Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century (2010) / Chapter Skim
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5 Examples of Farming System Types for Improving Sustainability
Pages 221-270

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From page 221...
... Understanding how the components function individually and the outcomes each produces becomes the foundation of systems agriculture research. The aggregate outcome of applying those practices in concert cannot be predicted from simply combining the anticipated outcome of each practice because they interact with one another.
From page 222...
... Most productive organic farms are highly integrated and use what is referred to as a holistic approach to manage agricultural operations and their processes and impacts (Vandermeer, 1995; Gliessman, 1998; Altieri, 2004)
From page 223...
... . As discussed in Chapter 1, many nonorganic farms lie somewhere between the conventional and organic continuum because they include some organic approaches and materials in their farming systems out of concern for the environment, human health, input costs, and other factors (for example, the Bragger Farm, Thompson Farm, and Green Cay Farm in Chapter 7)
From page 224...
... . Nutrient cycling is fostered in organic farms us ing various methods, including making and using compost, incorporating cover crops, and integrating crop residues.
From page 225...
... -Manage soil to -Plant cover crops to suppress diseases. prevent soil erosion and provide nutrients.
From page 226...
... have found organic farming systems to have better overall soil quality, as measured by soil properties such as more organic matter, better structure, less compaction, more earthworms, and greater microbial activity and diversity, than their conventional counterparts. Water Quality Organic farms often have smaller nutrient surpluses than do conventional farms (Kasperczyk and Knickel, 2006; Kustermann et al., 2010)
From page 227...
... . Organic farms tend to rely on hand labor for weed control more heavily than do conventional farms.
From page 228...
... Nitrous oxide release is correlated more with overall soil nitrogen levels and mineralization amounts than with source of nitrogen input. Loss of soil carbon and N2O emissions can be reduced by using best management practices in either conventional or organic production (Meisterling et al., 2009)
From page 229...
... . For example, a comparison of wheat farmers in the Mid-Atlantic found that organic farms were more efficient than conventional farms by $34/ha in terms of cash operating expenses.
From page 230...
... organic farms (and degree of market concentration) were similar to farm sales by size category among conventional farms (USDA-NASS, 2009)
From page 231...
... In addition, another study that compared wage and benefit practices of organic and conventional farms in California found that organic farms paid better wages and were more likely to offer profit-sharing (or produce-sharing) arrangements with their workers (Strochlic et al., 2008)
From page 232...
... Such comparisons are often complicated by the interactive effects on nutritional quality of farming practices, soil quality, climate, plant genetics, and the time of harvest (Benbrook, 2005; Benbrook et al., 2008) , which account for the inconsistent differences reported in more than 150 studies that compare nutritional content of organic and conventional crops (Woese et al., 1997; Benbrook, 2005)
From page 233...
... than conventional farms in the southwest of England. The organic farms they studied had more continuous blocks of woodland (with simpler perimeters than similarly sized patches on conventional farms)
From page 234...
... . In particular, the ability to feed crops to livestock enables producers to capture and potentially recycle nutrients back to farm fields, which reduces the need for purchased fertilizers and enhances such desirable soil attributes as organic matter, water-holding capacity, and soil structure (Schiere et al., 2002; Entz et al., 2005; Hendrickson et al., 2007)
From page 235...
... More recently, interest has surged in more intensive grazing management systems, particularly so-called "management-intensive rotational grazing" (MIRG)
From page 236...
... Soil Quality and Soil Erosion In general, when compared to more intensively cropped fields, soils under pasture management tend to accumulate soil organic matter (SOM) , which favors the development of good soil structure (Soane, 1990; Tisdall, 1994; Kemp and Michalkand, 2005)
From page 237...
... . In particular, when compared to row crop farming and extensive grazing systems, there is evidence that well-managed intensive grazing systems can sequester more atmospheric carbon and minimize losses of agricultural nutrients to surface and ground waters (Cuttle, 2008)
From page 238...
... Many management practices designed to maximize denitrification efficiencies can reduce the threat of nitrate leaching (which benefits water quality) , but can increase nitrous oxide emissions (which are potent atmospheric greenhouse gases)
From page 239...
... Research on MIRG farms has focused on the impacts of greater use of managed pastures on wildlife and bird species. Higher proportions of the land base on MIRG farms offer potentially suitable habitat for grassland bird species (Paine et al., 1995; Temple et al., 1999)
From page 240...
... . Social Performance of MIRG Systems Labor Practices Dairy farmers who use management-intensive rotational grazing emphasize that the approach allows them to spread their labor more evenly throughout the day and the growing season, enables their young children to participate in more farming activities, and gives them a better appreciation for nature and the environment (Ostrom and Jackson-Smith, 2000; Brock and Barham, 2009)
From page 241...
... The debate is especially intense over the large-scale CAFOs for hogs, often referred to as "factory farms" given the scale of operations, their location, and the numbers of public issues surrounding them (Gurian-Sherman, 2008; Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production, 2008)
From page 242...
... leads to an ultimate goal of maintaining animal health through management and provision of appropriate nutrition to optimize rates of growth and produce meat and carcass quality targeted to their specific markets, while having minimal adverse impact on the environment. In the discussion that follows, the committee applies the more stringent guidelines and literature from the "sustainable" and organic sectors as an example of production alternatives.
From page 243...
... Specific guidelines for such housing and management practices are available from many state extension agencies and from the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service (National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service [ATTRA] of the National Center for Appropriate Technology [NCAT]
From page 244...
... . Farrowing guidelines require dry bedding, while grow-out shelters, whether converted traditional barns or hoop structures, are often set up with the Swedish dry-bedding system.
From page 245...
... . Landscape Diversity, Soil Quality, and Soil Erosion All of the "extensive" bedded systems described in the literature are operated on a land base and include crop rotations for feed and bedding.
From page 246...
... Multiyear, replicated seasonal trials at the Iowa State University Rhodes hoop research facility showed hoop structures, in summer, produce 4 percent greater average daily gain and required four fewer days to reach marketable weight as compared to the confinement system (Honeyman and Harmon, 2003)
From page 247...
... The advantages of efficiencies in integration make extensive hog operations more profitable than specialized operations when crop subsidy payments are not considered (Flora et al., 2004)
From page 248...
... The strategy for dry-bedding systems is to avoid creating odors and maintaining reasonable air conditions in the first place, instead of mediating odor and air emissions by engineering solutions. Meat Quality Most niche markets are identified both by meat quality and the environmental and social considerations imputed in the product as part of brand marketing.
From page 249...
... . Studies indicate that rural residents and activists, while understanding the economic constraints that swine producers are under, strongly feel that large-scale confinement operations are, at least temporarily, eroding farmers' traditional base of support (Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production, 2008)
From page 250...
... Perennial grain and perennial grass-based biofuel systems are being developed, and the following sections discuss their potential contributions to various sustainability goals. Perennial Grain System Today most of humanity's food comes directly or indirectly (as animal feed)
From page 251...
... Perennial grain agriculture is expected to provide similar benefits. Perennial Grasses for Biofuels Depending on landscape management, the use of cellulosic feedstock for biofuel production can avoid some of the social and environmental concerns associated with corn grain ethanol and soybean biodiesel.
From page 252...
... suited to differing climates, soil types, and growing conditions. Perennial crops have many potential environmental benefits, including reduced soil erosion, greater efficiency of nutrient uptake, and greater attractiveness to wildlife.
From page 253...
... The paucity of reliable data on holistic descriptions of those operations in the United States is evident. Holistic comparisons between system types aimed at improving sustainability are not possible with present data, given the multidimensional nature of sustainability as defined in Chapter 2.
From page 254...
... • Given the environmental conditions, which practices (for example, raising animals to optimize genetic immunity) or animal production systems would be least con ducive to disease build up?
From page 255...
... BIOGEOPHYSICAL LANDSCAPE-LEVEL SUSTAINABILITY ANALYSIS AND PLANNING Many qualities of a sustainable agriculture are both defined and managed at aggregate levels beyond field and farm boundaries at the community, watershed, and river basin scales (as discussed in Chapter 2)
From page 256...
... , which demonstrated that economic and environmental (water quality protection and conservation of biodiversity) benefits could be achieved through changes in agricultural land management without increasing public costs.
From page 257...
... Landscape-level modeling and planning for such efforts is highly quantitative and could be the basis for planning, policy formulation, and implementation. Concerns of water quality and availability can be addressed by: • Selecting farming systems alternatives and their landscape locations for enhancing water quality and reducing hypoxia.
From page 258...
... Chapter 5 provides detailed examples of several innovative farming systems that are consciously organized to balance and optimize farm output, economic returns, environmental footprint, and social welfare. A review of scientific studies on various aspects of each of those systems -- organic farming, management-intensive rotational grazing, and low-confinement hog production -- suggests that they represent viable approaches to raising crops and livestock in a way that can improve the sustainability performance of U.S.
From page 259...
... 2008. In search of sustainable agricultural systems for the Llano Estacado of the US Southern High Plains.
From page 260...
... In Managing Soil Quality: Challenges in Modern Agriculture, P Schjonning, B.T.
From page 261...
... 2008. Impacts of pastoral grazing on soil quality.
From page 262...
... In Sustainable Agricultural Systems, C.A. Edwards, R
From page 263...
... 1999. Conservation reserve program effects on soil quality indicators.
From page 264...
... In 25th Annual Proceedings of the 25th Annual Southern Conservation Tillage Conference for Sustainable Agriculture, E.V. Santen, ed.
From page 265...
... 2000. The use and performance of intensive rotational grazing among Wisconsin dairy farms in the 1990s.
From page 266...
... Agronomy Journal 96:769–775. SARE (Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education)
From page 267...
... 2008. Farm Labor Conditions on Organic Farms in California.
From page 268...
... USDA-SARE (U.S. Department of Agriculture Sustainable Agriculture Research and Extension)
From page 269...
... 2008. The world of organic agriculture -- statistics and emerging trends 2008.


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