Emerging Cognitive Neuroscience and Related Technologies (2008) / Chapter Skim
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2 Current Cognitive Neuroscience Research and Technology: Selected Areas of Interest
Pages 18-75

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From page 18...
... Challenges to the Detection of Psychological States and Intentions via Neurophysiological Activity Overview There is little doubt that great progress has been made over the last quarter century, particularly the last 10 to 15 years, in understanding the physiological and neural bases for psychological processes and behavior. Furthermore, there is a high likelihood that more progress will be made as more sophisticated theoretical models are developed and tested using ever more sophisticated assessment technology.
From page 19...
... The committee believes that it is critical to fully understand the relationship between neurophysiological markers and actual mental states when the application is the detection of deception. Mind Reading and Psychological States It has proven difficult since the beginning of modern psychology 150 years ago to achieve agreement, even among psychologists and other behavioral scientists, on explicit definitions of psychological constructs.
From page 20...
... This complex set of interrelated factors must be understood and accounted for to detect a psychological state -- that is, to "read" a mind -- using any technology. There has been growing use of the term "mind reading" in the popular press and in a few circumscribed areas of the Department of Defense (DOD)
From page 21...
... Barriers to Identifying Psychological States and Intentions via Neural Activity A science of the relations of mind and brain must show how the elementary ingredients of the former correspond to the elementary functions of the latter. (James, 1890)
From page 22...
... "better understand, and therefore forecast, the international neurophysiological and cognitive/neural science research landscape," members of the committee believe that individuals who are not members of the neuroscientific community tend to make several common errors of logic when they interpret the findings of various technologies that are used to infer psychological states. These errors tend to occur because people misunderstand the relationship between the neurophysiological measurements and the actual mental state that the scientist is attempting to measure.
From page 23...
... When a neuroscientist is studying the biochemistry or the physics involved in brain function -- changes in amino acids or the flow of ions, for example -- these physiological changes are the phenomenon of interest and the focus of the study. However, when a neuroscientist is studying a psychological state such as attention or anger, changes in brain activity or chemistry are the correlates, or the means by which scientists study the mental state, which is the phenomenon of interest.
From page 24...
... Accordingly, researchers investigating the neural correlates of psychological states must control for many other variables, including other mental states, that could account for the neural activity they are measuring to be more certain that
From page 25...
... , who elucidated four types of neurophysiological index for psychological constructs: outcomes, concomitants, markers, and invariants. Awareness of this typology helps us to recognize important inferential problems associated with putative neurophysiological and neural indices of psychological states.
From page 26...
... detecting psychological states from the indicators. Neurophysiological and neural activities are almost always multifunctional when it comes to causing underlying psychological constructs.
From page 27...
... If one can associate certain neurophysio­logical data with certain psychological states, then identifying psychological states from such information is a potentially tractable, though very difficult, challenge. Several logical and inferential issues, including those associated with the section below on the third variable problem, cause this challenge to be daunting.
From page 28...
... Brain plasticity represents a challenge to those seeking to develop neuronal indexes for psychological states -- i.e., outcomes, concomitants, markers, and invariants -- on an individual level, because structural, organizational, and functional differences between individuals -- and within them over time -- will have to be accounted for. It is also possible that a high degree of plasticity-based error in any given index could reduce its sensitivity and specificity and, hence, its practical value for "reading" individual minds.
From page 29...
... algorithm to a given individual without individual tuning. Specificity of Psychological States Within Contexts The likelihood of developing valid neurophysiological indexes for inferring psychological states or intentions depends on the required specificity of the state itself and the specificity of the context within which it occurs.
From page 30...
... Assumptions About Base Rates of Psychological States and Intentions Just as they like to rely on averaged data (Estes identified this propensity in 2002) , many scientists also assume that base rates of dichotomous psychological states are 50/50.
From page 31...
... Given the current state of knowledge about brain neurophysiology, it is highly likely that any advances in collective knowledge about individual psychological states over the next two decades will continue to occur in highly controlled situations where the number of candidate mental states is limited. The ability to determine a person's mental state strictly from neurophysiological markers without environmental controls is unlikely to be gained any time in the next two decades.
From page 32...
... . As determinants of psychological states, however, these autonomic response suffer, in particular, from a lack of specificity and cannot differentiate guilt from other cognitive/ affective states -- say anxiety -- resulting in an unacceptably high level of false positives (Office of Technology Assessment, 1983; Iacono, 2000)
From page 33...
... That is, autonomic responses, at least as measured by the polygraph, are "outcomes" only, could represent a number of psychological states, and must be interpreted within a highly specified context. It is not surprising, then, that both the IC and the DOD have been interested in more precise (more sensitive and specific)
From page 34...
... Current physiological measurements cannot be taken as direct measures of psychological states. Third, the committee agreed that for large-scale screening, the low-base rate problem -- very few terrorists among millions of travelers -- created a significant problem given current rates of reliability.
From page 35...
... Deception and the Nature of Neurophysiological Measures Understanding the nature of the relationship between physiological ­markers and the psychological states that are purportedly assessed by quantifying the markers is critical for several reasons. First, users of the technology must recognize the limitations of the tools they are using.
From page 36...
... , basic science can help delineate the neural processes underlying deception and the theoretical relationships among the psychological state(s) , their neural and physiological markers, their measurement, and their application in the field.
From page 37...
... Future research is warranted in the brain plasticity and variability; specificity of psychological states; and base rates. Brain Plasticity and Individual Variability An important divergence between traditional polygraphic lie detection and newer lie detection based on newer CNS assessment technologies is the latter's susceptibility to problems created by the brain's plasticity and resultant individual variability in CNS structure and function.
From page 38...
... For instance, laser Doppler vibrometry is a remote sensing technique for heart rate, blood pressure, and several other physical properties. Although the technique does provide more information about heart function than a polygraph, it typically measures aspects of autonomic function associated with stress in response to threat.
From page 39...
... Reconsideration of Base Rates The challenge posed by base rates can be overcome by applying signal detection theory, as mentioned above. Here is a substantive example.
From page 40...
... The committee recognizes the IC's strong interest in improving its ability to detect deception. Consistent with the 2003 NRC study The Polygraph and Lie Detection, the committee uniformly agreed that, to date, insufficient, high-quality research has been conducted to provide empirical support for the use of any single neurophysiological technology, including functional neuroimaging, to detect deception.
From page 41...
... This research should combine multiple measures and assessment technologies, such as imaging techniques and the recording of electrophysiological, biochemical, and pharmacological responses. Resources invested in further cognitive neuroscience research should support programs of research based on scientific principles and that avoid the inferential biases inherent in previous research in polygraphy.
From page 42...
... Recent advances in neuropsychopharmacology that have the potential to be "game changers" include a much improved knowledge of brain function and delivery systems such as are enabled by nanotechnology that would allow substances to cross the blood-brain barrier. Many current psychotherapeutic drugs -- that is, drugs used in treatment and management of psychiatric disorders -- and their likely mechanisms of action were not anticipated by prior research or theory (Barrett, 2007)
From page 43...
... This interpretation of neuroscience research carries the additional implication that drugs can achieve or modulate not only abnormal, diseased, or dis­ ordered psychology but also normal, healthy, or optimal function. Development and utilization of drugs to treat psychiatric disorders have been accompanied by important changes in expectations of physicians, consumers, and policy makers about how drugs can and should be used (Barrett, 2007; Chatterjee, 2007; Kelly, 2007)
From page 44...
... Drugs that are described and marketed as having disease-specific or ­diagnosisspecific effects are quite capable of producing striking psychological effects in individuals who do not suffer from the condition identified with the drug's descriptive name or clinical indication. These psychological effects may or may not be similar to the effects in individuals with medical conditions for which the drugs are prescribed.
From page 45...
... Cognition enhancers can be broadly defined as drugs or other agents that have the potential to improve human functions such as attention, learning, and memory (Sarter, 2006; Sahakian and Morein-Samir, 2007 and accompanying online discussion at http://network. nature.com/forums/naturenewsandopinion/)
From page 46...
... Examples of recognized roadblocks to new therapeutic entities include the need for improved clinical models, the rudimentary knowledge of brain neurochemistry and function, the paucity of models to predict side effects, and poor understanding of brain diseases and disorders. One recommendation for closing these translational gaps is to improve the predictive power of animal models so that they map onto operationally defined domains of affective, cogni
From page 47...
... New drugs may have unrecognized effects that emerge owing to variation in individuals, settings, or performance demands. Nanotechnology in Medicine In addition to bringing new drug entities or new uses for existing entities, emerging technologies might allow new pathways for drug delivery.
From page 48...
... the construction of nanoscale-sized structures for diagnostics, biosensors, and local drug delivery; (2) genomics, proteomics, and nanoengineered microbes; and (3)
From page 49...
... . Another drug delivery approach uses nanoshells or dielectric-metal (gold-coated silica)
From page 50...
... Technological advances will affect the types of neuropsycho­ pharmaco­logical drugs available and methods for drug delivery. For the IC, nanotechnologies that allow drugs to cross the blood-brain barrier, increase the precision of delivery, evade immune system defenses, evade metabolism, or prolong actions at cellular or downstream targets will be of particular importance.
From page 51...
... . FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING Introduction Broadly defined, functional neuroimaging is the use of neuroimaging technology to measure aspects of brain function, often with the goal of understanding the relationship between regional brain activity and specific tasks, stimuli, cognition, behaviors or neural processes.
From page 52...
... PET, fMRI, fNIRS, and fTCDS can measure localized changes in cerebral blood flow related to neural activity. PET and MRS can measure regional modulation of brain metabolism and neurochemistry in response to neural activity or processes.
From page 53...
... TMS is a noninvasive way to excite neurons in the brain: rapidly changing magnetic fields (electromagnetic induction) are used to induce weak electric currents in neural tissue, allowing the brain to be activated from outside with minimal discomfort.
From page 54...
... Continued refinement of these technologies is likely to lead to increased dissemination of this technology, with applications expanding well beyond the current primary fields of neuroscience research and clinical medicine. Areas where the application of advanced functional neuroimaging technology likely are business (marketing, economics, human resources)
From page 55...
... Neurotherapy is an experimental technique that uses a QEEG brain map to analyze psychiatric problems from attention deficit disorder to depression to schizophrenia. Patients are then subjected to a conditioning ­protocol to "train" the "abnormal" brain activity toward a statistically more ­"normal" pattern of activity.
From page 56...
... EEG has several advantages over other functional neuroimaging techniques, including the relatively low cost of the technology (around $15 million)
From page 57...
... Limitations of PET include its relatively low temporal resolution; spatial resolution limited to approximately 5 mm; relatively expensive equipment; requirement for an injectable, short-lived positron-emitting radio­ isotope that is usually produced in a cyclotron; and limits on its use for repetitive longitudinal studies and studies in certain populations owing to its emission of ionizing radiation. However, PET remains a powerful tool for functional neuroimaging, especially with the proliferation of PET/CT and PET/MRI scanners.
From page 58...
... In other words, MRI-based imaging technologies are providing faster and more detailed pictures of the human brain and brain function than ever before. These and other related technologies are moving forward rapidly, driven by clinical and research demand, and over the next two decades there are likely to be continuing significant advances in this technology, with unique applications certain to emerge (Dickerson, 2007; Ladd, 2007; Nakada, 2007)
From page 59...
... CURRENT COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY 59 TABLE 2-3  Current Neuroimaging Research in the People's Republic of China Name Location Machines Known Use of Machinesa Xuanwu Hospital Beijing 1.5 T, 3 T Clinical and research; 14 Siemens TRIO articles published 2007 Beijing Friendship Beijing 0.5 T Philips Clinical and research Hospital Gyroscan T5-NT Beijing MRI Center for Beijing 3 T Siemens Research; 7 articles published Brain Research TRIO 2007 Beijing MRI Center for Beijing 3 T Siemens Believed delivered October Brain Research Verio 2007 two units wide bore PET scanner insert Tsinghua University Beijing Has access to Research low field, 1.5 T and 3 T Beijing Hospital Beijing 1.5 T, 3 T Clinical and research; 8 articles Philips Achieva published 2007 Beijing Jishuitan Hospital Beijing Unknown Clinical and research Institute of Biophysics Beijing 1.5 T GE, 3 T Research Siemens TRIO Tian Tan Hospital Beijing Unknown Clinical and research; 9 articles published 2007 An Zhen Hospital Beijing 1.5 T Siemens Clinical and research Sonata China-Japan Friendship Beijing 0.5 T Clinical and research; 13 Hospital articles published 2007 Peking University First Beijing 1.5 T GE and a Clinical and research; 9 articles Hospital 3 T GE Signa published 2007 Peking Union Medical Beijing Unknown Clinical and research College Hospital Peking University Third Beijing 1.5 T Siemens Clinical and research; 8 articles Hospital Magnetom published 2007 Second Xiangya Hospital Changsha 1.5 T GE Clinical and research; 9 articles published 2007 continued
From page 60...
... . Advances in MRS should be followed carefully because its complementarity with respect to the other functional neuroimaging technologies,
From page 61...
... While MRI and CT provide excellent anatomical images, MEG measures correlates of neurological function. The advantages of MEG over fMRI and PET include the measurement of brain activity with higher temporal and spatial resolution.
From page 62...
... Even in the arteries that are large enough and located within sight of the few available ultrasonic windows, the angle of the ultrasonic beam can make it very difficult to accurately measure blood flow changes. However, fTDS has several advantages over other functional neuro­ imaging techniques including cost effectiveness; portability; continuous monitoring of blood flow activity; and excellent temporal resolution.
From page 63...
... . Although the ­signalto-noise ratio is low in current technological incarnations, this latter measure is particularly interesting as it represents the holy grail of neuroimaging; high spatial resolution coupled to high temporal resolution.
From page 64...
... Implantable optodes could allow realizing the holy grail of neuroimaging, the direct, noninvasive measurement of neuronal activity with millisecond-level time resolution and superior spatial resolution. fNIRS measures relative changes in HbO and HbR, and total blood flow can be calculated from the differential equation.
From page 65...
... NIRS can theoretically be combined with EEG, transcranial sonography, and other functional neuroimaging sensors. Unlike fMRI, where the subject is confined to the bore of the magnet, NIRS movement artifacts can be limited by proper affixation of sensors to the scalp.
From page 66...
... Functional neuroimaging is progressing rapidly and is likely to produce important findings over the next two decades. For the intelligence community and the Department of Defense, two areas in which such progress could be of great interest are enhancing cognition and facilitating training.
From page 67...
... 2007. Visceral and somatic indexes of social psychological constructs: History, principles, propositions, and case studies.
From page 68...
... 2005. Classifying spatial patterns of brain activity with machine learning methods: Application to lie detection.
From page 69...
... 2003. Multi-pulse drug delivery from a resorbable polymeric microchip device.
From page 70...
... Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 58(14)
From page 71...
... 2002. Lie detection by functional magnetic resonance imaging.
From page 72...
... Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 55(3)
From page 73...
... 2007. Some recent advances in basic neuroscience research in China.
From page 74...
... 2001. Investigation of human brain hemodynamics by simultaneous near-infrared spectroscopy and functional magnetic resonance imaging.
From page 75...
... 2004. Microspheres for controlled release drug delivery.


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