913 matches found for How People Learn Brain,Mind,Experience,and School Expanded Edition. in 3. Teaching and Learning
Select a page to see where your word(s) or phrase(s) are located in the OpenBook. Excerpts from the chapter provide context.
At the top of
page 60...
...Teaching and Learning...
At the top of
page 60...
...The nature and context of instruction are what matter most in engaging...
At the top of
page 60...
...students in learning. Although policies at the school level and beyond affect...
At the top of
page 60...
...what goes on in classrooms, classroom instruction how and what teachers...
At the top of
page 60...
...teach is the proximal and most powerful factor in student engagement...
At the top of
page 60...
...and learning. In this chapter we discuss what is known about engaging...
At the top of
page 60...
...Teaching at the high school level is challenging in part because students...
In the middle of
page 60...
...lives or even their anticipated roles as workers and parents in adulthood?...
In the middle of
page 60...
...ties, where many students enter high school with low skill levels and limited...
In the middle of
page 60...
...English proficiency, and lack stable resources in the form of family income,...
At the bottom of
page 60...
...demands of the high school curriculum....
At the bottom of
page 60...
...in urban high schools limits the empirical base even further....
At the top of
page 61...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 61...
...high school level, there is evidence that can be used to guide instructional...
At the top of
page 61...
...planning (Alvermann and Moore, 19911. We discuss in this chapter what is...
At the top of
page 61...
...known about effective teaching in literacy and mathematics, focusing espe-...
At the top of
page 61...
...cially on research involving urban low-income students and students of...
At the top of
page 61...
...and they are instrumental to learning other subject matter. In the final...
At the top of
page 61...
...section of the chapter we discuss research on school organizational factors...
At the top of
page 61...
...and conditions of teaching that best enable the kind of teaching that re-...
At the top of
page 61...
...The teaching of reading, writing, and speaking at the high school level...
In the middle of
page 61...
...literature and write essays and creative pieces in English-language arts, and...
In the middle of
page 61...
...to read textbooks and occasionally primary source documents in history,...
In the middle of
page 61...
...social studies, and science. Although there tends to be little reading in...
In the middle of
page 61...
...mathematics, mathematical literacy is required to understand and evaluate...
In the middle of
page 61...
...public arguments (often in newspapers and magazines and on television...
In the middle of
page 61...
...programming) and forms of advertising where numerical data are used as...
In the middle of
page 61...
...evidence (Paulos, 1990, 19951. Many students come to high-poverty schools...
In the middle of
page 61...
...with poor proficiency in reading and writing, and few urban high schools...
In the middle of
page 61...
...literacy needs while teaching them to tackle the complex reading and writ-...
In the middle of
page 61...
...ing tasks of the disciplines (Finders, 1998-1999; Jimerson, Egeland, and...
In the middle of
page 61...
...Teo, 1999; Roderick and Camburn, 19991....
At the bottom of
page 61...
...American and Latino 17-year-olds taking the NAEP read about as well as...
At the bottom of
page 61...
...and have vocabularies roughly equivalent to those of white 13-year-olds...
At the bottom of
page 61...
...(NCES, l999b; Phillips, Crouse, and Ralph, 19981. Reading problems are...
At the bottom of
page 61...
...particularly pronounced in the high schools of large urban districts in low-...
At the bottom of
page 61...
...income communities (Campbell et al., 2000; Dreeben and Gamoran, 1986;...
At the bottom of
page 61...
...Education Trust, 1999; Guiton and Oakes, 19951. In the 35 largest central...
At the top of
page 62...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 62...
...five pages per day for both schoolwork and homework (see Education...
At the top of
page 62...
...tions that can provide a filter for understanding the rest of the text. For...
At the top of
page 62...
...searches her prior knowledge and reads on to find out whether this story...
In the middle of
page 62...
...of a story has the word "sine," and the reader has no clue what a "sine" is,...
In the middle of
page 62...
...topics, vocabulary, and the structure of words, sentences, paragraphs, and...
In the middle of
page 62...
...bring from their lives inside and outside of school is crucial to teaching...
In the middle of
page 62...
...Readers must actively construct their understanding of texts from word...
In the middle of
page 62...
...paragraph, from section to section, and even across texts. Whereas a liter-...
In the middle of
page 62...
...words, phrases, and whole texts, reading a scientific report does not involve...
At the bottom of
page 62...
...patterns and cycles. Concepts are often communicated through technical...
At the bottom of
page 62...
...the perspective of the Theory of Relativity and something qualitatively...
At the bottom of
page 62...
...comprehending written texts, see the following: Kamil, Mosenthal, Pearson, and Barr (2000)....
At the bottom of
page 62...
...Fielding and Pearson (1994); Pearson and Dole (1987); Pressley (2000)....
At the top of
page 63...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 63...
...the author and to search across multiple texts to find other perspectives....
At the top of
page 63...
...Francis Bacon) and older literary works can be difficult to parse because...
At the top of
page 63...
...they are long and complex. Very different evidence is required to make...
At the top of
page 63...
...also has important implications for our definition of literacy and the skills...
In the middle of
page 63...
...ate information, consider its source and possible biases, and compare and...
In the middle of
page 63...
...higher level of critical and analytic skills than was true even a decade ago....
In the middle of
page 63...
...These forms of critical evaluation, reasoning, and making sense of...
In the middle of
page 63...
...literacy study at the high school level. But most secondary teachers, regard-...
In the middle of
page 63...
...(Anders, Hoffman, and Duffy, 20001. Literacy skills are not taught in part...
At the bottom of
page 63...
...teachers of reading (Anders et al., 2000; O'Brien, Stewart, and Moje, 1995;...
At the bottom of
page 63...
...Romaine, McKenna, and Robinson, 1996), or they assume that students...
At the bottom of
page 63...
...instruction on how to develop the skills students need, teachers often give...
At the bottom of
page 63...
...them watered-down textbooks (Alvermann and Moore, 19911....
At the bottom of
page 63...
...Literacy needs to be taught in urban high schools, both to ensure that...
At the bottom of
page 63...
...students have access to subject matter instruction and to develop their...
At the bottom of
page 63...
...edge of motivation and effective pedagogy, we can provide instruction that...
At the bottom of
page 63...
...engages students and helps them achieve high levels of literacy (Ol~father...
At the bottom of
page 63...
...and DahI, 1995; father and McLaughlin, 1993; father and Thomas,...
At the bottom of
page 63...
...1998; Verhoeven and Snow, 20011. We summarize evidence on effective...
At the top of
page 64...
...Literacy Teaching and Student Engagement...
At the top of
page 64...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 64...
...instruction with stuclent engagement and even fewer studies inclucle large...
At the top of
page 64...
...samples of ethnically diverse, low-income high school students (Verhoeven...
At the top of
page 64...
...and Snow, 20011. Consistent with the general principles of motivation...
At the top of
page 64...
...cliscusseci in Chapter 2, correlational studies reviewed by Guthrie and...
At the top of
page 64...
...over achievement outcomes and have a sense of competency are relatively...
At the top of
page 64...
...more motivated to react. Furthermore, studies have shown that students...
At the top of
page 64...
...who react outside of school become better reaclers (Anclerson, Wilson, and...
At the top of
page 64...
...Fielcling, 1988; Fielcling, 1994; Guthrie, Schafer, Wang, and Afflerbach,...
In the middle of
page 64...
...19951. Most of the latter studies, however, have been with elementary-ageci...
In the middle of
page 64...
...in one of the few large-scale studies of aclolescents, Cappella and...
In the middle of
page 64...
...risk factors (e.g., low socioeconomic status, single-parent househoici) and...
In the middle of
page 64...
...proximal risk factors (e.g., school environment, curriculum). By the 12th...
At the bottom of
page 64...
...the power to affect outcomes were more likely to show significant improve-...
At the bottom of
page 64...
...that appear to promote learning. Although the studies reviewed clo not...
At the bottom of
page 64...
...niques, motivational strategies, and quality of stuclent-teacher and stuclent-...
At the bottom of
page 64...
...The instructional approaches supported by research on literacy learn-...
At the top of
page 65...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 65...
...urban high schools. The high school English-language arts curriculum usu-...
At the top of
page 65...
...ally involves disconnected lists of books and readings of the same authors...
At the top of
page 65...
...(Alvermann and Moore, 1991; Applebee, 1993,1996; Applebee and Purves,...
At the top of
page 65...
...1992), and teaching remains largely "frontal" lecturing (Applebee,...
At the top of
page 65...
...Burroughs, and Stevens, 2000; Hillocks, 19991. Reading in the content...
At the top of
page 65...
...areas tends to be limited to textbooks and is not characterized by strategy...
At the top of
page 65...
...instruction (Alvermann and Moore, 1991; Bean, 2000~. Although more...
At the top of
page 65...
...innovative instructional practices and uses of technology are being imple-...
At the top of
page 65...
...mented in many schools, they are less common in urban high schools...
At the top of
page 65...
...serving low-income students and students of color (Irvine, 1990;...
In the middle of
page 65...
...and Rycik, 1999; National Reading Panel, 2000; Pressley, 2000; Roehier...
In the middle of
page 65...
...and Duffy, 1991; Snow, 2002), we abstract the following features of suc-...
In the middle of
page 65...
...Rigorous and challenging instruction...
In the middle of
page 65...
...refers to the nature of relationships between and among adults and stu-...
At the bottom of
page 65...
...classroom structures such as small-group and whole-class instruction...
At the bottom of
page 65...
...through the norms for who can talk and about what. In addition to facili-...
At the bottom of
page 65...
...tant ideas and working in small groups, increased the amount of reading...
At the bottom of
page 65...
...and thinking about texts in which students engaged (Alvermann and Hynd,...
At the bottom of
page 65...
...between adults and adolescents can be more complex in low-income urban...
At the bottom of
page 65...
...schools, where many adolescents carry out adult-like roles (as parents,...
At the bottom of
page 65...
...fulfill more child-like roles at school, but may be more important for these...
At the bottom of
page 65...
...students than for more affluent students (Burton, Allison, and Obeidallah,...
At the top of
page 66...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 66...
...Authentic tasks involve reading and writing activities that have some...
At the top of
page 66...
...meaning in the world outside of school. Students who have been disengaged...
At the top of
page 66...
...from academic work often do not see why the reading and writing they are...
At the top of
page 66...
...asked to do in school matters for their personal development, for their...
At the top of
page 66...
...tings are more motivating and produce higher academic achievement (Lee,...
At the top of
page 66...
...Smith, and Croninger, 19951. Ideally, authentic tasks also must be funda-...
At the top of
page 66...
...mentally linked to problems and modes of reasoning within the academic...
At the top of
page 66...
...edge is privileged or made accessible in instruction (Moll and Greenberg,...
In the middle of
page 66...
...19901. The lack of congruence between students' life experiences and in-...
In the middle of
page 66...
...struction in most schools has been well documented, especially for low-...
In the middle of
page 66...
...income students, students of color, and English-language learners (Banks...
In the middle of
page 66...
...and Banks, 1993; Delpit, 1988; Gay, 1988; Hilliard, 1991-1992; Nieto,...
In the middle of
page 66...
...acts of learning and especially to reading. Students sometimes have diffi-...
In the middle of
page 66...
...culty understanding texts that are not related to their personal experiences...
In the middle of
page 66...
...and cultures because they lack the appropriate prior knowledge of the...
In the middle of
page 66...
...topic, or they do not know how to tap into relevant knowledge they do...
In the middle of
page 66...
...low-income African-American high school students with histories of low...
In the middle of
page 66...
...curriculum and instruction related to literature, although the framework is...
In the middle of
page 66...
...applicable to other reading and problem solving in other subject matters....
At the bottom of
page 66...
...egories of problems in the high school literature curriculum that are consid-...
At the bottom of
page 66...
...unreliable narrators, and using specific strategies for rejecting a literal inter-...
At the bottom of
page 66...
...pretation and reconstructing a figurative interpretation (Rabinowitz, 1987;...
At the bottom of
page 66...
...Smith and Hillocks, 19881. The approach involves using students' cultural...
At the bottom of
page 66...
...knowledge to learn technical literary concepts. For example, students learn...
At the bottom of
page 66...
...of African-American Vernacular English, rap lyrics, and film clips. Lee...
At the bottom of
page 66...
...a tacit understanding of these language forms, but do not activate that...
At the bottom of
page 66...
...knowledge in school-based contexts. Using culturally familiar material and...
At the bottom of
page 66...
...students with low standardized reading scores to tackle complex works of...
At the top of
page 67...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 67...
...discourse norms. Similar approaches to discipline-specific and culturally...
At the top of
page 67...
...and Tejada (1999) and is supported by an abundance of research on learn-...
At the top of
page 67...
...and from tools such as computers. Examples of drawing on multiple-...
At the top of
page 67...
...language competencies include English-language learners using their knowI-...
At the top of
page 67...
...edge of their first language to help them read and write in English, or using...
In the middle of
page 67...
...by Timenez, Garcia, and Pearson (1996~. They examined the reading strat-...
In the middle of
page 67...
...egies of a small sample of sixth- and seventh-grade bilingual students who...
In the middle of
page 67...
...strated substantial knowledge about similarities and differences in the struc-...
In the middle of
page 67...
...ture of English and Spanish. They actively used this knowledge, for ex-...
In the middle of
page 67...
...a process of making sense of text, and they believed they could draw on...
At the bottom of
page 67...
...Moll, Estrada, Diaz, and Lopes (1980) found that students demon-...
At the bottom of
page 67...
...dents to draw on their competencies in both English and Spanish. Lucas,...
At the bottom of
page 67...
...Henze, and Donato (1990) identified eight characteristics of high schools...
At the bottom of
page 67...
...that the school systematically structures opportunities to help students use...
At the bottom of
page 67...
...both languages as tools for their learning....
At the bottom of
page 67...
...and use the resources they have. Students who work through problems of...
At the top of
page 68...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 68...
...academic reading and writing while drawing on multiple sources of support...
At the top of
page 68...
...should also develop confidence in their ability to learn (Alvermann,...
At the top of
page 68...
...Hinchman, Moore, Phelps, and Waff, 1998~....
At the top of
page 68...
...The rigor and challenges of the literacy c?~rric?~?~m (across subject mat-...
At the top of
page 68...
...to learn new constructs from reading texts and writing about what they...
In the middle of
page 68...
...apply what they learn from reading and writing to novel tasks, and whether...
In the middle of
page 68...
...� it focuses attention on a portion of text that is central to understand-...
In the middle of
page 68...
...ing the internal state of a character and by extension to examining the...
At the bottom of
page 68...
...there are constraints on a warrantable response based on the text itself and...
At the bottom of
page 68...
...the life experiences of the students....
At the bottom of
page 68...
...ences and those of a key character in ways that help to explicate the themes...
At the bottom of
page 68...
...� it asks students to read, think critically, and communicate their...
At the top of
page 69...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 69...
...effective literacy pedagogies (National Reading Panel, 2000; Pearson and...
At the top of
page 69...
...sion strategies in elementary school, much less attention is paid to this issue...
At the top of
page 69...
...at the high school level....
At the top of
page 69...
...Strategies for teaching both reading comprehension and composing...
At the top of
page 69...
...need to be different at the high school level from what is effective at the...
At the top of
page 69...
...elementary level. In addition to generic reading, high school students need...
At the top of
page 69...
...to know discipline-specific strategies for asking questions, making and test-...
At the top of
page 69...
...and self-monitoring (Beck, McKeown, and Gromoll, 1989; Dole, Duffy,...
At the top of
page 69...
...Roehier, and Pearson, 1991; Lemke, 1998; Rabinowitz, 1987; Wineburg,...
At the top of
page 69...
...1991; Wineburg and Wilson, 19911. Examples of discipline-specific reading...
In the middle of
page 69...
...skills include understanding symbolism in literature, reliability in primary...
In the middle of
page 69...
...source documents in history, and argumentation in the sciences. In addition...
In the middle of
page 69...
...that involves reading, writing and speaking, comprehending and critiquing...
In the middle of
page 69...
...difficult texts, and producing sophisticated texts are more effective than...
In the middle of
page 69...
...scripted lessons or decontextualized drills. Scripts and drills are useful for...
In the middle of
page 69...
...discipline-specific literacy skills, however, have not been well studied....
In the middle of
page 69...
...observe their progress and to self-correct. Feedback on progress toward...
In the middle of
page 69...
...mastery can contribute to students' sense of competence and control, and...
At the bottom of
page 69...
...ments at the most local level schools and classrooms generally give the...
At the bottom of
page 69...
...most useful information because they are tailored to the curriculum and the...
At the bottom of
page 69...
...skills of the students at hand. Classroom assessments have the power to be...
At the bottom of
page 69...
...diagnostic and to provide students with immediate feedback on what they...
At the bottom of
page 69...
...can do and what they need to learn. Assessments at the departmental or...
At the bottom of
page 69...
...course level in high school provide opportunities for teachers to learn from...
At the bottom of
page 69...
...their practice and to target larger issues of curriculum and instruction....
At the bottom of
page 69...
...constrained by the curriculum, which is often defined at the school or even...
At the bottom of
page 69...
...the district level. Applebee and colleagues (2000) describe curricula in which...
At the bottom of
page 69...
...the content (for example, texts selected for reading) is disconnected and...
At the bottom of
page 69...
...unrelated, and the relationships across texts are not well defined (for ex-...
At the top of
page 70...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 70...
...likely to be found in schools that implement what Applebee and colleagues...
At the top of
page 70...
...questions of the discipline across lessons and units of instruction within a...
At the top of
page 70...
...We turn now to four studies of literacy instruction at the middle and...
At the top of
page 70...
...high school levels to illustrate the implementation of these features of effec-...
In the middle of
page 70...
...where students had very low skills when they entered high school. Three of...
In the middle of
page 70...
...the four examples examine whole-school approaches to literacy instruction...
In the middle of
page 70...
...across multiple sites; all four include schools in urban districts with ethni-...
In the middle of
page 70...
...cally diverse and low-income student populations. Each reflects some na-...
In the middle of
page 70...
...four include a large sample size and provide empirical data regarding stu-...
At the bottom of
page 70...
...dent outcomes in reading (at least) as well as process data regarding how...
At the top of
page 71...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 71...
...Literacy Instruction in High-Performing Schools in Low-Income...
At the top of
page 71...
...Under the direction of Langer (2001), the Center for English Learning...
At the top of
page 71...
...and Achievement (CELA) conducted a groundbreaking study of middle and...
At the top of
page 71...
...high schools across the nation that "beat the odds" in terms of indicators of...
At the top of
page 71...
...achievement in reading. A total of 24 schools were selected from Florida,...
At the top of
page 71...
...New York, Texas, and California based on district-level high-stakes assess-...
At the top of
page 71...
...ments. Fifty-eight percent of the schools had 45 to 84 percent of students...
At the top of
page 71...
...researchers studied 44 teachers working in 25 schools involving 2,640...
In the middle of
page 71...
...rooms, shadowed and interviewed teachers across their various profes-...
In the middle of
page 71...
...sional activities in the school, interviewed case study students, and analyzed...
In the middle of
page 71...
...classroom and school-level documents....
In the middle of
page 71...
...Based on classroom and school-level data, teachers were placed into...
In the middle of
page 71...
...one of three categories: (1) exemplary teachers in high-achieving schools;...
In the middle of
page 71...
...(2) exemplary teachers in schools that were typical for their districts; and...
In the middle of
page 71...
...(3) typical teachers in typically performing schools. Langer and her col-...
In the middle of
page 71...
...teachers in both exemplary and typical schools that are similar to those we...
In the middle of
page 71...
...Successful teachers gave explicit instructions in reading and writing and...
In the middle of
page 71...
...they created opportunities for students to learn and practice skills in the...
In the middle of
page 71...
...context of authentic reading and writing tasks. In contrast, teachers in at...
In the middle of
page 71...
...least half of the typically performing schools taught skills in isolated lessons...
At the bottom of
page 71...
...High-achieving schools integrated test preparation into the routines of...
At the bottom of
page 71...
...classroom instruction across the school year, rather than providing test...
At the bottom of
page 71...
...ing teachers and schools tended to analyze the demands of high-stakes...
At the bottom of
page 71...
...assessments and to structure units of instruction so that students had mul-...
At the bottom of
page 71...
...tiple opportunities over time to develop conceptual understanding and skills...
At the bottom of
page 71...
...mance and of student work to make adjustments in the curriculum....
At the bottom of
page 71...
...Exemplary teachers created connections within and across lessons. They...
At the bottom of
page 71...
...also created connections between school learning and students' experiences...
At the bottom of
page 71...
...outside of school. By contrast, teachers with lower rates of achievement had...
At the bottom of
page 71...
...disconnected and uncoordinated lessons; they focused on an initial level of...
At the bottom of
page 71...
...mastery of a given skill and moved on to the next skill, without giving...
At the top of
page 72...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 72...
...students an opportunity to integrate and apply skills and knowledge they...
At the top of
page 72...
...All of the exemplary teachers explicitly taught the skills and strategies...
At the top of
page 72...
...students needed to comprehend and compose complex texts across genres....
At the top of
page 72...
...both the processes that students employed and the quality of the products...
At the top of
page 72...
...that students produced. Explicit instruction in strategies, skills, and con-...
At the top of
page 72...
...cepts helped students develop both procedural knowledge (how to do it)...
At the top of
page 72...
...and meta-cognitive knowledge (how to monitor one's understanding and...
At the top of
page 72...
...typical teachers in lower achieving schools asked students to analyze text or...
At the top of
page 72...
...create a composition without any instruction in how to accomplish these...
In the middle of
page 72...
...derstanding. To promote this level of understanding, students were asked...
In the middle of
page 72...
...to apply concepts and strategies across multiple texts. Whole-class instruc-...
In the middle of
page 72...
...groups to explore and evaluate problems from multiple perspectives. These...
In the middle of
page 72...
...and elaborated on one another's ideas. Nystrand (Nystrand, 1997; Nystrand...
In the middle of
page 72...
...and Gamoran, 1997) found similarly that successful teachers engaged stu-...
In the middle of
page 72...
...found in lower achieving schools, their presence was intermittent. This...
In the middle of
page 72...
...study shows that individual exemplary teachers can make a difference, even...
In the middle of
page 72...
...in schools that do not support schoolwide productive practices and profes-...
At the bottom of
page 72...
...sional development. For students who enter high school already signifi-...
At the bottom of
page 72...
...cantly behind, however, sporadically excellent teachers are not sufficient to...
At the bottom of
page 72...
...Coalition Campus Schools Project...
At the bottom of
page 72...
...The second large-scale study involves the Coalition Campus Schools...
At the bottom of
page 72...
...Education and the Center for Collaborative Education. This study (Dar-...
At the bottom of
page 72...
...ling-Hammond, Ancess, and Ort, 2002) involved 11 small schools that...
At the bottom of
page 72...
...replaced 2 large high schools in New York City. Curriculum in these small...
At the bottom of
page 72...
...schools was structured on the model of New York alternative schools...
At the bottom of
page 72...
...The first cohort of six small schools began during the 1993-1994 school...
At the top of
page 73...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 73...
...in learning. Although they enrolled larger percentages of low-income stu-...
At the top of
page 73...
...dents and English-language learners than city averages, these high schools...
At the top of
page 73...
...had higher graduation rates, higher attendance rates, and fewer rates of...
At the top of
page 73...
...discipline problems than city school averages. In the area of reading achieve-...
At the top of
page 73...
...ment, based on both SAT and New York Regents exams, results were...
At the top of
page 73...
...mixed for the first several years. However, by 1996-1997, llth-grade gen-...
At the top of
page 73...
...eral education students in three of the schools substantially outperformed...
At the top of
page 73...
...similar schools on the New York State Regents exams in reading and...
At the top of
page 73...
...Hammond and colleagues support the proposition that changing school...
At the top of
page 73...
...instructional cultures is difficult (all of the schools did not show strong...
At the top of
page 73...
...positive effects) and takes time (it took several years for positive effects to...
At the top of
page 73...
...show)....
In the middle of
page 73...
...The instructional practices used in the Coalition schools correspond...
In the middle of
page 73...
...closely to what other lines of research, described earlier, have shown to be...
In the middle of
page 73...
...loads for teachers and creating longer instructional blocks of time. Intellec-...
In the middle of
page 73...
...necessitated extended reading and writing of complex texts. For example,...
In the middle of
page 73...
...students read works across national and cultural boundaries by authors...
In the middle of
page 73...
...Morrison, William Shakespeare, and Richard Wright. Students studied com-...
In the middle of
page 73...
...plex topics in the social studies and the sciences. Portfolios requiring in-...
In the middle of
page 73...
...depth study and evaluations of the quality of student understanding con-...
In the middle of
page 73...
...tributed to the level of intellectual rigor in these schools. Authentic tasks...
In the middle of
page 73...
...were evident across sites. Projects, portfolios, and internships outside of...
In the middle of
page 73...
...school involved reading, writing, and research. Structured opportunities to...
At the bottom of
page 73...
...help students reflect on and evaluate their work in these authentic experi-...
At the bottom of
page 73...
...problems, make plans, do field work, and write up their conclusions. For...
At the bottom of
page 73...
...given and incorporated into evaluation procedures, which included detailed...
At the bottom of
page 73...
...Students had access to multiple resources for learning through collaborative...
At the bottom of
page 73...
...projects, internships outside the school, and seminars and assignments that...
At the bottom of
page 73...
...involved reflections on what and how they were learning. Multiple sup-...
At the bottom of
page 73...
...ports also included tutoring before and after school that involved peers and...
At the bottom of
page 73...
...adult mentors. Finally, a flexible and responsive assessment system required...
At the bottom of
page 73...
...more traditional tests. Students were encouraged to reflect on their learning...
At the bottom of
page 73...
...and they were given feedback and supports to bolster areas of weakness. As...
At the top of
page 74...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 74...
...into the instructional routines across the school year....
At the top of
page 74...
...and Mueller, 2001; Schoenbach, Greenicaf, Cziko, and Hurwitz, 19991....
At the top of
page 74...
...the middle and high school levels. The project attends to reading across...
At the top of
page 74...
...subject matters, addressing the social dimensions of learning, the personal...
At the top of
page 74...
...reading strategies that characterize better readers, and a knowledge-build-...
In the middle of
page 74...
...ing dimension that involves expanding repertoires in knowledge of topics,...
In the middle of
page 74...
...vocabulary, genres, and text structure that readers need as resources for...
In the middle of
page 74...
...A study of 9th graders in a high school serving a substantial population...
In the middle of
page 74...
...of low-income students and students of color (including those in special...
In the middle of
page 74...
...education and English-language learners) showed significantly greater than...
In the middle of
page 74...
...demic literacy, preparing students for the demands of reading across content...
In the middle of
page 74...
...Descriptions of classroom interactions document how students were...
In the middle of
page 74...
...able to draw on multiple resources to support learning, rigorous authentic...
In the middle of
page 74...
...work, assessments that provided students with timely and useful feedback,...
At the bottom of
page 74...
...personalized relationships among all participants, and explicit attention to...
At the bottom of
page 74...
...modeling and scaffolding strategies. In relation to the motivational poten-...
At the bottom of
page 74...
...tial of this work, the researchers also surveyed students before and after the...
At the bottom of
page 74...
...freshman course regarding their conceptions about reading as a process and...
At the bottom of
page 74...
...the elementary school levels, there are few examples, especially of any large scale, of such...
At the bottom of
page 74...
...rates of growth at the high school level. This may be due, in part, to the increased demands of...
At the bottom of
page 74...
...subject matter reading required at the high school level....
At the top of
page 75...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 75...
...School Achievement Structure...
At the top of
page 75...
...The School Achievement Structure (SAS) was founded by Dr. Barbara...
At the top of
page 75...
...Sizemore as a mode! for whole-school reform based on her earlier work in...
At the top of
page 75...
...low-income schools in the Pittsburgh Public Schools. The Ten Routines of...
At the top of
page 75...
...have outlined. SAS is based on the Effective Schools Models (Edmonds,...
At the top of
page 75...
...1979; Sizemore, 1985) and emphasizes the reorganization of the whole-...
At the top of
page 75...
...standards to which schools are accountable. Schools identify concepts and...
At the top of
page 75...
...strategies to be mastered and pace instruction so that skills are distributed...
At the top of
page 75...
...across the school year. Students are grouped flexibly so that individual...
In the middle of
page 75...
...grouping, and retesting are made by teachers across the school year. De-...
In the middle of
page 75...
...knowledge and experiences is also central to SAS routines....
In the middle of
page 75...
...SAS has worked since 1992 with a number of schools in Chicago...
In the middle of
page 75...
...placed on academic probation, including 14 high schools with long histo-...
In the middle of
page 75...
...high schools had 17.2 percent of their students reading at or above national...
In the middle of
page 75...
...norms. The number increased in SAS high schools to 37.2 percent in 2000....
In the middle of
page 75...
...SAS schools involve no selection biases in terms of staffing or students...
At the bottom of
page 75...
...suasive evidence that it is possible to engage and increase the literacy skills...
At the bottom of
page 75...
...nities, earning potential, and the ability to participate fully in society. On a...
At the bottom of
page 75...
...daily basis, people encounter information (e.g., election results, interest...
At the bottom of
page 75...
...to interpret. With the increasing use of technology in the workforce, people...
At the bottom of
page 75...
...who cannot manipulate symbols and the language of computers will be at a...
At the top of
page 76...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 76...
...The evidence is clear that students in urban schools are not faring well...
At the top of
page 76...
...urban fringe (suburban) and large towns and 35 percent in rural and small...
At the top of
page 76...
...higher in urban than in suburban schools (see Chapter 1, this volume). The...
At the top of
page 76...
...gap between students of color, who are disproportionately in urban schools...
At the top of
page 76...
...serving low-income youth, and white students remains substantial. As was...
At the top of
page 76...
...found for reading, in 1999 African-American and Latino 17-year-olds...
In the middle of
page 76...
...Gender differences on standardized tests in mathematics also have been...
In the middle of
page 76...
...and consider math less relevant to their future. Perhaps not coincidentally,...
In the middle of
page 76...
...1983; Eccles, Barber, and Tozefowicz, 19981. Because most studies that...
In the middle of
page 76...
...Contributing to the relatively poor performance of urban high school...
In the middle of
page 76...
...studies suggest the value of both a solid background in mathematics and...
In the middle of
page 76...
...teacher training for student learning (e.g., Darling-Hammond, 1996, 1999;...
At the bottom of
page 76...
...Ferguson, 1991; Ferguson and Ladd, 1996; National Commission on Math-...
At the bottom of
page 76...
...ematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century, 20001. A national...
At the bottom of
page 76...
...survey found that in schools where 60 percent or more of the students...
At the bottom of
page 76...
...ematics teachers and nearly 20 percent of the science teachers did not hold...
At the bottom of
page 76...
...huge differences in the qualifications of teachers in schools serving non-...
At the bottom of
page 76...
...Teaching and America's Future (1996), 40 percent of students in high-...
At the top of
page 77...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 77...
...poverty schools (greater than 49 percent eligible for free lunch) had math...
At the top of
page 77...
...ers to engage students in activities that go beyond rules and procedures...
At the top of
page 77...
...schools, may thus contribute to the frequent use of textbooks, worksheets,...
At the top of
page 77...
...urilis, and teaching that emphasizes disconnected rules as opposed to a web...
At the top of
page 77...
...Most people think of mathematics as procedures that children need to...
In the middle of
page 77...
...nature of limb branching in trees, and even the dispersion of milk poured...
In the middle of
page 77...
...Educational researchers and mathematicians define mathematical pro-...
In the middle of
page 77...
...henuing mathematical concepts, operations, and relations); (2) Grocer...
In the middle of
page 77...
...and appropriately); (3) strategic competence (being able to formulate, rep-...
In the middle of
page 77...
...resent, and solve mathematical problems); (4) adaptive reasoning (being...
In the middle of
page 77...
...able to think logically, reflect, explain, and justify); and (5) productive...
At the bottom of
page 77...
...disposition (being inclined to see mathematics as sensible and useful, while...
At the bottom of
page 77...
...also believing in diligence and one's own efficacy; National Research Coun-...
At the bottom of
page 77...
...the leading professional organization for researchers and practitioners con-...
At the bottom of
page 77...
...stand mathematics trom a number ot perspectives and be able to communl-...
At the bottom of
page 77...
...tional two-column chart), students should be able to understand that the...
At the bottom of
page 77...
...notation represents a relationship between two objects (X and Y). They...
At the top of
page 78...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 78...
...should also be able to represent the equation in graphical and verbal forms...
At the top of
page 78...
...and understand the relationship between these forms. Students should be...
At the top of
page 78...
...what some of its properties are (e.g., linear), and how the graphical version...
At the top of
page 78...
...relates to the symbols used to represent the function in the equation shown...
At the top of
page 78...
...(e.g., noting that the slope is represented by the number 3 and the point at...
At the top of
page 78...
...To gain a deeper understanding of concepts, students need to be able to...
At the top of
page 78...
...move back and forth between different representations of data and ways of...
In the middle of
page 78...
...experiences) for problem solving. In this case, math remains a disconnected...
In the middle of
page 78...
...expected to understand the following: What shifts the function upward and...
In the middle of
page 78...
...or lowered)? What shifts the function left and right on the x-axis (as if the...
In the middle of
page 78...
...nology (e.g., graphing calculators) can make this learning more efficient by...
In the middle of
page 78...
...velop a separate table of values and then a graph for every trial set of points...
In the middle of
page 78...
...ability to change two variables at the same time and watch how they affect...
At the bottom of
page 78...
...the shape and other properties of the function....
At the bottom of
page 78...
...(2000) developed on the basis of research in mathematics learning provides...
At the bottom of
page 78...
...dents make, refine, and explore conjectures on the basis of evidence and...
At the bottom of
page 78...
...use a variety of reasoning and proof techniques to confirm or disprove...
At the bottom of
page 78...
...those conjectures.... Alone or in groups and with access to technology,...
At the bottom of
page 78...
...Pstudents] work productively and reflectively, with the skilled guidance of...
At the top of
page 79...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 79...
...their teachers. Orally and in writing, students communicate their ideas...
At the top of
page 79...
...and results effectively. (p. 3 ~...
At the top of
page 79...
...This vision of school mathematics differs considerably from what many...
At the top of
page 79...
...of us experienced (and were uninspired by) as high school students, when...
At the top of
page 79...
...we learned equations and rules that the teacher wrote on the chalkboard,...
At the top of
page 79...
...and practiced their application on sets of similarly formatted problems....
At the top of
page 79...
...mathematical thinking and problem solving. The active grappling...
At the top of
page 79...
...with math ideas described in the NCTM standards, in contrast, is consis-...
At the top of
page 79...
...Although educators and researchers continue to debate the best ap-...
In the middle of
page 79...
...centered in the sense that they build on student's understanding, engage...
In the middle of
page 79...
...them in active problem solving, and connect math learning to their experi-...
In the middle of
page 79...
...ence outside of school. They are also directive in the sense that they deter-...
In the middle of
page 79...
...mine the mathematical concepts to be learned, select most (although not...
In the middle of
page 79...
...knowledge, and create opportunities for them to practice their understand-...
In the middle of
page 79...
...ings and to develop fluency....
In the middle of
page 79...
...Notwithstanding some dispute about the value of particular practices,...
At the bottom of
page 79...
...school mathematics sequence (taking a relatively large number of math-...
At the bottom of
page 79...
...ematics courses usually more than three during high school); (2) partici-...
At the bottom of
page 79...
...pation in advanced levels of school mathematics (e.g., trigonometry, precal-...
At the bottom of
page 79...
...culus, discrete/finite mathematics, statistics, calculus); and (3) mathematics...
At the bottom of
page 79...
...achievement on standardized tests. The three indicators are interrelated....
At the bottom of
page 79...
...For example, both the number of courses taken in high school mathematics...
At the bottom of
page 79...
...and participation in advanced levels of mathematics are associated with...
At the bottom of
page 79...
...higher achievement scores (Lee, Croninger, and Smith, 1997; National Cen-...
At the bottom of
page 79...
...ter for Education Statistics, 2001a; Rock and Pollack, 1995~....
At the bottom of
page 79...
...dardized achievement tests because the tests often do not match the school...
At the bottom of
page 79...
...teaching that emphasizes understanding over memorizing does not always...
At the top of
page 80...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 80...
...ter, Fennema, and Franke, 19961. Incleeci, stanciarclizeci tests in mathemat-...
At the top of
page 80...
...reasoning, but rather on their ability to identify the appropriate rule and...
At the top of
page 80...
...confusing contexts and language for word problems, low-income Latino...
In the middle of
page 80...
...Looking across studies, we see support for the features of engaging and...
In the middle of
page 80...
...stuclent engagement and learning. The features of effective instruction are...
In the middle of
page 80...
...� Authentic, open-encleci problems and involvement in mathematical...
At the bottom of
page 80...
...� Rigorous and challenging instruction with frequent assessment and...
At the bottom of
page 80...
...stucly of nine high school mathematics departments (Gutierrez, 2000b). In...
At the bottom of
page 80...
...schools where students showed significant gains in mathematics achieve-...
At the bottom of
page 80...
...ment between gracles 9 and 12 and where they took more mathematics and...
At the bottom of
page 80...
...report using activities that drew on the everyday knowledge and interests of...
At the bottom of
page 80...
...American voter registration in southern states, and ages of actors and ac-...
At the bottom of
page 80...
...mathematical concepts and representations of data. Teachers in these effec-...
At the top of
page 81...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 81...
...As has been found in research on literacy teaching at the high school...
At the top of
page 81...
...itself. Therefore, although everyone who learns math must negotiate the...
At the top of
page 81...
...translations between everyday language and formal mathematics, students...
At the top of
page 81...
...whose native language is not English encounter greater cognitive demands...
At the top of
page 81...
...mathematics teachers of English-language learners show respect for their...
At the top of
page 81...
...students' culture and language, and encourage students to draw on their...
In the middle of
page 81...
...and Cobb, 20011. Studies also suggest the value of allowing students to...
In the middle of
page 81...
...work and collaborate with each other in their native language, and provid-...
In the middle of
page 81...
...ing materials for them in their primary language (Khisty and Viego, 1999;...
In the middle of
page 81...
...Silver, Smith, and Nelson, 19951....
In the middle of
page 81...
...Explaining or teaching something to someone else consolidates and...
In the middle of
page 81...
...deepens the understanding of the subject matter by the person in the teach-...
In the middle of
page 81...
...recommend that students be given authentic open-ended problems and op-...
In the middle of
page 81...
...them to discuss and justify the strategies they use to solve problems. In one...
In the middle of
page 81...
...how to solve mathematics problems at least weekly scored higher than...
At the bottom of
page 81...
...tional (e.g., Moses and Cobb, 2001; Silver et al., 1995; Somerton, Smith,...
At the bottom of
page 81...
...Finnell, and Fuller, 1994) and small-scale studies (e.g., Gutierrez, 2002b),...
At the bottom of
page 81...
...students were highly engaged and claimed to be enthusiastic about math to...
At the bottom of
page 81...
...classrooms in which students claimed to be mostly bored and didn't par-...
At the bottom of
page 81...
...engaging and boring classrooms was the nature of the problems students...
At the bottom of
page 81...
...ended problems that had multiple solutions or strategies and that allowed...
At the bottom of
page 81...
...students to take initiative and be creative. (See Box 3-3 for an example.)...
At the bottom of
page 81...
...4This trend was true in both 1996 and 2000; however, only in 1996 was this difference...
At the bottom of
page 81...
...shown statistically....
At the top of
page 82...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
In the middle of
page 82...
...primarily from textbooks, learning rules and procedures to use on sets of...
At the bottom of
page 82...
...solved by applying a learned procedure....
At the bottom of
page 82...
...can-American and Latino students were taught to work with others to...
At the top of
page 83...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 83...
...exams and standardized tests. Similar success was seen by a college profes-...
At the top of
page 83...
...ematics coursework and mathematics-related careers (Anderson, 19901....
At the top of
page 83...
...ematical engagement or learning. The emphasis on reasoning (about par-...
At the top of
page 83...
...ticular strategies for solving problems) and developing justifications for...
At the top of
page 83...
...dents (e.g., English-language learners) may be less inclined to participate in...
In the middle of
page 83...
...school students and found that open-ended, discussion-oriented classes did...
In the middle of
page 83...
...not increase African-American male students' understanding of mathemati-...
In the middle of
page 83...
...groups) and show reduced performance on measures of achievement (Steele,...
In the middle of
page 83...
...good and is a prerequisite for complex reasoning (see Boater, 2002b)....
At the bottom of
page 83...
...ing, rigorous instruction (Gutierrez, 1996; Lee and Smith, 19951. Research-...
At the bottom of
page 83...
...ers have attributed the relatively high standardized test scores among stu-...
At the bottom of
page 83...
...dents in Catholic schools, controlling as best as possible for potential...
At the bottom of
page 83...
...public urban high schools is composed substantially of lower track and...
At the bottom of
page 83...
...which is an important gate to college majors in mathematics and science...
At the bottom of
page 83...
...(Mullis, Jenkins, and Johnson, 1994; Oakes, 19901. Further evidence that...
At the bottom of
page 83...
...students in urban schools often get less than rigorous instruction comes...
At the bottom of
page 83...
...from a study of urban schools in California and New York conducted by...
At the bottom of
page 83...
...Gamoran, Porter, Smithson, and White (19971. They describe low-track...
At the bottom of
page 83...
...courses in which "instruction is weak and growth is shallow" courses that...
At the top of
page 84...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 84...
...Frequent assessment of student understanding is a critical accompani-...
At the top of
page 84...
...ment to rigorous instruction. Black and Wiliam (1998) reviewed 250 re-...
At the top of
page 84...
...search studies and concluded that student learning (especially that of low...
At the top of
page 84...
...when making judgments about teaching and learning. Although formal...
At the top of
page 84...
...paper-and-pencil assessments are useful strategies for gauging student learn-...
At the top of
page 84...
...information about their students (both procedural skills and conceptual...
At the top of
page 84...
...understanding) frequently and using varied techniques, such as observa-...
At the top of
page 84...
...tions, conversations, interactive journals, and careful examination of stu-...
In the middle of
page 84...
...of information gathered and considered collectively by teachers can help...
In the middle of
page 84...
...on, how to revisit a difficult concept, and how to adapt tasks for struggling...
In the middle of
page 84...
...cepts (Dildine, 2000; Gutierrez, 1996; Moses and Cobb, 20011. For ex-...
In the middle of
page 84...
...ample, in a study of nine U.S. high schools by Gutierrez (1996, 2000b),...
In the middle of
page 84...
...graphing calculators and computers were used on a regular basis in the...
In the middle of
page 84...
...schools in which students actively participated in the mathematics curricu-...
In the middle of
page 84...
...lum, took more advanced mathematics courses such as precalculus and...
In the middle of
page 84...
...calculus, and scored better than predicted on standardized tests. Specifi-...
In the middle of
page 84...
...cally, students used algebra and geometry software and graphing calcula-...
In the middle of
page 84...
...tors to collect and represent data in different forms. In one analysis of...
At the bottom of
page 84...
...regularly scored higher on standardized tests than those students who re-...
At the bottom of
page 84...
...Consideration also must be given to how technology is used. Research...
At the bottom of
page 84...
...est. But studies of the use of technology suggest that this is not how technol-...
At the bottom of
page 84...
...ogy is typically used in urban schools. A recent report indicated that...
At the bottom of
page 84...
...using computers primarily for simulations and applications (31 percent) as...
At the bottom of
page 84...
...for drills and practice (30 percent), far more African-American students...
At the bottom of
page 84...
...used computers primarily for drills and practice (52 percent, compared to...
At the bottom of
page 84...
...14 percent for simulations and applications; Wenglinsky, 19981. The differ-...
At the top of
page 85...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 85...
...Students in Title 1 schools were much less likely to use computers primarily...
At the top of
page 85...
...for simulations and applications (13 percent) than students in schools that...
At the top of
page 85...
...deal of training and ongoing support. Professional development programs...
At the top of
page 85...
...and support systems have been developed to meet this need. Next we pro-...
At the top of
page 85...
...principles of effective instruction that we have summarized and include...
In the middle of
page 85...
...belief that learning is maximized when it involves meaningful relationships...
In the middle of
page 85...
...others, where the focus is clearly on mathematics, and where connections...
In the middle of
page 85...
...are made to adolescents' knowledge and personal experiences....
In the middle of
page 85...
...can-American inner-city and rural youth in mathematics (Checkley, 2001;...
In the middle of
page 85...
...Moses, Kamii, Swap, and Howard, 1989; Moses and Cobb, 20011. To...
In the middle of
page 85...
...date, more than 22 sites involve students in grades 7, 8, and 9 in 13 states,...
At the bottom of
page 85...
...in cities such as Chicago, Milwaukee, Oakland, Atlanta, Indianapolis, San...
At the bottom of
page 85...
...Francisco, and Los Angeles....
At the bottom of
page 85...
...ment to teachers so they can come to see themselves as learners (focusing on...
At the bottom of
page 85...
...joint learning with students and other teachers); employing adults who...
At the bottom of
page 85...
...have enough contact with adolescents inside and outside of school to de-...
At the bottom of
page 85...
...velop meaningful relationships; abolishing ability grouping and getting stu-...
At the bottom of
page 85...
...dents to work effectively in both individual and small-group learning situa-...
At the bottom of
page 85...
...tions; using curricular materials that focus on the way people create and use...
At the bottom of
page 85...
...mathematics in the real world; and letting students experience a cultural...
At the bottom of
page 85...
...A key premise of The Algebra Project is that learning must be tied to...
At the top of
page 86...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 86...
...students' personal experiences. Therefore, students learn to translate every-...
At the top of
page 86...
...day life experiences into the symbolic language of mathematics. Four key...
At the top of
page 86...
...3. Intuitive Language/"People Talk" (students are asked to discuss and...
In the middle of
page 86...
...need to be able to represent and communicate data in a variety of forms...
In the middle of
page 86...
...When they are asked to use "people talk," they are being asked for a verbal...
In the middle of
page 86...
...evidence suggests, however, that the approach has some value. The first...
In the middle of
page 86...
...group of students who graduated from the project enrolled in high school in...
In the middle of
page 86...
...geometry and many have gone on to medical school and other graduate...
In the middle of
page 86...
...schools. In Arkansas, 7 out of the 11 cohorts of students that were followed...
In the middle of
page 86...
...showed at least a 10-point increase in mean scaled scores on the SAT-9 a...
At the bottom of
page 86...
...sites stayed at their previous levels or declined (West and Baumann, 20021....
At the bottom of
page 86...
...can) and African-American students throughout California since 1970...
At the bottom of
page 86...
...school curriculum, but nevertheless provides evidence of the value of par-...
At the bottom of
page 86...
...grade, and they continue to take rigorous mathematics courses throughout...
At the top of
page 87...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 87...
...high school. Most students earn average grades when they start, but they...
At the top of
page 87...
...year for mathematics- and science-based careers. More recently expanded...
At the top of
page 87...
...and science teachers and turns them into advisors who offer courses along-...
At the top of
page 87...
...side the traditional mathematics/science curriculum offered by schools. In...
At the top of
page 87...
...addition, 6-week summer enrichment programs and Saturday academies...
At the top of
page 87...
...help students deepen their understanding and prepare for college courses in...
At the top of
page 87...
...mathematics and science....
At the top of
page 87...
...professionals, and community members to provide additional role models...
In the middle of
page 87...
...and to mentor students. Using hands-on instruction (e.g., where students...
In the middle of
page 87...
...build models of mathematical structures and processes), adults and older...
In the middle of
page 87...
...them mode! and visualize mathematics and science in ways that build a...
In the middle of
page 87...
...in obtaining summer internships and jobs in the field. As an incentive, the...
In the middle of
page 87...
...point average while in high school....
In the middle of
page 87...
...MESA high school students are remarkably successful on traditional...
In the middle of
page 87...
...measures of achievement, including SAT scores and college attendance...
At the bottom of
page 87...
...clearly a selection bias in who enters the program, and research with an...
At the bottom of
page 87...
...program effects. The achievement of the students in the program, however,...
At the bottom of
page 87...
...adjunct to the regular high school, most components of the program could...
At the bottom of
page 87...
...The Quantitative Understanding: Amplifying Student Achievement and...
At the bottom of
page 87...
...Reasoning (QUASAR) Project is designed for middle school students. Since...
At the bottom of
page 87...
...Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin (Doty, Mercer, and Henningsen,...
At the top of
page 88...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 88...
...Key components of the project are curriculum development and modi-...
At the top of
page 88...
...and ongoing teacher support (e.g., opportunities for teachers to continue to...
At the top of
page 88...
...learn mathematics); classroom and school-based assessment design (e.g.,...
At the top of
page 88...
...and outreach to parents and the school district at large. With respect to...
At the top of
page 88...
...pedagogy, a classroom emphasis is placed on building communities of learn-...
At the top of
page 88...
...ers (cooperative groups, supporting mathematical thinking and collabora-...
At the top of
page 88...
...tion); learning to question and coming to understand others; building com-...
At the top of
page 88...
...munities of linguistically diverse learners; and enhancing the relevance of...
At the top of
page 88...
...school mathematics (building on students' experiences, relating mathemat-...
At the top of
page 88...
...ics to students' interests, and connecting mathematics to students' cultural...
In the middle of
page 88...
...mode! the mathematics they are learning (fitting the oral tradition of some...
In the middle of
page 88...
...students have been asked to write essays on Egyptian numerals and the life...
In the middle of
page 88...
...students to debate mathematical assertions and use mathematical argumen-...
In the middle of
page 88...
...and learning. In schools across the nation, the QUASAR Project has seen...
In the middle of
page 88...
...significant gains in student engagement in classroom discussions and in...
In the middle of
page 88...
...standardized achievement scores (tests of basic skills as well as conceptual...
In the middle of
page 88...
...understanding; Silver and Lane, 19951....
In the middle of
page 88...
...instruction that engage high school students, and evidence from a few...
At the bottom of
page 88...
...schools. There is still much to learn, particularly about implementing pro-...
At the bottom of
page 88...
...grams at scale in urban high schools. But the existing evidence provides no...
At the bottom of
page 88...
...support for the traditional textbook and worksheet instruction seen in most...
At the bottom of
page 88...
...schools serving low-income students and students of color....
At the bottom of
page 88...
...Our conclusions about effective teaching in literacy and mathematics...
At the bottom of
page 88...
...are based in part on studies conducted in urban high school settings, giving...
At the bottom of
page 88...
...volume. There are, however, particular circumstances related to teaching in...
At the bottom of
page 88...
...schools that serve economically disadvantaged students, which need to be...
At the bottom of
page 88...
...considered in any effort to increase students' engagement in learning....
At the bottom of
page 88...
...literacy and mathematics to students' own interests, experiences, and cul-...
At the top of
page 89...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 89...
...attention and sensitivity to the out-of-school challenges that many students...
At the top of
page 89...
...face including racism, homelessness, violence, and lack of sufficient re-...
At the top of
page 89...
...sources to address mental and physical health problems. (See Chapter 7 for...
At the top of
page 89...
...At the core of The Algebra Project (Moses and Cobb, 2001) and Lee's...
At the top of
page 89...
...to the developmental, cognitive, and emotional needs of students. These...
At the top of
page 89...
...tion to the very real risks and challenges faced by urban adolescents. In the...
At the top of
page 89...
...their skills in dealing with foreign and sometimes hostile environments...
In the middle of
page 89...
...tomed to people of color)....
In the middle of
page 89...
...Spencer, Cross, Harpalani, and Goss, in press; Spencer, Noll, Stoltzfus, and...
In the middle of
page 89...
...tance of encouraging activism and political awareness in any effort to en-...
In the middle of
page 89...
...gage low-income urban students in school....
In the middle of
page 89...
...What we are recommending expands the role of the teacher substan-...
At the bottom of
page 89...
...Lafontant, 1999; Gustein, Lipman, Hernandez, and de los Reyes, 1997;...
At the bottom of
page 89...
...that teachers who are philosophically committed to equity and racial justice...
At the bottom of
page 89...
...are less likely to have low expectations and more willing to adjust their...
At the bottom of
page 89...
...rigor (Ball, l995b, 2000a, 2000b; Lightfoot, 1973; Stodolsky and...
At the bottom of
page 89...
...Although no studies have shown the independent effects of a social...
At the bottom of
page 89...
...entrance exams for competitive magnet schools and all went on to take...
At the top of
page 90...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 90...
...justice stance (Anderson, 1990; Frankenstein, 1990, 19951....
At the top of
page 90...
...Another challenge that is especially prominent in urban schools serv-...
At the top of
page 90...
...enter high school. Although there is good evidence that even students who...
At the top of
page 90...
...are far behind when they begin high school can master the high school...
At the top of
page 90...
...curriculum and achieve high standards, these students are the exception....
At the top of
page 90...
...schools serving predominantly low-income students and students of color,...
At the top of
page 90...
...and they show promise of improving on traditional remedial methods. (See...
In the middle of
page 90...
...cally disadvantaged urban schools involves special challenges; it is equally...
In the middle of
page 90...
...formulaic teaching and restricted conceptions of subject matter (Boater,...
In the middle of
page 90...
...2002b). There are far too few examples of urban high schools that hold...
In the middle of
page 90...
...their students to challenging standards and engage them in mastering diffi-...
In the middle of
page 90...
...cult disciplinary concepts and strategies, but such schools exist, and provide...
In the middle of
page 90...
...the proof that schools can become such institutions. Complexity is no...
In the middle of
page 90...
...Teachers in urban schools face students who are trying to cope with an...
In the middle of
page 90...
...array of challenges in their lives outside of school and struggling to learn...
In the middle of
page 90...
...the skills assumed by most high school curricula. These teachers also often...
In the middle of
page 90...
...scarce resources, and now, pressure from high-stakes tests that are often...
At the bottom of
page 90...
...not aligned with their instructional program and goals. Teachers also have...
At the bottom of
page 90...
...to confront their own stereotypes related to race and social class. Given...
At the bottom of
page 90...
...these conditions and challenges, it is not surprising that the kind of ambi-...
At the bottom of
page 90...
...schools. This kind of teaching requires considerable skill and sustained...
At the bottom of
page 90...
...support. Because of the sheer complexity of teaching and the special chal-...
At the bottom of
page 90...
...lenges of urban schools, the need for strong professional communities of...
At the bottom of
page 90...
...teachers is critical. Indeed, building teacher capacity and providing teachers...
At the bottom of
page 90...
...urban high schools that engage all students in learning....
At the bottom of
page 90...
...engagement in students, Stodolsky and Grossman (2000) saw relationships...
At the bottom of
page 90...
...between teacher' sense of efficacy and their willingness to adapt to the...
At the top of
page 91...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 91...
...about diversity and about what it means to learn. Collaboration and group...
At the top of
page 91...
...ment and the sense of efficacy to pursue rigorous standards in the often...
At the top of
page 91...
...difficult circumstances of urban school teaching....
At the top of
page 91...
...Many studies have shown the value of a culture of collaboration in...
At the top of
page 91...
...ter, Garet, Yon, and Birman, 2002; Hiebert, Gallimore, and Stigler, 20021....
At the top of
page 91...
...For example, Louis, Marks, and Kruse (1996) found that teachers in schools...
At the top of
page 91...
...sense of purpose, collaborative activity, collective focus on student learn-...
At the top of
page 91...
...ing, and reflective dialogue) engaged in higher quality teaching, and their...
In the middle of
page 91...
...students performed higher on NAEP mathematics and reading assessments...
In the middle of
page 91...
...when compared to teachers in schools with weak professional communi-...
In the middle of
page 91...
...ties. (See also Louis and Marks, 1998.)...
In the middle of
page 91...
...used in Japan for teacher collaboration. Stigler and Hiebert (1999) suggest...
In the middle of
page 91...
...ing teachers time and support to form teacher workgroups to plan, experi-...
In the middle of
page 91...
...ment with, analyze, and revise lessons. For example, teachers can videotape...
In the middle of
page 91...
...and analyze lessons they have planned together. The approach has been...
In the middle of
page 91...
...introduced in some U.S. elementary and middle schools, and might be...
In the middle of
page 91...
...adapted to be useful at the high school level as well....
In the middle of
page 91...
...promotes collaboration among individual teachers across school sites. Or-...
At the bottom of
page 91...
...ganized, funded projects, such as QUASAR, The Algebra Project, and...
At the bottom of
page 91...
...MESA, provide the practical training and social support required to imple-...
At the bottom of
page 91...
...ment effective and engaging mathematics teaching (Gutierrez, 2000a). There...
At the bottom of
page 91...
...school, and department levels to develop the kind of sustained, professional...
At the bottom of
page 91...
...in high school teachers' ability to teach and to adapt to the needs of their...
At the bottom of
page 91...
...students (Gutierrez, 1996; Lieberman and Miller, 2001; Little, 1993;...
At the bottom of
page 91...
...McLaughlin, 1993; McLaughlin and Talbert, 1993, 2001; Siskin, 1994;...
At the bottom of
page 91...
...Talbert and McLaughlin, 1994~. Effective subject matter departments in-...
At the bottom of
page 91...
...and assessment; in engaging particular students in certain content; and in...
At the bottom of
page 91...
...efforts at the department level are associated with positive learning and...
At the top of
page 92...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 92...
...Casareno, and the M-Class Teams, 1999; Greenicaf and Schoenbach, 1999;...
At the top of
page 92...
...high school mathematics departments and found that certain forms of struc-...
At the top of
page 92...
...tural organization and normative cultures (including beliefs) are associated...
At the top of
page 92...
...with teachers' willingness and ability to engage diverse learners. She found...
At the top of
page 92...
...plans and students, rotated course assignments, had a commitment to eq-...
At the top of
page 92...
...uity, and observed each other teaching tended to have students who were...
At the top of
page 92...
...actively engaged in the mathematics curriculum and scored well on stan-...
In the middle of
page 92...
...Stodolsky and Grossman (2000) likewise found in their survey of teachers...
In the middle of
page 92...
...in 16 U.S. high schools that mathematics and English teachers who experi-...
In the middle of
page 92...
...mented with the curriculum in order to engage diverse learners in the...
In the middle of
page 92...
...classroom tended to work in departments that were collaborative and fo-...
In the middle of
page 92...
...and Talbert, 20011....
In the middle of
page 92...
...the alienation that teachers often experience in large, urban, bureaucratic...
In the middle of
page 92...
...schools. Talbert (1995) proposes that collaboration among teachers can...
In the middle of
page 92...
...serve as a catalyst for increasing a school's commitment to meeting the...
In the middle of
page 92...
...19891. Talbert and McLaughlin (1994) found in their analysis of survey...
In the middle of
page 92...
...schools that teachers' participation in a collaborative, innovative profes-...
In the middle of
page 92...
...sional community predicted their expectations for student achievement and...
At the bottom of
page 92...
...their caring for students, controlling for their subject preparation and over-...
At the bottom of
page 92...
...all job satisfaction. Gutierrez (1996, 1999, 2000b, 2002b) and Stodolsky...
At the bottom of
page 92...
...and Grossman (2000) observed further that the teachers who engaged stu-...
At the bottom of
page 92...
...practices that engage students in learning....
At the bottom of
page 92...
...Practices in schools and the broader community are also important. For...
At the bottom of
page 92...
...example, Valerie Lee (2000) found that high schools that had a communal...
At the bottom of
page 92...
...achievement and nearly eliminated social class differences between stu-...
At the bottom of
page 92...
...dents. The school community is so critical to successful mathematics teach-...
At the bottom of
page 92...
...ing that in choosing its sites, the QUASAR Project requires a school climate...
At the bottom of
page 92...
...Schools also have norms regarding what it means to teach and to learn,...
At the top of
page 93...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 93...
...which can have powerful effects on instruction in classrooms and student...
At the top of
page 93...
...pressed, the relevance of personal knowledge and experience, and the na-...
At the top of
page 93...
...ture of acceptable argument and evidence" (Applebee et al., 2000, pp.413-...
At the top of
page 93...
...414; see Camden, 1988,2001; Lee, C.D., 2000; Marshall, Smagorinsky, and...
At the top of
page 93...
...Smith, 1995; Mehan, 1979; Nystrand and Gamoran, 1991, 1992; Tharp...
At the top of
page 93...
...and Gallimore, 19881. These norms often vary for different tracks. Studies...
At the top of
page 93...
...show that the students in lower track classes have significantly fewer op-...
At the top of
page 93...
...portunities to elaborate on ideas, to weigh evidence from multiple and...
At the top of
page 93...
...(McDermott, 1987; Nystrand and Gamoran, 1997; Oakes, 1985) the kind...
In the middle of
page 93...
...of active participation in rigorous learning experiences that motivation...
In the middle of
page 93...
...to so-n-so, answer the red square questions and the unit questions and...
In the middle of
page 93...
...turn them in." And he corrects them and says, "You did this wrong, you...
In the middle of
page 93...
...did this right. Okay, here you go." And that was pretty much the basic...
In the middle of
page 93...
...that's pretty much all we did. Answer the red square questions. And pret-...
In the middle of
page 93...
...ty much it's been like that since I got to middle school...."...
In the middle of
page 93...
...Urban schools serving low-income students are capable of much more,...
At the bottom of
page 93...
...As efforts are made to improve the support and circumstances teachers...
At the bottom of
page 93...
...encounter in urban high schools, parallel efforts need to be made to recruit...
At the bottom of
page 93...
...will not overcome deficiencies in knowledge of subject matter, of how...
At the bottom of
page 93...
...people learn, and of the developmental needs of adolescents. Realistically,...
At the bottom of
page 93...
...pecially in urban schools. Equally important are improvements in preservice...
At the bottom of
page 93...
...urban high schools....
At the top of
page 94...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 94...
...The findings from research on effective teaching of literacy and math-...
In the middle of
page 94...
...program must be challenging and focused on disciplinary knowledge and...
In the middle of
page 94...
...conceptual understanding. It needs to be relevant to and build on students'...
At the bottom of
page 94...
...cultural backgrounds and personal experiences, and provide opportunities...
At the bottom of
page 94...
...outside of school. Engaging instruction gives students multiple learning...
At the top of
page 95...
...TEACHING AND LEARNING...
At the top of
page 95...
...modalities to master material and represent their knowledge, and allows...
At the top of
page 95...
...them to draw on their native language and other resources....
In the middle of
page 95...
...understanding of their subject matter, of how people learn, and of how to...
At the bottom of
page 95...
...nities to collaborate with colleagues, and access to ongoing, expert guid-...
At the bottom of
page 95...
...ance to advance their own knowledge and skills. Effective pedagogy also...
At the bottom of
page 95...
...needs to be supported by a coherent school curriculum and school norms...
At the top of
page 96...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
At the top of
page 96...
...that support student inquiry and active involvement in their learning, inter-...
At the top of
page 96...
...est in students as individuals, and respect for their cultural backgrounds....
In the middle of
page 96...
...sufficient. Our point is that "good" pedagogy is engaging and motivating....
At the bottom of
page 96...
...confident, however, that if schools offer rigor and explicit supports for...
At the bottom of
page 96...
...learning that are responsive to the developmental needs and cultural back-...
A total of pages of uncorrected, machine-read text were searched in this chapter. Please note that the searchable text may be scanned, uncorrected text, and should be presumed inaccurate. Page images should be used as the authoritative version.