755 matches found for How People Learn Brain,Mind,Experience,and School Expanded Edition. in 4. Climate, Organization, Composition, and Size of Schools
Select a page to see where your word(s) or phrase(s) are located in the OpenBook. Excerpts from the chapter provide context.
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...Climate, Organization, Composition, and...
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...Size of Schools...
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...Moving from the classroom to the school, in this chapter we summarize...
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...the conclusions of various domains of research on how school climate,...
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...organization, composition, and size are related to student engagement in...
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...learning. The social and economic circumstances of students' families and...
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...neighborhoods greatly influence student engagement, and as mentioned...
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...earlier, schools cannot "do it all." But the evidence is clear that schools can...
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...make a significant difference, and that their effects on students' engage-...
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...ment, learning, and future opportunities depend substantially on how they...
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...structure the learning environment, and on the values they communicate to...
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...students and their families....
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...We chose to examine school climate, organization, composition, and...
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...suggesting effects on student engagement or learning, and because all are...
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...and did not limit ourselves to studies that measured student engagement...
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...SCHOOL CLIMATE...
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...Conceptualizing School Climate...
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...School climate refers to the values, norms, beliefs, and sentiments asso-...
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...ciated with routine practices and social interaction in schools. Theorists...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...and researchers have used a wide variety of terms to refer to aspects of...
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...school climate including atmosphere, culture, environment, morale, school...
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...community, and school ethos. Accompanying divergent conceptualizations...
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...and Castandeda, 19861. Although the design of the qualitative and correla-...
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...stantial confidence in a conclusion that qualities and factors related to...
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...school climate can affect student engagement and learning. Research-based...
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...judgments about desirable practices, however, require a careful examina-...
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...tion of the specific definition and measurement of school climate in studies....
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...Investigations of school climate date back as far as Willard Waller's...
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...(1932) classic treatise on the sociology of the school, which he conceived as...
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...nity and its school system, and Gordon's (1957) account of "Wabash High"...
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...several years later portrayed the social system and organizational culture of...
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...single high schools....
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...schools in the late 1950s, summarized in The Adolescent Society (Coleman,...
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...culture on students' academic values, performance, and social activities. In...
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...this provocative book, Coleman concluded that in the typical high school,...
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...demic directions, and that the system provides a set of social rewards and...
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...punishments that supports athletics and other social activities and discour-...
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...taries, subsequent empirical studies, and debate on the antecedents, nature,...
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...and consequences of the "adolescent society" in contemporary America...
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...(Boocock, 1966, 1972; McDill and Rigsby, 19731....
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...In 1979, Michael Rutter and colleagues published a study of 12 nonse-...
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...lective, inner-city, secondary schools in London, which established the no-...
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...tion of "ethos" as an important quality of schools (Rutter et al., 1979; see...
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...also Grant, 1988, and John Dewey, 1900, who referred to the school as a...
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...small society). A school's ethos concerns the coalescence among practices,...
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...beliefs. values. and norms. as Driscoll (1995, p. 217) explains:...
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...The concept of school ethos . . . is far more than an aggregate collection...
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...social processes and not merely their sum that explains the variance in the...
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...performance outcomes measured . . . the "ethos" of an effective school is...
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...in large measure a reflection of general, schoolwide expectations of con-...
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...sistent values and norms that permeate the institution. The ethos of an...
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...effective school is characterized by generally shared high expectations of...
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...CLIMATE, ORGANIZATION, COMPOSITION, AND SIZE OF SCHOOLS 99...
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...teachers and respect for them; positive models of administrators and other...
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...teachers for teacher behavior that reflects concern for one another; and...
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...stucly conclucteci by Coleman and colleagues (Coleman et al., 1966), which...
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...conclucleci that nonschoo! variables, especially the racial background and...
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...differences in eclucational outcomes among schools, not differences among...
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...schools themselves. Rutter criticized Coleman's survey methods and his...
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...magnitude of school effects because it haci not consiclereci the social climate...
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...With the 1980s came the concept of "the school as a community."...
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...Implicit in both the ethos and "communitarian" conceptualizations is an...
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...assumed synergism in the operation of the school the notion that the...
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...whole of a good school is more than the sum of its parts. New concepts like...
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...community, democracy, and "an ethic of caring" (Nociclings, 1988)...
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...emerged, based on the assumption that students' attachment to school and...
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...their academic achievement are contingent on first satisfying teachers' and...
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...students' social and personal needs (Phillips, 1997~....
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...Descriptions of communal or communitarian schools are strikingly...
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...similar to descriptions of out-of-school environments that appear to sup-...
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...Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2002~. According to a recent...
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...review of evidence related to out-of-school environments (National Re-...
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...search Council and Institute of Medicine, 2002, pp. 90-91), students are...
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...some structure and opportunities for youth to clevelop new skills in the...
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...context of warm, supportive relationships; and promotes positive social...
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...A relative newcomer to conceptualizations of school climate is the...
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...1996b, 1997) and Phillips (1997) aciciress an ongoing clebate related to...
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...and learning a communitarian climate, as already clescribeci, versus a cli-...
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...literature as high expectations for success, and which has been shown to...
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...predict relatively high achievement (e.g., Evans, 1997; Hoy and Sabo, 1998;...
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...Marks, Secacla, and Doane, 1996; Newmann, 1992~....
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...of school climate are not, in fact, incompatible....
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...Effect of School Climate on Engagement and Learning...
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...Building on previous research on private and public high schools...
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...(Coleman, Hoffer, and Kilgore, 1982), which had been highly criticized for...
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...not addressing problems of selection bias, Coleman and Hoffer (1987)...
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...studied school communities in private and public schools using the second...
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...wave of data from the High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study...
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...high schools as having higher average achievement than public schools,...
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...lower dropout rates, and greater success in placing their graduates in some...
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...with selection bias, and attributed the better outcomes in Catholic schools...
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...in part to a strong, positive, disciplinary climate and conforming student...
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...Also using data from the High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study...
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...(National Center for Education Statistics, 1982), Bryk and Driscoll's (1988)...
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...organized school, and demonstrated the importance of the school commu-...
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...nity to the quality of both public schools and Catholic schools. In contrast...
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...effects of school community and has served as the prototype for many of...
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...the more recent efforts to demonstrate the importance of school climate for...
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...adolescents' school attachment, engagement, and achievement. The authors...
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...posited three crucial components of communally organized schools: (1) a...
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...shared value system that pervades the school and derives from a shared...
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...history; (2) a common agenda for school members involving coursework,...
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...activities, rituals, and traditions that function as a unifying factor; and (3)...
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...an ethic of caring that permeates relationships among students and staff...
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...and between staff and students. Bryk and Driscoll's most important finding...
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...was that communally organized schools (schools with these three sets of...
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...and better mathematics achievement....
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...communally organized schools were associated with indicators of student...
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...engagement and achievement. The NELS 88 database includes information...
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...on 800 high schools and a nationally representative sample of 25,000...
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...in 1988. Follow-up data were collected for the cohort in 10th grade and...
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...CLIMATE, ORGANIZATION, COMPOSITION, AND SIZE OF SCHOOLS 101...
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...12th grade.1 Additional data from the students' teachers and on the charac-...
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...teristics of their high schools also were collected and used in this study....
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...nized schools with communally organized schools. According to Lee with...
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...The bureaucratic structure of most high schools relies on affectively...
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...neutral social relationships to facilitate the administration of standardized...
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...rules and procedures. Strong personal ties among adults, or between adults...
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...and students, make it more difficult for staff to comply with standard...
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...practices and procedures....
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...Communal schools, in contrast, were structured to facilitate the cre-...
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...ation of emotional bonds between teachers and students and also among...
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...communally organized schools as follows:...
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...Rather than formal and affectively neutral relationships, members of com-...
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...munally organized schools share a common mission. Staff and students...
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...changing information and coordinating efforts between classrooms and...
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...Analyses revealed that communal schools had better outcomes than...
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...bureaucratic schools for both teachers (satisfaction, morale, absenteeism)...
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...and students (less class cutting, less absenteeism, lower dropout rates; see...
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...ated with ethnicity and class were smaller in communally structured schools...
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...than in others. Additional studies suggest that supportive and caring schools...
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...1995; Battistich et al., 1997; Bryk and Driscoll 1988; Bryk et al., 1993~....
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...tages she observed of communally structured schools, such as differences in...
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...the curriculum and instruction. The most potent predictor of student out-...
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...come differences was teachers' collective responsibility for learning (see...
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...also Lee, Dedrick, and Smith, 1991~. This factor reflects teachers' views on...
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...their students' abilities and willingness to learn, their sense of responsibility...
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...for the learning of their students, whether teachers believe they can "get...
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...had dropped out of school....
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...own effectiveness, and whether they change how they teach depending on...
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...whether their students are learning. In schools where teachers assumed...
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...collective responsibility for their students' learning, students learned more,...
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...and differences associated with race and class were less prominent. Schools...
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...relatively high on the measure of teachers' collective responsibility for learn-...
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...ing, but the causal order between school restructuring and collective re-...
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...sponsibility is unclear. The authors point out that schools may be able to...
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...studies suggests its value in promoting student engagement and learning...
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...(e.g., Bandura, 1993, 1997; Lee, Dedrick, and Smith, 1991; Tschannen-...
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...Findings from Bryk and Schneider (2002) support Lee's findings re-...
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...garding the importance of teacher attitudes for student outcomes, and fo-...
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...Marks, 20001. In a longitudinal study documenting the effects of school...
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...reform in Chicago between 1991 and 1997, Bryk and Schneider found that...
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..."relational trust" was essential to school improvement. The extent to which...
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...relational trust was present in hundreds of Chicago schools was determined...
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...principal, fellow teachers, and parents. The questions addressed issues such...
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...as respectfulness, belief in each others' competence and the willingness to...
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...fulfill obligations, caring about each other professionally and personally,...
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...and putting the interests of kids first....
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...Bryk and Schneider found that in schools with the highest achievement,...
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...with fellow teachers, and 57 percent reported trusting relationships with...
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...parents. In bottom-quartile schools, fewer than half had trusting relation-...
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...ships with the principal, only a third with fellow teachers, and 40 percent...
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...reported trusting relationships with parents. Schools with strong relational...
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...and reading achievement; only one in seven schools with weak relational...
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...trust made similar advances. Relational trust was higher in small schools...
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...(fewer than 350 students) and in schools in which administrators, teachers,...
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...and students chose to be there instead of having been assigned....
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...study by Lee with Smith (2001), teachers in schools high on communality...
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...were likely to have a common planning time and to work in interdiscipli-...
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...CLIMATE, ORGANIZATION, COMPOSITION, AND SIZE OF SCHOOLS 103...
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...respectful, trusting relationships among teachers and between teachers and...
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...nized schools may have promoted more trusting relationships with teachers...
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...and administrators, although parent involvement is also likely to be a result...
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...Studies of alternative high schools created for students at risk of drop-...
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...climate. These programs operate either within regular schools or as sepa-...
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...rate, alternative schools. They generally provide a complete, but alterna-...
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...hensive schools....
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...tional climate. Stern, Dayton, Paik, Weisberg, and Evans (1988) evaluated...
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...10 within-school academy programs in California high schools; Wehiage et...
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...al. (1989) evaluated 12 alternative and 2 comprehensive schools; and...
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...Dynarski and Gleason (1998) evaluated 3 within-school and 6 alternative...
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...schools. Although the programs differed in the types of students they en-...
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...rolled, the curricula and services they provided, and the way they were...
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...� a caring and committed staff who accepted personal responsibility...
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...� a school culture that encouraged staff risk taking, self-governance,...
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...and professional collegiality; and...
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...� a school structure that provided for a low student-teacher ratio and...
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...Taken together, the evidence suggests that student engagement and...
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...learning are fostered by a school climate characterized by an ethic of caring...
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...and supportive relationships; respect, fairness, and trust; and teachers' sense...
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...of shared responsibility and efficacy related to student learning. The evi-...
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...dence is clear, however, that a communitarian climate is not sufficient to...
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...increase academic engagement and learning. Equally important is a focus...
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...on learning and high expectations for student achievement, or "academic...
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...in dropout rates between program participants and those in the control group computed at...
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...high school students)....
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...focusing students' attention on genuine learning (rather than simply going...
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...through the motions). Teachers "press" students to learn by encouraging...
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...them, by paying attention to their work and giving constructive feedback,...
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...by providing assistance when they need it, and by not giving up on them....
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...Simply having informal conversations with students about college and ca-...
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...that engagement is promoted by a supportive, communal school climate....
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...But the evidence suggests that the combination is both achievable and...
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...marily not from consensus and cohesion, but instead from the strength...
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...and transmission of particular organizational values related to the impor-...
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...beliefs, activities, and traditions and care for students as individuals are...
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...unlikely to affect achievement levels in positive ways, and may even work...
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...to impede them. An important corollary follows from this, however: the...
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...school's sense of community is built around a solid structure of academic...
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...schools serving economically disadvantaged children, found that achieve-...
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...Marks, 2000; Phillips, 19971. Boyd and Shouse (1997) conclude, "average...
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...achievement in low-SES Esocioeconomic status] schools having high levels...
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...of both academic press and communality, in fact, rivaled that of schools...
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...schools were those that combined strong communality and weak academic...
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...Lee and Smith (1999) also assessed the relative effects of the communal...
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...organization mode! (social support for learning) and academic press (focus-...
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...ing on content reform directed at increasing academic standards) on stu-...
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...dent engagement in school and achievement in math and reading. They...
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...3Students in a national study who claimed that this occurred frequently in their school had,...
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...on average, higher educational expectations for themselves and higher postsecondary educa-...
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...claimed that such conversations occurred less frequently in the schools they attended....
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...CLIMATE, ORGANIZATION, COMPOSITION, AND SIZE OF SCHOOLS 105...
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...analyzed 1994 data from the Annenberg Institute for School Reform, which...
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...included 30,000 sixth- and eighth-grade students in 304 public elementary...
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...schools (K-8) in Chicago. The findings indicated that the relationships...
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...between social support and performance on standardized achievement tests...
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...in mathematics and reading were stronger in schools with greater academic...
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...press (Lee and Smith, 1999, pp. 934-9351. The authors conclude:...
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...Our point is that reforms that focus on both the academic and the social...
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...domains are important.... To succeed in schools that press them to...
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...learn, students need support from the people with whom they interact...
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...(Lee and Smith, 1999, p. 935~....
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...The findings of the complementarily of academic press and a com-...
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...munitarian school context provide important guidance for efforts to make...
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...urban high schools more engaging and effective as learning environments....
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...These findings on school climate, moreover, are consistent with research on...
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...and in which they are held to high standards. Taken together, the evidence...
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...suggests that high schools need to convey a clearly articulated and coherent...
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...set of values that focus on learning and achievement in the context of close...
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...and caring relationships with adults and peers....
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...Policies for how to deal with behavior problems have direct implica-...
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...tions for the school climate as well as for the trouble-making students' own...
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...engagement especially their persistence in school. An understandable re-...
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...learning, and threaten students' and teachers' feeling of safety is to remove...
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..."students drop out of school, schools discharge students" (RichI, 1999,...
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...poor attendance (Lee and Burkam, 1992; Rumberger and Larson, 1998)....
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...Being prohibited from attending school puts them further behind, and makes...
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...it more likely that they will drop out (Lee and Burkam, 1992; Rumberger,...
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...1995; Rumberger and Larson, 1998; Swanson and Schneider, 19991. More-...
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...for students who are already disengaged from school. Thus, although sus-...
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...pension and expulsion may create a more hospitable environment for the...
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...teachers and students remaining in school, they are more likely to exacer-...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...Students in urban schools are more likely than others to be suspended....
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...Nationwide, more than 3 million students were suspended from school...
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...during the 1997-1998 school year, nearly 7 percent of all students (Office...
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...and schools, even schools within the same district (The Advancement Project...
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...and The Civil Rights Project, 20001. Black students are more than twice as...
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...5.5 percent). As a result, urban schools, with high concentrations of stu-...
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...dents of color, generally have higher suspension rates than other schools....
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...The recently growing policy of zero tolerance for violations of school safety...
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...gage from school (Skiba and Peterson, 1999), and these policies are more...
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...often applied in urban schools serving low-income students than in schools...
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...students is to send them to alternative schools. But this too can aggravate...
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...Latino high school students in Austin, Romo and Falbo describe the "spe-...
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...cial" schools the school district created for difficult students. Youth who...
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...had broken school rules were mixed in these schools with those who had...
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...staff reported that students who attended these special schools were more...
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...likely to drop out of school than were comparable students who stayed in...
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...the regular high school (Romo and Falbo, 1996,p.87~....
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...Clearly prohibiting students from attending school, either for some...
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...school. From this perspective, the policy makes little sense. When alterna-...
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...a regular school or are making it impossible for other students to be en-...
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...ments, and attention needs to be paid to the social climate of these schools...
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..."Zero-tolerance" policies and alternative school programs for disrup-...
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...that classroom teachers in many urban schools encounter. To a substantial...
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...CLIMATE, ORGANIZATION, COMPOSITION, AND SIZE OF SCHOOLS 107...
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...principles and student responsibility moving students from being "tour-...
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...active strategy for maintaining order and cooperation (Charles, 20001....
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...teachers need to make "all students fee! welcome, replacing reward and...
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...tarian approaches to student discipline. They are, however, compatible...
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...when they are in a trusting, caring and respectful social context....
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...SCHOOL ORGANIZATION...
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...By organization we mean how teachers and students are sorted and...
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...how instruction is delivered. The way high schools are organized can affect...
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...engagement in learning by the messages the organization conveys and by...
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...the opportunities it creates for students to experience a climate that pro-...
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...High schools are currently experimenting with many aspects of school...
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...organization to facilitate closer relationships and more personalized teach-...
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...ing, in part by enabling teachers to see fewer students and students to see...
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...allow deeper and more sustained engagement and more individualized pac-...
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...ing. These courses are often multidisciplinary and team taught. A second...
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...tained relationships to develop among teachers and students, as well as...
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...vert large high schools into smaller units or to create new small high schools....
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...organizational feature. As a package, however, they seem to have consider-...
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...The Coalition Campus Schools Project (CCSP), for example, redesigned...
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...two large and very troubled New York City high schools, Julia Richman...
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...High School in Manhattan and James Monroe High School in the Bronx...
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...ful schools launched earlier Central Park East Secondary School, Interna-...
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...tional High School, and the Urban Academy. Teachers work in interdisci-...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...plinary teams with a group of 40 to 80 students, and block scheduling and...
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...looping are implemented. The schools were able to create smaller teacher-...
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...hiring teachers, and by having students take fewer and longer courses each...
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...small size and curricular reforms that included individualized programs and...
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...performance on reading and writing assessments, and increased graduation...
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...and college-going rates, despite serving a more educationally disadvantaged...
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...population of students than the high schools they replaced. Variations of...
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...tion, and implemented in many small high schools throughout the coun-...
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page 108...
...they show considerable promise of achieving the kind of school climate and...
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...learning environments that the evidence suggests should engage students in...
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...Another organizational feature of high schools, tracking, has been stud-...
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...and some cannot. If tracking is rigid, in the sense that each year in a lower...
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...track makes it more difficult to move to a higher track, students may learn...
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...because they are likely to get the least experienced, least expert teachers....
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...McLaughlin and Talbert (2001) report from their case studies of high...
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...schools that teachers' subject expertise was often matched to students'...
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...high-achieving students and the least prepared teachers taught the classes...
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...Using High School and Beyond, Talbert and Ennis (1990) found that teacher...
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...4For further information on these design features, see http://schoolredesign.net; http://...
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...and http://www.lab.brown.edu/public/pubs/ic/looping/looping.shtml (for information on loop-...
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...CLIMATE, ORGANIZATION, COMPOSITION, AND SIZE OF SCHOOLS 109...
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...tracking (some teachers teaching almost exclusively low-track courses and...
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...achieving students) was more extensive in schools with relatively high pro-...
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...portions of low-income and minority students (see also Lucas, 19991. More-...
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...tive support, control over instructional choices, and influence over school...
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...in her study were accorded less respect by their peers and were less involved...
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...ment. Ethnographers in both Great Britain and the United States have...
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...concluded that tracking polarizes students into positive and negative aca-...
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...demic attitudes and behavior (see Berends, 19951. It is possible, however,...
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...Wiatrowski, Hansell, Massey, and Wilson (1982) analyzed attitudes...
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...toward school in a longitudinal data set and found no differences, based on...
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...students' track, in 12th graders' attachment to and misbehavior in school,...
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...after controlling for social background variables and initial attitudes. Using...
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...High School and Beyond longitudinal data from 1980 to 1982, however,...
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...students' college expectations, absenteeism, disciplinary problems, and en-...
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...gagement to school (reported interest in school and time spent on home-...
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...work), with students in the academic track showing more favorable out-...
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...Coleman and Hoffer (1987) attributed the lower dropout rates and...
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...higher average achievement that they found in Catholic schools to less...
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...public and Catholic high schools from the High School and Beyond data...
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...set, Bryk and Thum (1989) found that students were more likely to persist...
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...in schools that had less curricular differentiation and more students in...
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...academic programs, even after controlling for the academic and social class...
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...schools from the NELS:88 data set, Lee and Smith (1995) found that schools...
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...dent engagement, defined in terms of attitudes and self-reported effort,...
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...after controlling for student academic and social class background. A few...
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...ling for socioeconomic status and previous achievement (Braddock and...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...sequence for learning, and that students cannot process high-level concepts,...
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...(Grossman and Stodolsky, 1994, 1995; Stodolsky and Grossman, 20001....
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...As a consequence, students who enter high school with poor basic skills are...
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...search discussed in Chapter 4 shows clearly that even students who have...
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...deep analysis, and there is considerable evidence now that algebraic and...
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...other mathematical concepts can be introduced at many levels and at al-...
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...most any age (RAND Mathematics Study Panel, 20021....
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...Formal and comprehensive tracking is less common now than in the...
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...past. High schools more often offer courses that are differentiated by level...
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...take honors and Advanced Placement courses, but they are not distin-...
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...come students and students of color who have in the past been dispropor-...
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...vides opportunities for all students to be held to high expectations and to be...
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...engaged in challenging learning experiences, in reality, students end up...
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...being sorted, or they sort themselves along the same class and ethnic lines...
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...Wells, and Serna (2002) studied 10 racially and socioeconomically mixed...
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...secondary schools that had voluntarily implemented detracking, giving stu-...
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...dents the choice of taking more advanced courses. Few of the Black and...
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...lack of information, failure to meet prerequisites, and a lack of encourage-...
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...not take advantage of opportunities because they had experienced too many...
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...years of being perceived to have low skills, and they lacked the confidence...
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...in classes with predominantly white and Asian and more affluent students....
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...CLIMATE, ORGANIZATION, COMPOSITION, AND SIZE OF SCHOOLS 111...
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...Caucasian kids and one African student. I felt like I had to prove myself...
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...and prove that Blacks aren't stupid. fI felt like] if I were to get a problem...
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...wrong and raise my hand, they would look at me and say, "Ah, that...
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...R1~ ink ~~ T born ~ ~ learn via 1 1 n r1 tar Arts 1 ret ~m...
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...course-taking patterns differentiated along social class and race lines. To be...
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...certed efforts to create a social climate that informed and encouraged low-...
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...income students and students of color to participate in a rigorous and...
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...classroom level to ensure that all students felt valued, respected, and in-...
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...that all students in a class are able to handle the material covered and the...
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...academic demands of the course a difficult task in a class of students who...
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page 111...
...cient in English is to link tutoring and small-group learning, often with a...
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...class (Benesch, 1988a). Thus poor readers or English-language learners...
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...content courses (e.g., in political science or psychology; Snow and Brinton,...
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...and study skills that were directly related to the content course. City Uni-...
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...social science, ESL reading, and ESL writing (Benesch, 1988b). Like the...
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...such as biology, business, and early childhood education (Hirsch, 19881....
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...high school level, the approach addresses some of the problems of the...
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...students and English-language learners from high-skilled and native En-...
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...and special instruction designed to help them master the material of the...
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...urban high schools....
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...A key concern in classrooms with cultural, linguistic, and academic...
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...on "status" differences, including academic ability (Cohen, Lotan, and...
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...dard English, and knowledge of academic discourse are often perceived by...
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...both students and teachers to reflect intellectual ability. These perceptions...
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...individual behavior and contributions to the group. For example, those...
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...students with high academic status typically talk more and express their...
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...Cohen and Lotan's mode! of "complex instruction" (a mode! of col-...
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...laborative learning) was designed to address these status differences in the...
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...classroom (Cohen and Lotan, 19971. Their studies suggest that teachers can...
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...butions and value of many different kinds of intellectual competencies in...
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page 112...
...the classroom and by emphasizing that every student brings valuable and...
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...tary level (Cohen and Lotan, 1997), Bower (1997) found that students in...
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page 112...
...evidence suggests that tracking and other policies that limit students' access...
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page 112...
...provide students with the encouragement, support, and structures they...
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...SCHOOL COMPOSITION...
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...dents among schools, and the evidence suggests that those policies affect...
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...student engagement and learning. Although we know little about the mecha-...
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...of students in a school influences student achievement above and beyond...
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...with other school characteristics, such as resources and practices....
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...Kahienberg (2001) proposes that school composition affects student...
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...learning in part by influencing three different peer mechanisms the influ-...
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...ence of peers on learning through in-class and out-of-class interactions...
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...CLIMATE, ORGANIZATION, COMPOSITION, AND SIZE OF SCHOOLS 113...
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...motivation and aspirations of fellow students, and the influence of peers on...
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...expectations for student learning and the degree to which they press for...
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...Research has shown that several aspects of student composition are...
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...the students in the school, their average academic skills, and the schools'...
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...racial and ethnic composition. Schools serving relatively more students...
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...from high socioeconomic backgrounds and with high academic skills have...
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...lower school dropout rates, lower absentee rates (Bryk and Thum, 1989),...
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...and lower student mobility rates, after controlling for the individual effects...
In the middle of
page 113...
...attending 968 schools from the High School and Beyond data indicated...
In the middle of
page 113...
...that the effect of school socioeconomic composition on dropout rates was...
In the middle of
page 113...
...Because the extent and quality of resources, such as the proportion of...
In the middle of
page 113...
...qualified and experienced teachers, are confounded with the proportion of...
In the middle of
page 113...
...the student body composition on student engagement and learning. We...
In the middle of
page 113...
...suspect that in addition to differential resources, differences in standards,...
In the middle of
page 113...
...expectations, and in the curriculum mediate school composition effects....
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page 113...
...SCHOOL SIZE...
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...The research evidence on small schools suggests that reducing substan-...
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...tially the size of schools is a promising strategy for achieving the kind of...
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...purpose of research varies, with some studies considering a high school...
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...enrolling 400 or fewer students as "small" (Howley, 2002) and others...
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...20011. Howley (2002) suggests that the terms "smaller" and "larger" are...
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page 113...
...McLaughlin and Drori, 20001. Researchers studying school size also use...
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page 113...
...persistence, graduation rates, and sense of belonging and some use stan-...
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...dardized test scores. Despite some inconsistencies in definitions and find-...
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page 113...
...(1) smaller school size is associated with higher achievement under some...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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...conditions; (2) smaller schools improve achievement equity; and (3) smaller...
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page 114...
...schools may be especially important for disadvantaged students (Howley,...
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page 114...
...high schools in the United States came from Roger Barker and Paul Gump's...
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...1964 book, Big School, Small School: High School Size and Student Behav-...
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...ior. Their study of more than 200 schools revealed that a much higher...
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...proportion of students participated in school activities in smaller schools...
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page 114...
...than in large ones. In the nearly 40 years since Barker and Gump's book...
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page 114...
...school size on student engagement and achievement. Barker and Gump's...
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page 114...
...ported and expanded, and although questions remain about school size, we...
In the middle of
page 114...
...els of students in large and small schools (e.g., Caldas, 1987 Louisiana...
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...schools]; Haller, Monk, and Tien, 1993 flOth graders in math and science];...
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page 114...
...Meinick, Shibles, Gable, and Grzymkowski, 1986 Enonurban Connecticut...
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page 114...
...schools]), many studies find students in small schools doing better than...
In the middle of
page 114...
...those in large schools (e.g., Eberts, Kehoe, and Stone, 1982 Enational data...
In the middle of
page 114...
...sample]; Eichenstein, 1994 t10 New York City public high schools]~. In a...
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page 114...
...relatively large study of the approximately 300 high schools in New Jersey,...
In the middle of
page 114...
...Fowler and Walberg (1991) found that students in smaller high schools...
In the middle of
page 114...
...performed better on achievement tests than students in larger schools (see...
In the middle of
page 114...
...also Walberg and Fowler, 1987; Walberg, 1989, 1992~. Data tracking...
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page 114...
...students from large schools in Philadelphia that converted into small schools...
In the middle of
page 114...
...suggest that small schools can also increase attendance, course passage,...
In the middle of
page 114...
...persistence, and graduation rates (McMullen, 1994~. Wasley and colleagues...
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page 114...
...(2000) likewise found more persistence in small schools in Chicago, in...
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page 114...
...restructured existing large schools as well as autonomous, free-standing...
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...small schools. Fetler's (1989) study in California similarly reported lower...
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page 114...
...dropout rates as well as higher achievement in smaller schools....
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page 114...
...school size and achievement, Lee's analyses of the National Education...
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page 114...
...Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS 88) showed a curvilinear relationship...
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...(Lee, 2001; see also Lee, V. E., 20001. Schools of about 300 to 900 students...
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...performed better than both larger and smaller schools. The advantages of...
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...substantial number of very small (<300 students) schools, explains why Lee...
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page 114...
...states such as California and New Jersey may not have had enough very...
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...CLIMATE, ORGANIZATION, COMPOSITION, AND SIZE OF SCHOOLS 115...
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...small high schools to affect the statistical findings. Taken together, the...
At the top of
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...point small schools may have disadvantages, such as in course offerings and...
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page 115...
...The evidence suggests that relatively small schools may also promote...
At the top of
page 115...
...achievement equity. A few studies have shown dramatically higher levels of...
At the top of
page 115...
...academic engagement among poor and working-class youth of color in...
At the top of
page 115...
...small schools relative to their peers in large schools (e.g., Ancess, 2000;...
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page 115...
...Fine, 1994; Lee and Smith, 1995, 1997; Meier, 1998; Wasley et al., 2000;...
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page 115...
...were smallest in the three smallest categories of school size (up to 1,200...
In the middle of
page 115...
...The evidence on greater achievement equity in small schools suggests...
In the middle of
page 115...
...that school size may be especially important for economically disadvan-...
In the middle of
page 115...
...sible differential effects of school size on students from different economic...
In the middle of
page 115...
...backgrounds, Howley and Bicke! (2000) found that small school size re-...
In the middle of
page 115...
...data from three states (Texas, Georgia, and Ohio), they found that "the...
In the middle of
page 115...
...benefited by smaller schools" (p. 41. They describe a possible "differential...
In the middle of
page 115...
...excellence effect," an interaction effect of socioeconomic status and school...
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page 115...
...Schools-Within-A-Schoo!...
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...Findings suggesting the benefits of small schools have stimulated the...
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page 115...
...creation of schools-within-a-school (SWAS) dividing schools into small...
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...learning communities, sometimes associated with academic or vocational...
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...tages of this structure is not as strong as research comparing whole schools...
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...that vary in size (e.g., Cotton, 1996; Howley, 2002; Meier, 19951. The...
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page 115...
...evidence does, however, show some benefits for students in small learning...
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page 115...
...communities with regard to both academic achievement and attitudes toward...
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page 115...
...school. In an evaluation of the Kansas City SWAS program, Robinson-...
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page 115...
...increased during their years in the SWAS program. Students also showed...
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page 115...
...improved attendance and grades, and believes the program had helped...
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page 115...
...them improve their basic skills. In a similar evaluation, Levine and Sherk...
At the top of
page 116...
...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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page 116...
...New York, and Orlando urban middle and high schools. Students in all...
At the top of
page 116...
...three metropolitan areas showed improved reading comprehension during...
At the top of
page 116...
...high schools. She found that restructuring existing schools into "houses"...
At the top of
page 116...
...responsiveness, and student satisfaction....
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page 116...
...Inside Small Schools What Really Matters?...
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page 116...
...makes it easier to implement policies and create the kind of climate that...
In the middle of
page 116...
...Achievement motivation theory and findings discussed in Chapter 2...
In the middle of
page 116...
...provide some clues as to why small schools might typically engage youth...
In the middle of
page 116...
...better than large schools. For example, small schools should facilitate mean-...
In the middle of
page 116...
...ingful faculty-student relations, a sense of belonging and attachment, more...
In the middle of
page 116...
...students, and opportunities for both students and teachers to exercise au-...
In the middle of
page 116...
...of Chicago elementary schools, in which students in small schools were...
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page 116...
...seriously, and followed school rules), positive "classroom behavior" (class-...
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...mates treated each other with respect and care), and "safety" (perception of...
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...personal safety in and around school; Sebring et al., 1996~.5 Lee with Smith...
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page 116...
...small schools, which, according to the research discussed earlier, supports...
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page 116...
...Small schools that do not also adjust their organization and instruction...
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page 116...
...small schools on student engagement and learning, the schools also imple-...
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page 116...
...in effective small learning communities (Gambone, Klem, Moore, and Summers, 2002)....
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...CLIMATE, ORGANIZATION, COMPOSITION, AND SIZE OF SCHOOLS 117...
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...multidisciplinary courses, and teachers seeing fewer students and students...
At the top of
page 117...
...seeing fewer teachers (Darling-Hammond et al., 20021.6 A noteworthy and...
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page 117...
...probably essential component of small schools that produces learning gains...
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page 117...
...lum that challenges students to understand concepts deeply, adjusting modes...
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page 117...
...of teaching to individual students' skills and learning styles, and providing...
At the top of
page 117...
...The small schools that are most effective with respect to academic...
At the top of
page 117...
...engagement, persistence, and graduation rates have also developed and...
At the top of
page 117...
...implemented thoughtful and rigorous alignment of curriculum, pedagogy,...
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page 117...
...and assessment systems in which youth and faculty are held publicly ac-...
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page 117...
...countable to high standards (Fine, 1994; Wasley et al., 20001. The small...
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page 117...
...schools that are least effective are those that are simply small in size, but...
In the middle of
page 117...
...have developed neither curricula nor assessment systems that demand rig-...
In the middle of
page 117...
...orous engagement and performance by all (Wesley et al., 20001....
In the middle of
page 117...
...Some caution in interpreting the research on school size is in order...
In the middle of
page 117...
...cussed. Many small schools are open to all students within a district or...
In the middle of
page 117...
...geographical area larger than the existing neighborhood high school, and...
In the middle of
page 117...
...require students and families to apply or at least put themselves into a...
In the middle of
page 117...
...lottery. Some make particular requirements of families and students, and...
In the middle of
page 117...
...good. Teachers and administrators also often choose to teach in small...
In the middle of
page 117...
...schools, and some small schools are able to select from among a large pool...
In the middle of
page 117...
...of teachers and administrators. Selection bias also can be relevant in studies...
In the middle of
page 117...
...of schools within schools, because these are sometimes theme based and...
In the middle of
page 117...
...attract students who have interests that match the school theme. Tracking...
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page 117...
...students systematically self-selecting into different schools or learning com-...
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page 117...
...school size on students' engagement and learning, we suspect that it does...
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page 117...
...not explain all of the differences that have been found. Studies do show that...
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page 117...
...small schools have advantages for students who typically perform very...
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page 117...
...poorly in school, and if selection played a role, it may not be entirely...
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page 117...
...because of "creaming," but because choice and matching have their own...
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...benefits. We recommend, however, that future researchers pay careful at-...
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page 117...
...6Intensive experimentation with small high schools sponsored by the Gates Foundation has...
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page 117...
...resulted in 10 design principles for effective small schools; see http://www.stanford.edu/dept/...
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...ENGAGING SCHOOLS...
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page 118...
...tension to the possible role of selection bias of students, teachers, and...
At the top of
page 118...
...if not conclusive, evidence that school climate, organization, composition,...
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page 118...
...and size can have important effects on student engagement and learning....
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page 118...
...Effective schools communicate high expectations for their teachers and...
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...students in the form of academic press and an atmosphere of trust and...
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...caring relationships among teachers, administrators, parents, and students....
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...relationships with each other and with their students. Promising strategies...
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...for promoting caring relationships include decreasing the size of schools...
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...and the number of students seen by each teacher and the number of teach-...
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...ers seen by each student, block scheduling' and looping....
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...Research on school organization suggests that tracking undermines...
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...the more challenging courses. Teachers and administrators will need to...
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...and eliminating the option of watered-down courses. In addition, they need...
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...Student composition within a school is associated with student engage-...
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...ment; the more high-achieving and high-SES students in a school, the more...
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...individual students are engaged and learning. Special efforts need to be...
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...made to increase the resources of schools serving a high concentration of...
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...low-income students and to maintain a climate that is conducive to high...
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...There is also convincing evidence that small schools can confer an...
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...advantage for those students most at risk, and may help achieve greater...
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...creating small schools without consideration of the qualities of schools that...
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...have been shown to promote student engagement and learning challeng-...
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...ing and clear standards, personalization, meaningful and rigorous peda-...
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...gogy and curriculum, and professional learning communities. Moreover, it...
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...small schools, although it appears more difficult to achieve them in large...
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...CLIMATE, ORGANIZATION, COMPOSITION, AND SIZE OF SCHOOLS 119...
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...schools. We do not yet know whether the school-within-a-school strategy...
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...will show the same benefits that are seen in some studies of autonomous...
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...small schools. But the evidence suggests that this is a strategy worth inves-...
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...tigating, and studies are underway that will provide useful information on...
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...the potential of this school reform strategy....
A total of pages of uncorrected, machine-read text were searched in this chapter. Please note that the searchable text may be scanned, uncorrected text, and should be presumed inaccurate. Page images should be used as the authoritative version.