TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council A2 - Kenji Hakuta A2 - Alexandra Beatty TI - Testing English-Language Learners in U.S. Schools: Report and Workshop Summary SN - DO - 10.17226/9998 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9998/testing-english-language-learners-in-us-schools-report-and-workshop PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Education AB - The Committee on Educational Excellence and Testing Equity was created under the auspices of the National Research Council (NRC), and specifically under the oversight of the Board on Testing and Assessment (BOTA). The committee's charge is to explore the challenges that face U.S. schools as they work to achieve the related goals of academic excellence and equity for all students. This report provides not only the summary of a workshop held by the forum on the testing of English-language learners (students learning English as an additional language) in U.S. schools, but also a report on the committee's conclusions derived from that workshop and from subsequent deliberations. ER - TY - BOOK TI - Cooperation in the Energy Futures of China and the United States--Chinese Version PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9962/cooperation-in-the-energy-futures-of-china-and-the-united-states-chinese-version PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Energy and Energy Conservation ER - TY - BOOK TI - Letter Report to the Office for Civil Rights, Department of Education DO - 10.17226/9880 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9880/letter-report-to-the-office-for-civil-rights-department-of-education PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council A2 - Pasquale J. DeVito A2 - Judith A. Koenig TI - Reporting District-Level NAEP Data: Summary of a Workshop SN - DO - 10.17226/9768 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9768/reporting-district-level-naep-data-summary-of-a-workshop PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Education AB - The National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) has earned a reputation as one of the nation's best measures of student achievement in key subject areas. Since its inception in 1969, NAEP has summarized academic performance for the nation as a whole and, beginning in 1990, for the individual states. Increasingly, NAEP results get the attention of the press, the public, and policy makers. With this increasing prominence have come calls for reporting NAEP results below the national and state levels. Some education leaders argue that NAEP can provide important and useful information to local educators and policy makers. They want NAEP to serve as a district-level indicator of educational progress and call for NAEP results to be summarized at the school district level. Reporting District-Level NAEP Data explores with various stakeholders their interest in and perceptions regarding the likely impacts of district level reporting. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards: A Guide for Teaching and Learning SN - DO - 10.17226/9596 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9596/inquiry-and-the-national-science-education-standards-a-guide-for PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Education AB - Humans, especially children, are naturally curious. Yet, people often balk at the thought of learning science—the "eyes glazed over" syndrome. Teachers may find teaching science a major challenge in an era when science ranges from the hardly imaginable quark to the distant, blazing quasar. Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards is the book that educators have been waiting for—a practical guide to teaching inquiry and teaching through inquiry, as recommended by the National Science Education Standards. This will be an important resource for educators who must help school boards, parents, and teachers understand "why we can't teach the way we used to." "Inquiry" refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and in which students grasp science knowledge and the methods by which that knowledge is produced. This book explains and illustrates how inquiry helps students learn science content, master how to do science, and understand the nature of science. This book explores the dimensions of teaching and learning science as inquiry for K-12 students across a range of science topics. Detailed examples help clarify when teachers should use the inquiry-based approach and how much structure, guidance, and coaching they should provide. The book dispels myths that may have discouraged educators from the inquiry-based approach and illuminates the subtle interplay between concepts, processes, and science as it is experienced in the classroom. Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards shows how to bring the standards to life, with features such as classroom vignettes exploring different kinds of inquiries for elementary, middle, and high school and Frequently Asked Questions for teachers, responding to common concerns such as obtaining teaching supplies. Turning to assessment, the committee discusses why assessment is important, looks at existing schemes and formats, and addresses how to involve students in assessing their own learning achievements. In addition, this book discusses administrative assistance, communication with parents, appropriate teacher evaluation, and other avenues to promoting and supporting this new teaching paradigm. ER - TY - BOOK AU - Institute of Medicine A2 - Maria Hewitt TI - Interpreting the Volume-Outcome Relationship in the Context of Health Care Quality: Workshop Summary DO - 10.17226/10005 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/10005/interpreting-the-volume-outcome-relationship-in-the-context-of-health-care-quality PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Health and Medicine ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Academy of Sciences AU - National Academy of Engineering AU - Institute of Medicine TI - Enhancing the Postdoctoral Experience for Scientists and Engineers: A Guide for Postdoctoral Scholars, Advisers, Institutions, Funding Organizations, and Disciplinary Societies SN - DO - 10.17226/9831 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9831/enhancing-the-postdoctoral-experience-for-scientists-and-engineers-a-guide PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Education AB - The concept of postdoctoral training came to science and engineering about a century ago. Since the 1960s, the performance of research in the United States has increasingly relied on these recent PhDs who work on a full-time, but on a temporary basis, to gain additional research experience in preparation for a professional research career. Such experiences are increasingly seen as central to careers in research, but for many, the postdoctoral experience falls short of expectations. Some postdocs indicate that they have not received the recognition, standing or compensation that is commensurate with their experience and skills. Is this the case? If so, how can the postdoctoral experience be enhanced for the over 40,000 individuals who hold these positions at university, government, and industry laboratories? This new book offers its assessment of the postdoctoral experience and provides principles, action points, and recommendations for enhancing that experience. ER - TY - BOOK AU - Institute of Medicine TI - Safe Work in the 21st Century: Education and Training Needs for the Next Decade's Occupational Safety and Health Personnel SN - DO - 10.17226/9835 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9835/safe-work-in-the-21st-century-education-and-training-needs PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Industry and Labor AB - Despite many advances, 20 American workers die each day as a result of occupational injuries. And occupational safety and health (OSH) is becoming even more complex as workers move away from the long-term, fixed-site, employer relationship. This book looks at worker safety in the changing workplace and the challenge of ensuring a supply of top-notch OSH professionals. Recommendations are addressed to federal and state agencies, OSH organizations, educational institutions, employers, unions, and other stakeholders. The committee reviews trends in workforce demographics, the nature of work in the information age, globalization of work, and the revolution in health care delivery—exploring the implications for OSH education and training in the decade ahead. The core professions of OSH (occupational safety, industrial hygiene, and occupational medicine and nursing) and key related roles (employee assistance professional, ergonomist, and occupational health psychologist) are profiled—how many people are in the field, where they work, and what they do. The book reviews in detail the education, training, and education grants available to OSH professionals from public and private sources. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Bridging Boundaries Through Regional Marine Research SN - DO - 10.17226/9772 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9772/bridging-boundaries-through-regional-marine-research PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Earth Sciences KW - Environment and Environmental Studies AB - As appreciation of the interdisciplinary and multidimensional character of environmental issues has increased, there have been attempts to address regional needs more directly. One of these, the Regional Marine Research Program (RMRP), was established by Congress in 1990 to provide a mechanism to fund coastal marine research based on regionally-defined priorities. The RMRP legislation established a system of nine regional marine research boards around the United States. Each board was responsible for planning marine research to address issues of water quality and ecosystem health on a regional scale. Although all nine regions received funding for planning activities and development of a research plan, only the Gulf of Maine RMRP received funding for program implementation. The completion of the Gulf of Maine program, in 1997, presents an opportunity to evaluate whether the process for planning and managing the Gulf of Maine research was adequate, whether the research fulfilled the goals of the program, and whether this experience should serve as a model for similar regional programs elsewhere. Bridging Boundaries through Regional Marine Research is a study of the RMRP, with a specific review of the Gulf of Maine program as well as an assessment of other modesl for regional marine research. This report assesses the need for regional marine research,reviews processes by which regional marine research needs can be defined, and discusses existing programs for regional marine research in the United States. It also identifies short- and long-term approaches that might be taken by NOAA. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Surviving Supply Chain Integration: Strategies for Small Manufacturers SN - DO - 10.17226/6369 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/6369/surviving-supply-chain-integration-strategies-for-small-manufacturers PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Engineering and Technology KW - Industry and Labor AB - The managed flow of goods and information from raw material to final sale also known as a "supply chain" affects everything—from the U.S. gross domestic product to where you can buy your jeans. The nature of a company's supply chain has a significant effect on its success or failure—as in the success of Dell Computer's make-to-order system and the failure of General Motor's vertical integration during the 1998 United Auto Workers strike. Supply Chain Integration looks at this crucial component of business at a time when product design, manufacture, and delivery are changing radically and globally. This book explores the benefits of continuously improving the relationship between the firm, its suppliers, and its customers to ensure the highest added value. This book identifies the state-of-the-art developments that contribute to the success of vertical tiers of suppliers and relates these developments to the capabilities that small and medium-sized manufacturers must have to be viable participants in this system. Strategies for attaining these capabilities through manufacturing extension centers and other technical assistance providers at the national, state, and local level are suggested. This book identifies action steps for small and medium-sized manufacturers—the "seed corn" of business start-up and development—to improve supply chain management. The book examines supply chain models from consultant firms, universities, manufacturers, and associations. Topics include the roles of suppliers and other supply chain participants, the rise of outsourcing, the importance of information management, the natural tension between buyer and seller, sources of assistance to small and medium-sized firms, and a host of other issues. Supply Chain Integration will be of interest to industry policymakers, economists, researchers, business leaders, and forward-thinking executives. ER - TY - BOOK A2 - May R. Berenbaum TI - Buzzwords: A Scientist Muses on Sex, Bugs, and Rock 'n' Roll DO - 10.17226/9744 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9744/buzzwords-a-scientist-muses-on-sex-bugs-and-rock-n PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Explore Science KW - Agriculture AB - What sort of person devotes their life to the study of bugs? How do you picture your average, every-day entomologist? "I've been photographed on several occasions," writes author May Berenbaum, "and it seems that every time, photographers ask me to pose in one of three ways: seated in front of a microscope, with an insect (usually a cockroach) on my face, or with an insect net clutched in my hand." In Buzzwords, Berenbaum expertly blows away these stereotypes with short takes on all things entomological—from the story of a pet ant kept for 14 years to major motion pictures featuring cockroaches. Buzzwords showcases the Best of Berenbaum, a selection from her humor column in the American Entomologist professional journal, accompanied by a number of original pieces written for this book. "I know people are reading these columns," she notes, "because they write me letters that point out all the mistakes I've made!" The book comes in four parts: How entomologists see insects, including their view of a U.S. government plan to eradicate illicit coca fields by dropping caterpillars from airplanes. How the rest of the world sees insects, with Berenbaum's proposed classificatory scheme for placing Spider Man, Firefly, and other cartoon superheroes into well-defined taxa. How entomologists view themselves—featuring Bambi Berenbaum, a gorgeous entomologist created for an episode of TV's popular "The X-Files," whose character was inspired when the scriptwriter consulted Berenbaum's books. How entomologists see their colleagues, with various views on scholarly citation, motion sickness, and more. Along the way are some thought-provoking observations—for example, about the impact of television on public knowledge of science. In one poll, Berenbaum writes, 35% of adults said they believed that prehistoric humans coexisted with dinosaurs, a la the Flintstones. Berenbaum even takes on the controversy over alternative medicine, fearlessly purchasing Chinese medicinal insects during a professional trip to Vancouver, which also happened to be her honeymoon. "Okay, so maybe giving two talks at an International Congress of Entomology is not everybody's idea of a romantic honeymoon venue, but it seemed like a good idea at the time." Berenbaum is a noted scientist in a field that doesn't always gets the respect it deserves, but she shows us that there's a fun and even freaky side of life with insects. While working on the University of Illinois' annual Insect Fear Film Festival she received a letter from a "crush freak" who waxed lyrical about a young, sexy babe with a size 9 or 10 shoe. Berenbaum writes, "On the one hand, it's almost gratifying to think that insect pest management can arouse people's interest to such an extreme extent. On the other hand, it has convinced me not to list my shoe size in the biographical sketch of my next book." Readers will appreciate learning how the word "shloop" was introduced to the medical literature when physicians used a metal suction tip to remove a cockroach from a patient's ear canal, and how one investigator named a series of subspecies bobana, cocana, dodana, and so forth, "anticipating by 60 years the song, 'The Name Game,' by Shirley Ellis." Although you'll chuckle all the way, Berenbaum has the last laugh, giving powerful lessons in the spectacular diversity of the insect world and the nature of scientific discovery, cleverly packaged as witty observations on subjects far and wide. If you're a scientist or you like reading about science—better yet, if you've ever found a fly in your soup (or worried that you might have unknowingly just slurped one down with your tomato bisque—this book is for you. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council A2 - Paul C. Stern A2 - Laura L. Carstensen TI - The Aging Mind: Opportunities in Cognitive Research SN - DO - 10.17226/9783 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9783/the-aging-mind-opportunities-in-cognitive-research PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Behavioral and Social Sciences KW - Health and Medicine AB - Possible new breakthroughs in understanding the aging mind that can be used to benefit older people are now emerging from research. This volume identifies the key scientific advances and the opportunities they bring. For example, science has learned that among older adults who do not suffer from Alzheimer's disease or other dementias, cognitive decline may depend less on loss of brain cells than on changes in the health of neurons and neural networks. Research on the processes that maintain neural health shows promise of revealing new ways to promote cognitive functioning in older people. Research is also showing how cognitive functioning depends on the conjunction of biology and culture. The ways older people adapt to changes in their nervous systems, and perhaps the changes themselves, are shaped by past life experiences, present living situations, changing motives, cultural expectations, and emerging technology, as well as by their physical health status and sensory-motor capabilities. Improved understanding of how physical and contextual factors interact can help explain why some cognitive functions are impaired in aging while others are spared and why cognitive capability is impaired in some older adults and spared in others. On the basis of these exciting findings, the report makes specific recommends that the U.S. government support three major new initiatives as the next steps for research. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Tests and Teaching Quality: Interim Report SN - DO - 10.17226/9788 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9788/tests-and-teaching-quality-interim-report PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Education AB - Improving the quality of teaching in elementary and secondary schools is now high on the nation's educational policy agenda. Policy makers at the state and federal levels have focused on initiatives designed to improve the abilities of teachers already in schools and increase the numbers of well-qualified teachers available to fill current and future vacancies. Tests and Teaching Quality is an interim report of a study investigating the technical, educational, and legal issues surrounding the use of tests for licensing teachers. This report focuses on existing tests and their use. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Academy of Sciences AU - National Academy of Engineering AU - Institute of Medicine TI - Experiments in International Benchmarking of US Research Fields SN - DO - 10.17226/9784 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9784/experiments-in-international-benchmarking-of-us-research-fields PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Math, Chemistry, and Physics AB - How can the federal government gauge the overall health of scientific research—as a whole and in its parts—and determine whether national funding adequately supports national research objectives? It is feasible to monitor US performance with field-by-field peer assessments. This might be done through the establishment of independent panels consisting of researchers who work in a field, individuals who work in closely related fields, and research "users" who follow the field closely. Some of these individuals should be outstanding foreign scientists in the field being examined. This technique of comparative international assessments is also known as international benchmarking. Experiments in International Benchmarking of U.S. Research Fields evaluates the feasibility and utility of the benchmarking technique. In order to do this, the report internationally benchmarks three fields: mathematics, immunology, and materials science and engineering, then summarizes the results of these experiments. ER - TY - BOOK AU - Institute of Medicine A2 - Linda T. Kohn A2 - Janet M. Corrigan A2 - Molla S. Donaldson TI - To Err Is Human: Building a Safer Health System SN - DO - 10.17226/9728 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9728/to-err-is-human-building-a-safer-health-system PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Health and Medicine AB - Experts estimate that as many as 98,000 people die in any given year from medical errors that occur in hospitals. That's more than die from motor vehicle accidents, breast cancer, or AIDS—three causes that receive far more public attention. Indeed, more people die annually from medication errors than from workplace injuries. Add the financial cost to the human tragedy, and medical error easily rises to the top ranks of urgent, widespread public problems. To Err Is Human breaks the silence that has surrounded medical errors and their consequence—but not by pointing fingers at caring health care professionals who make honest mistakes. After all, to err is human. Instead, this book sets forth a national agenda—with state and local implications—for reducing medical errors and improving patient safety through the design of a safer health system. This volume reveals the often startling statistics of medical error and the disparity between the incidence of error and public perception of it, given many patients' expectations that the medical profession always performs perfectly. A careful examination is made of how the surrounding forces of legislation, regulation, and market activity influence the quality of care provided by health care organizations and then looks at their handling of medical mistakes. Using a detailed case study, the book reviews the current understanding of why these mistakes happen. A key theme is that legitimate liability concerns discourage reporting of errors—which begs the question, "How can we learn from our mistakes?" Balancing regulatory versus market-based initiatives and public versus private efforts, the Institute of Medicine presents wide-ranging recommendations for improving patient safety, in the areas of leadership, improved data collection and analysis, and development of effective systems at the level of direct patient care. To Err Is Human asserts that the problem is not bad people in health care—it is that good people are working in bad systems that need to be made safer. Comprehensive and straightforward, this book offers a clear prescription for raising the level of patient safety in American health care. It also explains how patients themselves can influence the quality of care that they receive once they check into the hospital. This book will be vitally important to federal, state, and local health policy makers and regulators, health professional licensing officials, hospital administrators, medical educators and students, health caregivers, health journalists, patient advocates—as well as patients themselves. First in a series of publications from the Quality of Health Care in America, a project initiated by the Institute of Medicine ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council A2 - Paul C. Stern A2 - Daniel Druckman TI - International Conflict Resolution After the Cold War SN - DO - 10.17226/9897 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9897/international-conflict-resolution-after-the-cold-war PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Conflict and Security Issues KW - Behavioral and Social Sciences AB - The end of the Cold War has changed the shape of organized violence in the world and the ways in which governments and others try to set its limits. Even the concept of international conflict is broadening to include ethnic conflicts and other kinds of violence within national borders that may affect international peace and security. What is not yet clear is whether or how these changes alter the way actors on the world scene should deal with conflict: Do the old methods still work? Are there new tools that could work better? How do old and new methods relate to each other? International Conflict Resolution After the Cold War critically examines evidence on the effectiveness of a dozen approaches to managing or resolving conflict in the world to develop insights for conflict resolution practitioners. It considers recent applications of familiar conflict management strategies, such as the use of threats of force, economic sanctions, and negotiation. It presents the first systematic assessments of the usefulness of some less familiar approaches to conflict resolution, including truth commissions, "engineered" electoral systems, autonomy arrangements, and regional organizations. It also opens up analysis of emerging issues, such as the dilemmas facing humanitarian organizations in complex emergencies. This book offers numerous practical insights and raises key questions for research on conflict resolution in a transforming world system. ER - TY - BOOK AU - Institute of Medicine A2 - Marilyn J. Field A2 - Robert L. Lawrence A2 - Lee Zwanziger TI - Extending Medicare Coverage for Preventive and Other Services SN - DO - 10.17226/9740 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9740/extending-medicare-coverage-for-preventive-and-other-services PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Health and Medicine AB - This report, which was developed by an expert committee of the Institute of Medicine, reviews the first three services listed above. It is intended to assist policymakers by providing syntheses of the best evidence available about the effectiveness of these services and by estimating the cost to Medicare of covering them. For each service or condition examined, the committee commissioned a review of the scientific literature that was presented and discussed at a public workshop. As requested by Congress, this report includes explicit estimates only of costs to Medicare, not costs to beneficiaries, their families, or others. It also does not include cost-effectiveness analyses. That is, the extent of the benefits relative to the costs to Medicare—or to society generally—is not evaluated for the services examined. The method for estimating Medicare costs follows the generic estimation practices of the Congressional Budget Office (CBO). The objective was to provide Congress with estimates that were based on familiar procedures and could be compared readily with earlier and later CBO estimates. For each condition or service, the estimates are intended to suggest the order of magnitude of the costs to Medicare of extending coverage, but the estimates could be considerably higher or lower than what Medicare might actually spend were coverage policies changed. The estimates cover the five-year period 2000-2004. In addition to the conclusions about specific coverage issues, the report examines some broader concerns about the processes for making coverage decisions and about the research and organizational infrastructure for these decisions. It also briefly examines the limits of coverage as a means of improving health services and outcomes and the limits of evidence as a means of resolving policy and ethical questions. ER - TY - BOOK AU - Institute of Medicine AU - National Research Council A2 - Jack P. Shonkoff A2 - Deborah A. Phillips TI - From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development SN - DO - 10.17226/9824 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9824/from-neurons-to-neighborhoods-the-science-of-early-childhood-development PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Behavioral and Social Sciences KW - Education AB - How we raise young children is one of today's most highly personalized and sharply politicized issues, in part because each of us can claim some level of "expertise." The debate has intensified as discoveries about our development—in the womb and in the first months and years—have reached the popular media. How can we use our burgeoning knowledge to assure the well-being of all young children, for their own sake as well as for the sake of our nation? Drawing from new findings, this book presents important conclusions about nature-versus-nurture, the impact of being born into a working family, the effect of politics on programs for children, the costs and benefits of intervention, and other issues. The committee issues a series of challenges to decision makers regarding the quality of child care, issues of racial and ethnic diversity, the integration of children's cognitive and emotional development, and more. Authoritative yet accessible, From Neurons to Neighborhoods presents the evidence about "brain wiring" and how kids learn to speak, think, and regulate their behavior. It examines the effect of the climate—family, child care, community—within which the child grows. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Incorporating Science, Economics, and Sociology in Developing Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards in International Trade: Proceedings of a Conference SN - DO - 10.17226/9868 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9868/incorporating-science-economics-and-sociology-in-developing-sanitary-and-phytosanitary-standards-in-international-trade PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Food and Nutrition KW - Health and Medicine AB - The rapid expansion of international trade has brought to the fore issues of conflicting national regulations in the area of plant, animal, and human health. These problems include the concern that regulations designed to protect health can also be used for protection of domestic producers against international competition. At a time when progressive tariff reform has opened up markets and facilitated trade, in part responding to consumer demands for access to a wide choice of products and services at reasonable prices, closer scrutiny of regulatory measures has become increasingly important. At the same time, there are clear differences among countries and cultures as to the types of risk citizens are willing to accept. The activities of this conference were based on the premise that risk analyses (i.e., risk assessment, management, and communication) are not exclusively the domain of the biological and natural sciences; the social sciences play a prominent role in describing how people in different contexts perceive and respond to risks. Any effort to manage sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) issues in international trade must integrate all the sciences to develop practices for risk assessment, management, and communication that recognize international diversity in culture, experience, and institutions. Uniform international standards can help, but no such norms are likely to be acceptable to all countries. Political and administrative structures also differ, causing differences in approaches and outcomes even when basic aims are compatible. Clearly there is considerable room for confusion and mistrust. The issue is how to balance the individual regulatory needs and approaches of countries with the goal of promoting freer trade. This issue arises not only for SPS standards but also in regard to regulations that affect other areas such as environmental quality, working conditions, and the exercise of intellectual property rights. This conference focused on these issues in the specific area of SPS measures. This area includes provisions to protect plant and animal health and life and, more generally, the environment, and regulations that protect humans from foodborne risks. The Society for Risk Analysis defines a risk as the potential for realization of unwanted, adverse consequences to human life, health, property, or the environment; estimation of risk is usually based on the expected value of the conditional probability of the event occurring times the consequence of the event given that it has occurred. The task of this conference and of this report was to elucidate the place of science, culture, politics, and economics in the design and implementation of SPS measures and in their international management. The goal was to explore the critical roles and the limitations of the biological and natural sciences and the social sciences, such as economics, sociology, anthropology, philosophy, and political science in the management of SPS issues and in judging whether particular SPS measures create unacceptable barriers to international trade. The conference's objective also was to consider the elements that would compose a multidisciplinary analytical framework for SPS decision making and needs for future research. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Graduate Education in the Chemical Sciences: Issues for the 21st Century: Report of a Workshop SN - DO - 10.17226/9898 PY - 2000 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9898/graduate-education-in-the-chemical-sciences-issues-for-the-21st PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Education AB - Graduate Education in the Chemical Sciences is a summary of the December 1999 workshop, "Graduate Education in the Chemical Sciences: Issues for the 21st Century." This workshop discussed the various features of graduate education in chemical science and technology. Using case histories and their individual experiences, speakers examined the current status of graduate education in the chemical sciences, identified problems and opportunities, and discussed possible strategies for improving the system. The discussion was oriented toward the goal of generating graduates who are well prepared to advance the chemical sciences in academia, government, and industry in the next 5 to 10 years. ER -