objective is to engage adolescents in schoolwork, we could not...
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...productively in school....
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...namelessness, and violence are common in low-income, urban communi-...
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...ties. Other distractions, such as pregnancy and drugs, are common in...
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...middle- and upper class neighborhoods as well. Permanent and pervasive...
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...solutions to the effects of culture and poverty lie beyond the reach of...
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...educators; they require a fundamental reshaping of economic and social...
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...progress working within high schools, we still cannot wait for the problems...
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...of poverty and other negative cultural influences to be resolved. We must...
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...reform high schools to better meet adolescents' needs while we develop...
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...economic and social policies that reduce inequality and minimize the conse-...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...youth in school will require a new vision of how high schools address...
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...meeting high school students' basic social, emotional, and physical needs....
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...counselors, social workers, and nurses, working in high schools with a...
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...panoply of separate programs. The programs tend to focus on physical and...
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...mental health, sex education and pregnancy prevention, drug and alcohol...
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...problems, and life skills. Existing programs vary according to students'...
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...needs, funding limitations and opportunities, proclivities of principals and...
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...teachers, the availability of appropriate services, and the capacity and inter-...
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...shifts attention from and exclusive focus on the individual student to a...
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...focus on the larger high school context, reconceptualizes the roles and...
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...responsibilities of all adults in the school, and makes the high school part of...
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...a network (and sometimes the hub) of community resources rather than an...
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...The roles of adults in traditional high schools are highly differentiated....
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...Teachers teach; counselors and social workers focus on students' nonaca-...
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...tiated into career counseling, academic counseling, and psychological coun-...
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...services to students who qualify, and experts or packaged programs are...
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...brought in to address issues such as pregnancy prevention and alcohol and...
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...drug abuse. School nurses and occasionally doctors may attend to students'...
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...Some evidence is available on how well these traditional approaches...
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...meet high school students' nonacademic needs. We review briefly evidence...
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...related to the functions of career and academic counseling, and mental...
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...health and other support services in high schools....
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...Career and Academic Counseling...
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...stantially displaced with academic and college counseling (Krei and...
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...ratio for school psychologists or social workers) suggests that resources...
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...may be declining (Kuperminc, Leadbeater, and Blatt, 20011. These ratios...
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...on Precollege Guidance and Counseling, 1986), between 100:1 under ideal...
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...conditions, and 300:1 as a maximum (American School Counselor Associa-...
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...tion of any kind and few students are able to form close relationships with...
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...ing record keeping, monitoring progress, documentation, and class schedul-...
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...ing (Hardesty and Dillard, 1994; Lee and Ekstrom, 1987; Louis, Jones, and...
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...students. Although college advising and guidance counseling are especially...
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...important to students from low-income and minority families who may...
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...college-bound, middle-class white students (Chapman, O'Brien, and...
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...DeMasi, 1987; Lee and Ekstrom, 19871....
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...academic counseling focused on progress through the high school with...
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...cognitive-behavioral strategies to improve students' defeatist attitudes and...
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...lors in Midwestern high schools, counselors were leery of providing any...
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...for all," advising all students to prepare for college and providing them...
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...ning, they typically use the trait and factor approach, in which counselors...
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...help students uncover their own preferences and personality traits (often...
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...through interest and personality inventories), then provide them with infor-...
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...mation about occupations suited to their interests and abilities a process...
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...sometimes belittled as "test 'em and tell 'em," or the "information dump.")...
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...1See, for example, Table lO.a in Herr and Cramer (1992), in which three of the top five...
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...services provided are occupational information, educational information, and individual as-...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...skill that can be easily learned....
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...do not have other adults in their lives to help them access information and...
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...the accuracy of the information they receive, and weigh present and future...
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...possibilities and the tradeoffs among them. They need to be able to make...
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...decisions about educational and occupational alternatives with different...
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...probabilities of success, and to consider a wide range of alternatives, in-...
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...cluding formal schooling, which they may not be able to consider in a...
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...balanced way because of negative experiences. Finally, decisions about jobs...
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...and careers involve deeply rooted dimensions of identity, and the develop-...
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...reasoning about the relation between preferences and opportunities is a...
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...and counseling do not address. In the absence of effective career and aca-...
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...and Stevenson, 1999) "ambitious but directioniess," with high ambitions...
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...for the future but no understanding of the connection between schoolwork...
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...and their occupational goals....
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...how well they reflect the conditions necessary for enhancing motivation...
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...and engagement, as described in Chapter 2. Our analysis suggests serious...
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...dents and counselors get to know each other well. The dominant approaches...
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...to career and academic counseling fail to offer students any active role in...
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...learning about or weighing postsecondary education and employment op-...
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...tions. Partly because of limited resources, guidance and counseling in most...
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...high schools is a hit-or-miss affair; the idea of a coherent program, with a...
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...tion and employment options they face, is absent from most high schools....
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...In addition, the independence of guidance and counseling from class-...
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...learning. The dominance of college for all means that most students are...
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...routes to meaningful employment and self-sufficiency. Furthermore, the...
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...2The British, with their longer history of choice mechanisms in schools, have clarified that...
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...information may be necessary but is rarely sufficient. See Hodkinson, Sparkes, and Hodkinson...
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...(1996), especially Chapter 8 on technical versus pragmatic rationality, and Reay and Ball...
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...lack of sustained academic and career counseling means that programs in...
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...most high schools do not help students understand the role of school in...
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...expanding or constricting their future options. Indeed, the large numbers of...
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...students who fail to understand college entrance requirements, or who...
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...leave high school without any clue about their postsecondary options, is...
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...testimony to the ineffectiveness of high schools in helping students develop...
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...potential pathways (Schneider and Stevenson, 19991. Thus the current struc-...
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...ture of guidance and counseling in most high schools violates every one of...
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...the precepts that support motivation and engagement....
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...Only a little direct evidence exists on the effects of guidance and coun-...
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...(Green and Keys, 20011. Borders and Drury's (1992) summary of the litera-...
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...ior, self-esteem, self-concepts, and attitudes toward school. Group...
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...counseling programs that have shown promise are typically structured,...
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...feedback, and challenge each other (Borders and Drury, 19921. The positive...
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...effects on academic and personal outcomes held for various groups, includ-...
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...ing low-achieving students, disruptive students, learning disabled students,...
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...and those from divorced families. In another review, Whiston and Sexton...
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...(1998) examined outcomes from several studies of both academic and per-...
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...sonal counseling and found positive effects on student achievement, career...
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...planning, and social skills. They found tentative support for career plan-...
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...ning, group counseling, social skills training, and peer counseling all mod-...
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...outlined by Borders and Drury (19921....
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...their potential roles and carefully matched and supervised can help stu-...
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...dents in several ways (Grossman, 1999; Mecartney, Styles, and Morrow,...
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...1994; Morrow and Styles, 1995; Tierney, Grossman, and Resch, 20001....
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...Students themselves value mentors: Wirth-Bond, Coyne, and Adams (1991)...
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...high-risk students who claimed to have a "significant other" at their school...
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...who supports and understands them. To the extent that individual counse-...
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...motivation, progress, and completion, but such roles are currently limited...
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...Overall, the evidence about the effects of guidance and counseling is...
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...elements of a high school, and it is nearly impossible to avoid the suspicion...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...available suggests that a well-designed and well-placed program with ad-...
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...high schools lack such well-designed programs....
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...In high school youth must make choices that can set them on particular...
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...or community will remain bewildered about the purposes of schooling....
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...Lacking this understanding, they have little reason to be actively engaged in...
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...the high school curriculum. Our current approach is not working, and not...
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...During the 1920s counselors in schools began to give greater attention...
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...an enduring notion that students need to adjust to school conditions rather...
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...high school counselor's role as was vocational and academic guidance....
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...Now, however, no matter what their labels, counselors describe their own...
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...roles as largely confined to scheduling, monitoring progress, and paper-...
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...work (Wilson and Rossman, 19931. Even those who are able to carve out...
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...and not on individual or group work (Borders and Drury, 1992; Keys and...
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...that emotional difficulties and mental health problems are common among...
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...students whose academic performance is poor and who drop out of school,...
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...to increase student academic engagement (Adelman and Taylor, 1998;...
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...Roeser, Eccles, and Strobel, 19981. Knitzer, Steinberg, and Fleisch (1991)...
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...some kind of behavior or emotional problem. Other studies show that two-...
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...situation The students most sure of themselves and their programs did not go to counselors...
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...except perhaps for a final verification of the in-course plans, and the students least sure of...
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...thirds of all children and youth identified with behavioral or emotional...
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...disorders function below grade level and have histories of repeated grade...
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...failures; nearly half of them (42 percent) end up dropping out of school...
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...(Friedman et al., 1988; Wagner and Shaver, 19891. Findings from the Na-...
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...tional Co-Morbidity Study (Kessler, Foster, Saunders, and Stang, 1995)...
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...show that 14.2 percent of high school dropouts have a history of psychiat-...
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...ric disorder, compared to only 5 percent of high school graduates who do...
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...male dropouts and 22.7 percent of the female dropouts had histories of...
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...The links between mental health and school engagement are supported...
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...by correlational research. Roeser, van der Wolf, and Strobe! (2001) found...
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...efficacy, and avoidance of challenge in the classroom, as well as with lower...
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...achievement on standardized tests and lower grades.4 Externalized distress...
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...has been associated with social rejection, disruptive and refusal behaviors...
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...in class, and aggression, as well as with poor achievement and dropping out...
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...of school.5...
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...In Roeser, Eccles, and Sameroff's (1998) longitudinal study of middle...
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...school students, mental health (absence of emotional distress, depression,...
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...ceptions of competence, academic values) and achievement at the beginning...
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...of seventh grade and at the end of eighth grade. Positive mental health in...
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...suggesting a reciprocal relationship between mental health and academic...
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...Many mental health providers and policy analysts agree that young...
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...people with mental health problems are inadequately served. Approximately...
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...20 percent of the U.S. students experience social, emotional, or behavioral...
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...problems that interfere with daily functioning in and out of school (Insti-...
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...tute of Medicine, 1994; Weist, 19971. Estimates show, however, that less...
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...4In a large literature, see Blechman, McBaron, Carolla, and Audette (1986); Brackney and...
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...Karabenick (1995); Kendall and Dobson (1993); Kovacs (1989); Nolen-Hoeksema, Girgus,...
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...and Seligman (1986); Roeser and Eccles (1998); Roeser, Eccles, and Sameroff (1998); and...
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...5See Cairns, Cairns, and Neckerman (1989); Hinshaw (1992); Parker and Asher (1987);...
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...Roeser and Eccles (1998); Roeser, Eccles, and Sameroff (1998); and Roeser et al. (2001)....
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...(Adelman and Taylor, 1998; National Advisory Mental Health Council,...
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...with these national estimates. For example, in a survey of parents and...
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...teachers in a northeastern school district, Zahner, Pawelkiewicz, DeFrancesco,...
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...and Adnopoz (1992) found that 38.5 percent of children were at risk for...
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...received any treatment at school. (An additional 24 percent received care in...
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...a nonschoo! setting.) Goodwin, Goodwin, and Cantrill (1988) found that...
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...approximately 15 percent of students in a Colorado school district who...
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...Most mental health services in schools are currently limited to students...
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...vices. Moore, Strang, Schwartz, and Braddock (1988) estimate that 58...
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...percent of all school districts provide no counseling services on their own;...
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...address children's emotional and behavioral problems decreases as they...
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...advance through the grades, and thus high school students have the least...
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...Like academic counselors, school psychologists spend only a small per-...
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...and Conoley, 1991; Knitzer et al., 19911. They do not engage in long-term...
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...counseling or therapy; instead they refer students to out-of-school commu-...
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...nity or private mental health services (Borders and Drury, 1992; Keys and...
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...their greater needs and the overrepresentation of mental health problems...
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...also Chapter 3, this volume), low-income and minority students are under-...
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...represented in counseling (Brinson and Kottler, 19951. Many reasons have...
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...mainstream and minority perceptions about mental health, the lack of...
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...approaches, and the focus on individual rather than on environmental...
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...factors may contribute to low rates of utilization (Atkinson, Jennings, and...
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...Leongson, 1990; Atkinson, Morten, and Sue, 1989; Brinson and Kottler,...
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...1995; Locke, 1992; Sue and Sue, 19901....
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...receive it. Weist, Paskewitz, Warner, and Flaherty (1996) showed increases...
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...in students' self-concept and decreases in depressive symptoms after school-...
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...(Nabors, Weist, Reynolds, Tashman, and Jackson, 19991....
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...how their effectiveness could be improved through changes in how they...
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...function, and more on the level of resources to support whatever mental...
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...health professionals do in the schools. For example, the American Counsel-...
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...number of counselors from the current range of between 500:1 and 1,000:1...
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...students to counselors to the range of 100:1 to 300:1 (American School...
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...and Counseling (1986) has recommended a ratio of 50:1 for at-risk stu-...
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...so through schools, without the school connection most of them would not...
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...receive any services (Armbruster and Lichtman, 19991. Whether services...
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...are at the school or in the community, schools must be part of the solution...
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...to adolescents' needs for mental health services. Most schools now refer...
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...students to community-based mental health services and other community...
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...rather than relying on scarce educational funds, and makes use of existing...
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...expertise rather than duplicating such expertise in school-based programs....
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...who see adolescents in school. To address these problems, some schools...
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...have hired school social workers or school psychologists specifically to...
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...create bridges between schools and community-based organizations. But...
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...the availability of these professionals is inadequate and highly variable, and...
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...Well-designed mental health services provided in schools have the po-...
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...tential advantage of providing a single point of access to students and their...
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...school population; the ability to see students in multiple contexts and over...
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...signs of mental health problems and to support teachers in handling prob-...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...ing services; and fewer referrals to special education (Weiss, 19971. On the...
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...other hand, the resources for mental health programs are usually not avail-...
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...able in education budgets. Some students do not experience schools as...
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...supportive environments and may be concerned about confidentiality, and...
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...on-site services add to the supervisory burdens of principals and other...
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...of more fundamental change (as we advocate later in this chapter), and...
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...without greater understanding about how well either school- or commu-...
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...nity-based services work in a widely diverse range of communities and local...
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...sons such as school social workers seems a promising way to meet the...
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...schools....
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...High school students have a significant array of problems and condi-...
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...Adolescent Health shows that more than 10 percent of males and 5 percent...
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...marijuana at least once, and 12.7 percent have smoked at least once in the...
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...past month; 49.3 percent of high school students have had sex; and 19.4...
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...percent of high school women who have had sex became pregnant. The...
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...people face a constellation of problems that undermine their well-being...
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...today and will threaten their health in the future" (Blum and Rinehart,...
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...empirical research has not been done on trends in how principals use their time, there is...
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...considerable consensus that administrative jobs have become much more demanding and that...
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...7See Armbruster and Lichtman (1999), who found the benefits of school-based and clinic-...
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...based mental health services to be comparable for students in inner-city schools. They argue...
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...that school-based services therefore have the potential for bridging the gap between need and...
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...of adult supervision, and primary care-taking responsibilities for younger...
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...grams include health clinics, substance abuse programs, the federal school...
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...breakfast and lunch programs (widely underutilized in high schools), sex...
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...education and pregnancy prevention programs, and drug and alcohol pre-...
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...vention and rehabilitation programs. In most high schools, principals and...
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...community-based organizations, hospitals, public health agencies, and so-...
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...cial service providers, funded with a patchwork of public and private funds....
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...As a result, the services available vary tremendously from school to school,...
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...and are typically unstable and poorly coordinated. Moreover, problems are...
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...and integration of existing services, in practice the same barriers often...
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...the local school bureaucracy, thereby losing the authority to operate ser-...
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...vices independently of the district; a tendency to consume the time and...
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...attention of school personnel; negative perceptions by parents and students...
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...who have had poor school experiences; and the impossibility of reaching...
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...students who formally or informally have dropped out of school (U.S....
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...General Accounting Office, 1993; Wang, Haertel, and Walberg, 19971....
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...graduation rates and decreased the prevalence of problem behaviors....
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...and despite some evidence that they can have positive effects on student...
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...engagement, the current status of students' academic and nonacademic...
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...high school students, especially low-income students, no matter where the...
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...poverty and in poor neighborhoods. Typically services are provided in...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...most effectively in the context of trusting, respectful relations and commu-...
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...Second, when schools try to compensate for the weaknesses of existing...
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...to do; they certainly lack the funding. Although a few energetic school...
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...pense of other schools with less aggressive or ingenious principals. Such...
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...efforts are also likely to distract teachers and administrators from their...
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...available in most high schools career and academic counseling, mental...
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...health services, and a range of other problem-oriented services are inad-...
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...equate in amount and quality, and inequitable for both low-income and...
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...minority youth. These services are outside the core academic activities and...
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...marginalized within schools themselves, subject to cutting in every fiscal...
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...crisis. When services are provided by public and private institutions outside...
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...the school, they create less of a burden for the school, but they become...
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...larly if they enabled young people to know a counselor well enough to find...
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...consistent support and develop a trusting relationship. A greater ability to...
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...identify and treat a variety of mental health issues would be better than the...
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...who are now becoming pregnant, using drugs and alcohol, and otherwise...
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...showing up in the conventional statistics of despair. At a minimum, given...
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...Recommendations for more, better quality, and better coordinated ser-...
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...vices, although entirely warranted, have been frequently made and just as...
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...More importantly, we are convinced that more and better services will not...
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...tion and guidance they need. Systemic change, rather than merely an in-...
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...thinking about strategies for meeting high school students' nonacademic...
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...Our focus in the second part of this chapter on what high schools can...
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...the circumstances of poverty, racism, and social norms and values that...
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...make it difficult for many adolescents to be productively engaged in school....
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...barriers within the high school are seriously limited....
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...Current strategies to meet students' physical, social, and emotional...
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...underfunded and poorly organized. They are more fundamentally flawed...
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...unsupportive school. Although we recognize that some students have seri-...
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...ous physical and mental health problems that require far more intensive...
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...much weight must be given to the broader school context....
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...Second, because students as learners cannot be divorced from students...
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...as people with social-emotional, physical, and mental health needs, strict...
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...distinctions among the roles of school personnel in all of their relations to...
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...school personnel, eliminating the notion that only counselors, social work-...
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...ers, and nurses are responsible for identifying and addressing students'...
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...Third, although schools cannot ignore students' nonacademic needs,...
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...endorse strategies that link high schools to a larger network of service...
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...providers and supports. The community must be encouraged to assume...
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...some responsibility for students' developmental needs, as neither the school...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...These four recommendations and the rationale for each are discussed in...
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...Focusing on School Environments...
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...The service mode! of individual referrals to school-based or commu-...
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...may have some organic origin and require medical intervention. In many...
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...counseling and mental health services may help students cope, these ap-...
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...Urban schools can be counted among the culprits because they contrib-...
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...social connectedness that promotes both mental health and academic en-...
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...gagement. Similarly, when instruction is beyond students' reach and they...
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...be confident in their ability to succeed and therefore will not be engaged....
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...School climates characterized by pervasive low expectations for student...
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...engagement and learning do not promote confidence and enthusiasm for...
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...learning in students. The negative effects of an unsupportive school climate...
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...dents meet the new standards. The day-to-day experience of failure in...
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...classrooms and low expectations conveyed by teachers cannot be overcome...
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...cent Health indicates that students in schools that foster feelings of social...
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...connectedness and being cared for by teachers, peers, and families are less...
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...8See, for example, the voluminous Guidebook of the Center for Mental Health in Schools,...
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...from a combination of environmental and intrapersonal sources, and Type III problems caused...
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...primarily by pathology within the person (Common Psycho-social Problems of School-Aged...
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...Youth: Developmental Variations, Problems, Disorders and Perspectives for Prevention and...
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...Treatment, available from the Center for Mental Health in Schools, University of California...
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...likely to experience emotional distress, use alcohol and drugs, engage in...
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...violent or deviant behavior, or become pregnant (Blum, McNeely, and...
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...feelings of control, and high levels of engagement are fostered in academic...
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...contexts that provide challenging but manageable instruction and tasks and...
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...hold students to high but achievable standards (see Chapter 2, this volume)....
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...Although mental health and other services surely have their independent...
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...roles to play, reforming high schools with an eye to improving the connect-...
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...edness of students and providing appropriate and engaging instruction are...
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...ment, reducing school size, avoiding harsh and punitive discipline policies,...
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...tive social connections and support among peers. Many of these reforms...
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...have been shown to enhance engagement and motivation directly, and to...
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...promote positive social, emotional, and mental health. We also make sug-...
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...their competencies and promote positive beliefs about their ability to con-...
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...tro! outcomes and to succeed. Reforming pedagogy to give adolescents...
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...becoming a productive adult (as in the school-to-work reforms outlined in...
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...young people live, would reduce the incidence and thus the need to redress...
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...emotional and mental health problems....
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...of services offered at or near high schools, although these services may be...
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...needed and may bring benefits. Addressing the nonacademic barriers to...
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...student engagement requires reforming high schools themselves as well as...
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...improving and strengthening services designed to meet individual needs....
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...Restructuring Roles and Responsibilities...
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...Fundamental changes are needed in how adults and students relate to...
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...one another in high schools. Every student needs to be known well by at...
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...least one adult who can monitor progress and communicate to specialists...
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...and parents when difficulties emerge, who can identify needs for special...
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...services and talents that should be recognized and developed, and who can...
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...listen to, encourage, and advocate for the student. Substantial increases in...
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...the number of specialized personnel in high school will not achieve the...
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...personalized connections and climate of caring that youth need. A mean-...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...school....
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...Many schools are currently experimenting with organizational struc-...
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...every adult including teachers and sometimes nonprofessional staff to...
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...be assigned to a small group of students and given opportunities to connect...
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...with those students individually and in small groups. The National Associa-...
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...tion of Secondary School Principals (NASSP, 1996, 2002) recommends that...
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...no adult should serve as an advocate for more than about 20 students, and...
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...high school, with weekly meetings. Although this individual is not expected...
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...call attention to problems as they become apparent, and assist a student in...
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...needs, and can play a role in ensuring some coordination among services...
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...and service providers, and between them and academic personnel. The...
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...tating students' relationships with other adults and students in the school...
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...ing conflicts with teachers and peers, and visiting students' homes....
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...Ongoing support for people in mentoring roles is essential, as is time...
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...selors, social workers, and nurses can provide training and support for the...
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...to students. As with any reform in the way schools operate, there must be...
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...cacy System that is included in the First Things First's school reform ap-...
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...tors, and specialized and qualified support staff in the high school are...
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...assigned a group of students (typically 12 to 17), and remain connected to...
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...the same student as long as the student is at the school. These "family...
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...advocates" meet with each student for at least 5 minutes each week, and at...
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...and in groups. They initiate monthly contact with parents or other care-...
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...givers by phone, mail, e-mail, or face to face to "touch base" and discuss...
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...students' accomplishments and challenges. They also meet with each student...
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...and his or her family membered twice a year for at least 30 minutes to...
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...review student progress and develop action plans, including possible refer-...
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...rals and follow-ups to additional support services....
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...and experienced participants from other school districts. They are also...
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...rity), and ongoing training by teams of district employees (e.g., counselors,...
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...social workers, parent liaisons, school improvement facilitators) in identify-...
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...ing students who need services, in making appropriate referrals, and in...
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...handling troubled and troubling students....
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...ways to enhance relationships between adults and students, and other op-...
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...portunities for adults to show an interest in and to support positive and...
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...mends school-sponsored activities that connect students and adults, such as...
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...special projects and school-community programs. Students and adults might...
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...also collaborate on performances and artistic activities....
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...In addition to involving teachers and other adults in counselor roles,...
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...the committee supports efforts to embed high school counselors more di-...
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...rectly in the educational mission of the school. The Puente Program pro-...
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...and universities in California.9 It includes a half-time counselor for 120...
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...students who consults with English and math teachers to diagnose aca-...
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...demic problems and devise ways to solve them. Counselors work with...
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...study habits, SAT preparation, and financial aid. They arrange trips to local...
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...colleges to familiarize students with college both as a place and as an idea....
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...They organize parent groups, partly to educate parents about college and...
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...its requirements and partly to convince Latino parents to "let go" of their...
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...children. Puente generally succeeds in creating a school within a school, in...
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...and support, and in giving students the information necessary to fulfill the...
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...single-minded goal of having all students go to college, using counselors as...
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...Similarly, the school-to-work reforms described in Chapter 6, which...
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...have integrated broadly occupational content and applications into their...
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...9For more information on the Puente program and its effects, see Gandara, Mejorado,...
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...Gutierrez, and Molina (1998); regarding the role of counselors, see Grubb, Lara, and Valdez...
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...demic Success" or ALAS program (Gandara, Larson, Rumberger, and Mehan, 1998; Larson...
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...and Rumberger, 1995)....
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...their options, and consequently have strengthened their career and aca-...
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...options. In many cases, however, a much more elaborate program of expe-...
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...rience, experimentation, and choice has been developed. In one high school...
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...different majors or clusters. In the 9th grade and the first half of 10th grade,...
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...they take a 9-week minicourse in each of six clusters, learning the technolo-...
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...gies, methods, and careers associated with a broad range of occupations....
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...period of experience, at more advanced levels. Finally, they choose one of...
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...those two clusters for their program in 11th and 12th grades. All students...
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...experience every cluster the school offers and learn about occupational...
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...alternatives both through experience and through conventional reading and...
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...sequences.ll In these programs the guidance and counseling function is...
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...instructors who may tailor their assignments and projects to be consistent...
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...with the theme of an academy or cluster, the experiences within workshops,...
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...and for students with work placements, supervisors and co-workers....
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...the National School Counselor Training Initiative, which envisions moving...
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...achievement.l2 Counselors become diagnosticians and reformers, respon-...
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...sible for collecting information about substandard performance, diagnos-...
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...ing problems, and working with teachers to develop solutions that may...
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...involve changes in a teacher's instructional practices and treatment of stu-...
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...students stay with their high school major or cluster after high school. This practice is not,...
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...12This initiative is being supported by the Metropolitan Life Foundation and the Educa-...
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...tion Trust (see http://www.edtrust.org/main/school_counseling.asp). We have also benefited...
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...from discussions with Reese House at The Education Trust and with Linda Miller of the...
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...Louisville, KY, schools, one of the districts participating in this initiative. The initiative's...
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...as advocates for poor and minority students and others who have histori-...
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...cally fared poorly in schools. This conception of a counselor's role also...
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...of principals, teachers, and district officials....
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...we are proposing that the roles of all adults in schools be reconsidered so...
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...that all students' needs are given greater attention and there is coordination...
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...among those who are directly involved in the education and life of any...
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...of reforms become well-accepted parts of high schools, but extant programs...
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...suggest some clear alternatives to conventional guidance and counseling. In...
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...both Puente and the National School Counselor Training Initiative, aca-...
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...demic counselors are central to school changes rather than peripheral service...
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...providers. They arrange a wide variety of activities and their work is closely...
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...connected to that of teachers. We suspect that developing these and similar...
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...alternatives that integrate counseling into the high school curricula would...
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...moting more resources in conventional academic and career counseling....
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...Connecting High Schools to the Community...
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...High schools are ideally suited to serve as the primary location for...
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page 163...
...identifying students' nonacademic as well as academic needs, and for con-...
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page 163...
...schools cannot do it all without becoming overly distracted from their...
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page 163...
...schools and their communities in several chapters (see especially Chapter 5,...
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...this volume), and do so again here. Connections to the community are...
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...community resources, and even the availability of space. Some schools are...
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...able to offer on-site services that are funded through and administered by...
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...other agencies. The evidence shows that school-based clinics are well used,...
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...and that they are associated with positive outcomes, including lower use of...
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...drugs, better school attendance, lower dropout rates, and reduced course...
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...failures and disciplinary referrals (Kisker and Brown, 1996; McCord et al.,...
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...1993; Pearson, Jennings, and Norcross, 1998 )....
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...community it is critical to attend to issues of coherence and sustainability....
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...cal health often leads to depression and other mental health problems....
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...parenting, and being exposed to violence are associated with a variety of...
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page 164...
...physical and mental health problems (Dryfoos, 19901....
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...Despite this co-morbidity, we typically treat problems and needs if we...
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...prevent drug abuse and programs to prevent teen pregnancy, even though...
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...Because of the differentiation of professional roles in school, and the ab-...
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...sence of any one individual who gets to know students as whole people,...
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page 164...
...supports designed to address nonacademic needs are fragmented and dis-...
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...The committee recommends that schools, school districts, and commu-...
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page 164...
...schools and learning communities helps provide adults with more opportu-...
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page 164...
...nities to know their students well and to become aware of the range of...
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page 164...
...issues they face. Some schools have used school social workers or school...
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page 164...
...nonacademic needs and create bridges to community services. Technology...
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page 164...
...collect information on individual students from various sources and to...
In the middle of
page 164...
...schools" and "community schools." These models and their predecessors...
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...services, and to use case management to identify the problems of particular...
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...students, to determine the appropriate services, and to follow up with the...
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...vices, and made efforts to share information across different service agen-...
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...cies and to develop joint planning....
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...In recent years, community schools have been growing in size, num-...
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...ber, and popular support. The Coalition for Community Schools describes...
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...community schools as a set of partnerships that together create a set of...
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...conditions linked to learning. It identifies these conditions as follows:...
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...� The school has a core instructional program with qualified teachers,...
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...a challenging curriculum, and high standards and expectations for students....
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...� Students are motivated and engaged in learning both in school and...
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...in community settings, during and after school....
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...� The basic physical, mental and emotional health needs of young...
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...people and their families are recognized and addressed....
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...� There is mutual respect and effective collaboration among parents,...
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...families and school staff....
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...� Community engagement, together with school efforts, promote a...
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page 165...
...school climate that is safe, supportive and respectful that connects students...
At the top of
page 165...
...to a broader learning community (Blank, Melaville, and Shah, 20031....
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page 165...
...found that participation in community school activities was associated with...
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page 165...
...varying combinations of improved grades in school courses and/or scores in...
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page 165...
...problems and/or suspensions; greater classroom cooperation, completion...
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page 165...
...of homework and assignments, and adherence to school rules and positive...
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page 165...
...attitude; and increased access to physical and mental health services and...
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page 165...
...preventive care. The Coalition concluded that the community school ap-...
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page 165...
...ciently high quality teaching and curriculum to meet the needs of young...
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page 165...
...people when they are ready to learn (Blank, Melaville, and Shah, 20031....
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...To achieve coherence within schools regardless of how services are...
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...and mechanisms at the federal, state, and local levels, and between public...
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page 165...
...and philanthropic sources. Rules related to eligibility, access, and account-...
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...emotional and mental health than is reflected in the current "fix-the-prob-...
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...lem" strategy. Our assumption, which has some support in research and...
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...reflects the rich experience coming out of the youth development field, is...
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...competent, autonomous, and meaningfully connected to adults, they are...
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...engagement in school should be higher if they are given opportunities to...
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...learn new skills, to develop social skills with peers and adults, to develop...
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...self-confidence and social responsibility overall, to develop in multiple...
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...Service learning, discussed in Chapter 5, is one strategy that high schools...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...vided in after-school programs. Current interest in after-school programs in...
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...have poor access to youth-serving organizations as well as to school-spon-...
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...sored extracurricular activities sponsored by schools themselves sports...
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...teams, band and orchestra, clubs and organizations many of which have...
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...been cut in financially strapped high schools. Their supporters hope they...
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...substance abuse, early sexual activity, teenage pregnancy, and violence,"...
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...and can thereby promote long-term academic success.13...
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...Although after-school programs vary enormously, most seem to pro-...
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page 166...
...vide a variety of activities and experiences that provide positive alternatives...
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page 166...
...to just hanging out with peers, including sports and recreation, dance,...
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page 166...
...computer work, school-based enterprises, and school-related tutoring (in-...
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...ment in after-school programs is that rather than (or in addition to) provid-...
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page 166...
...activities that are not provided within most schools and that may offer their...
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page 166...
...own educational and developmental value. They are supported by the re-...
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page 166...
...search of Jordan and Nettles (1999), who found that participation in struc-...
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page 166...
...tured activities (including religious activities) and time spent interacting...
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page 166...
...with adults during 10th grade had positive and significant effects on educa-...
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page 166...
...On the other hand, after-school programs have run up against the same...
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page 166...
...barriers as school-linked services, including lack of funding; general ten-...
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page 166...
...sions between school and after-school staff about student behavior, equip-...
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page 166...
...ment, and classroom use; lack of available space; the need for excessive...
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...attention from overextended principals; and the "capture" of after-school...
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...programs by the school's agenda, sometimes leading to an extension of...
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..."skills and drills" teaching hardly a way to motivate students already...
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...doing poorly in school. It is still too early to judge the promise of after-...
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...school's missions....
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...13See "Urban Seminar on After-School Time," The Urban Seminar Series on Children's...
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...Health and Safety, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University (undated),...
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...available online at http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/urbanpoverty, and Perry, Teague, and Frey...
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...(2002). The major federal funding for after-school programs the Community Learning...
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...Centers explicitly includes high schools, while state funds are not always available to high...
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...schools....
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...Certainly after-school programs are becoming part of the solution, but...
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...ments and opportunities both in high schools and in the community-...
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page 167...
...to develop competence and a sense of control and social connectedness....
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...An asset orientation is not restricted to out-of-school activities. There...
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...should be many opportunities in high schools for all students to make...
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...that contribute to their sense of importance and responsibility, and to...
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...develop and be recognized for skills and talents that contribute to their...
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...needs can interfere with students' engagement in school. We understand the...
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...educators nor citizens should, however, use students' unmet nonacademic...
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...well as school teachers and administrators, who do not support efforts to...
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...limit the effects of school reform (see, for example, George Will's column...
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...In the vision we hold, instruction is appropriately challenging and stu-...
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...dents are given the support they need to achieve high standards. The school...
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...climate is career and college oriented, and the roles of school personnel are...
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...reconsidered so that all adults in the school are aware of students' nonaca-...
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...knows them well, who communicates regularly with their families, and...
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...who serves as a resource and advocate for special services. Coordination...
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...among those who are directly involved in the education and life of any...
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...particular student is essential, and specialists such as counselors, social...
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...workers, and nurses need to be well connected to teachers and adminis-...
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...trators, providing training and guidance and assisting them in creating...
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...The school reforms that we recommend as particularly promising rep-...
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...able, indirect evidence and theory suggest that they should promote positive...
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...social-emotional development and mental health, and by doing so, reduce...
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...many barriers to engagement in high school work....
A total of pages of uncorrected, machine-read text were searched in this chapter. Please note that the searchable text may be scanned, uncorrected text, and should be presumed inaccurate. Page images should be used as the authoritative version.