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From page 231... ...
This followed a period of very weak solar activity and a long, deep sunspot minimum. The solar wind flux and magnetic field were considerably weaker during the previous solar minimum, while the flux of galactic cosmic rays reached the highest on record.
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From page 232... ...
Terrestrial Rossby waves interact with the mean zonal flow to produce "jet streams" that steer the daily weather. Analogously, solar Rossby waves can interact with solar differential rotation and toroidal magnetic fields to affect the distribution of active regions and enhance bursts of solar activity.
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From page 233... ...
Pseudostreamers are a prime location for interchange reconnection, with observed structure size scales that are consistent with those found in the periodic structures. Models of the solar coronal magnetic field driven by photospheric flows show ubiquitous interchange reconnection along coronal hole boundaries between open and closed fields, which is likely the dominant process capable of explaining key observations of the slow solar wind, including more variability, and enhanced ionic and elemental composition.
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From page 234... ...
• Measuring the magnetic wave origin of First Ionization Potential (FIP) bias in active regions: Exciting results, obtained by combining coronal spectroscopy and first observations of chromospheric magnetic field temporal variations, have recently demonstrated a likely origin of the "FIP bias" (the overabundance of elements with low FIP as measured in coronal plasma)
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From page 235... ...
. Prior to this breakthrough, this magnetic energy release could only be inferred indirectly, by comparing the pre- and post-flare photospheric magnetic fields or tracking the motion/evolution of plasma-confining extreme ultraviolet (EUV)
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From page 236... ...
• Discovery of SEPs dispersed widely in helio-longitude: SEPs from a compact source on the Sun were seen by multiple separate spacecraft near 1 AU and were quite widely separated in longitude. This separation was unexpected because it was thought that SEPs were mostly guided by the Parker spiral magnetic field, but these results indicate that SEPs undergo considerable cross-field transport.
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From page 237... ...
• The IBEX Ribbon originates in a region of trapped solar wind beyond the heliopause: The IBEX Ribbon is a feature that appears in ENA maps of the sky that is oriented along the locus of points where outward lines-of-sight from the Sun are perpendicular to the interstellar magnetic field (ISMF) draped around the heliosphere.
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From page 238... ...
B.2.1 Priority Science Goal 1 Since the discovery that the solar photosphere is covered by magnetic fields in 1908, scientists have come to realize that the overwhelming majority of solar variability is driven by magnetism. This variability happens over decadal timescales in the form of the solar magnetic cycle, quasi-annual/quasi-biennial timescales of solar activity in the form of solar "seasons," weeks-to-months timescales in the form of active regions emergence and decay, and minutes-to-hours timescales in the form of flares and CMEs.
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From page 239... ...
Current Research Activity Priority Science Goal 1, Objective 1.a The solar poles seed the magnetic fields that generate and shape future solar cycles. However, there is limited understanding on where and how the polar fields connect to dynamo generation across the whole convection zone.
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CC BY 4.0. Priority Science Goal, Objective 1.b Magnetic fields, generated by the solar dynamo, manifest at the surface in the form of active regions.
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From page 241... ...
, including as many sunspot cycles' worth of observations of magnetic fields, plage, coronal bright points, and coronal structures as possible. Observational Resources To study the Sun's internal structure, SDO's Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI)
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From page 242... ...
infers the Sun's magnetic fields up to 70 degrees latitude to study what drives solar eruptions and powers the solar atmosphere. SOT measures Zeeman/Stokes parameters to obtain both strength and direction of the magnetic fields associated with the eruptions.
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Motivation for the Goal At the beginning of the past decade, the researchers in this field still had an incomplete understanding the processes that determine the global distribution of magnetic fields, their cyclic evolution, and the spatio-temporal patterns of polar fields, all of which are necessary to understand and predict the next solar activity cycle. Synoptic maps derived from through observation from ground-based and space-borne magnetograms, such as GONG, SDO/ HMI, successfully provided observations of photospheric magnetism and global flows (differential rotation and meridional circulation)
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From page 244... ...
with ground-based and space-borne instruments only in the ecliptic plane, observations of polar regions are severely limited. Expanding observational coverage to the poles and the far-side of the Sun is necessary to probe deeper into the interior of the Sun, to measure the full open magnetic flux in the heliosphere, and to determine how active regions' magnetic fields are distributed around the Sun and drift toward the poles to cause polar fields.
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From page 245... ...
Priority Science Goal, Objective 2.c The coronal and heliospheric magnetic field provide a pathway for energetic particles accelerated near the Sun to expand out into the heliosphere, at times over wide latitudinal and longitudinal ranges, indicating complex magnetic connections in the inner heliosphere. Both the structure of the coronal field and its temporal evolution as well as the nature of the extension of the coronal field into the heliosphere via the interplanetary magnetic field are currently poorly understood, and studies rely mostly on extrapolations from surface magnetic fields and global models.
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From page 246... ...
A concerted effort at improving extrapolations by using multiheight field measurements, as well as reliably estimating the coronal field and its evolution using a variety of diagnostics, together with measurements of in situ fields and plasma properties in different points of the inner heliosphere, are necessary to make substantial progress. Priority Science Goal, Objective 2.d The solar wind is observed to vary over a range of spatial and temporal scales, with processes interacting across these scales.
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From page 247... ...
and of their photospheric field strength and topology will be necessary to assess the energy available in these magneto-convective phenomena. Stereoscopic observations of these photospheric magnetic fields with PHI, together with instruments along the Sun-Earth line, will allow for regular removal of the 180 degrees ambiguity in the orientation of the transverse component even for small scale features, greatly aiding in the derivation of the chromospheric fields' topology.
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From page 248... ...
Measurements of nonthermal electrons, as diagnosed via sensitive HXR and radio imaging spectroscopy observations, would strongly constrain the energy input and impulsivity of coronal heating. The continuous coverage of SDO instruments has been a vital asset for most solar, heliospheric, and space weather studies in the past decade; notably, maps of photospheric and chromospheric intensities from HMI and
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From page 249... ...
These heliospheric measurements also provide insight into the influence of the dynamic solar atmosphere on its extension out into the solar system. In particular, the combination of in situ measurements of plasma, waves, energetic particles, and magnetic fields provide information on the state and evolution of the solar wind and inform its connection back to the Sun.
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Together with these ab initio models, an important line of research now involves data-driven models of the solar coronal magnetic field and its evolution, such as the Coronal Global Evolutionary Model (CGEM)
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of the simulated solar atmosphere, displaying the temperature (top) and magnetic field configuration (bottom)
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Direct observations of the polar magnetic fields and wind properties ultimately will be needed to properly model the magnetic connectivity at high heliospheric latitudes. Most importantly, major efforts will need to be devoted to obtaining reliable, direct measurements of the strength and topology of the magnetic field in the chromosphere and corona, which critically modulates the flow of energy and mass in the whole atmosphere and heliosphere.
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From page 253... ...
Close to the Sun, in addition to driving larger explosive events, reconnection may serve to heat the corona and transport open magnetic flux via interchange reconnection between open fields and closed magnetic fields in large coronal loops. Evidence for the presence of ubiquitous small-scale magnetic reconnection events is thought to exist in the prevalence of switchbacks in the interplanetary magnetic field and energetic particles observed by PSP.
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From page 254... ...
Most knowledge of solar magnetic fields pre- and post-eruption currently comes from photospheric vector magnetograms, such as those currently supplied by SDO/HMI, which have been playing a vital role in providing high-resolution, high-quality data for more than a full solar cycle. Additional instruments that can perform such vector magnetogram measurements on smaller fields of view include Hinode/SOT, BBSO/GST, DST, Inouye,
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The CoMP instrument, a small optical coronagraph, also provides measurements of the linear polarization to infer the direction of the coronal magnetic fields. During flares and eruptions, magnetic reconnection plays a central role in releasing stored energy.
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imaging spectroscopy. In particular, EOVSA has started to offer diagnostics of spatially resolved energetic electron distribution in solar flares with microwave imaging spectroscopy.
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From page 257... ...
has offered surprising detections of gamma-ray sources associated with behind-the-limb flares, which have been interpreted as precipitated energetic ions originating from the widespread shock front. Solar eruptions are one of the most important drivers of space weather.
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Meanwhile, data-driven MHD simulations based on realistic observational data have also blossomed. Examples include those using the observed, time-dependent photospheric magnetic fields and/or flows to drive the simulations (Figure B-13)
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The top panels represent the three components of the observed photospheric magnetic field (Bz, Bx, By)
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While microwave imaging spectroscopy allows coronal magnetic fields to be constrained both against the disk and off limb, EOVSA does not have sufficient dynamic range, imaging fidelity, and resolution to derive detailed coronal magnetic field maps outside strong flare sources and active regions. For magnetic field measurements of solar eruptions and solar wind in the upper corona and interplanetary space, only occasional remote sensing and in situ measurements have been made.
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From page 261... ...
System-Level Science Contributions The study of solar explosive events spans essentially all regions of the solar system -- from flux emergence in the solar interior, to energy release in the solar corona, to their propagation and evolution in the heliosphere, and to their impacts on Earth's and other planetary systems' magnetospheres and lower atmospheres. Therefore, understanding the origin and the associated physical processes of solar explosive events constitutes one of the most important contributions to system-level science for solar and space physics.
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b. Establish how the dynamics and evolution of the global heliosphere are affected by solar activity, and by the LISM and its inhomogeneities.
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sure observed in the inner heliosphere, which supports this picture. However, there are many unknowns, such as how the polar extension of the Sun's magnetic field affects the shape of the heliosphere, and how the tail of the heliosphere interacts and mixes with the LISM (Figure B-15)
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From page 264... ...
Priority Science Goal, Objective 4.d Where ACRs are accelerated remains an open question. A leading theory is that they originate at the flanks of the heliosphere, but there are other theories, such as acceleration by magnetic reconnection or turbulent plasma compressions in the heliosheath.
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) on plasma waves, magnetic fields, and cosmic rays.
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From page 266... ...
These secondary PUIs move under the influence of electric and magnetic fields in the LISM, and their distribution is inferred from observations of the Ribbon. In the next decade, IMAP will provide considerably more detailed ENA maps, with greater instrument sensitivity, a higher spatial resolution, and a larger energy range.
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From page 267... ...
System-Level Science Contributions The study of how the heliosphere is formed and sustained requires a systemwide understanding of the evolution of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field. The conditions that control the formation of the interstellar boundary are established deep within the inner heliosphere where PUIs are first entrained in the solar wind from an "inner source" of interplanetary dust grains.
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From page 268... ...
, whose goal is to understand the release of magnetic field energy and associated particle acceleration in flares in the solar corona. The just-announced opportunity to develop Artificial Intelligence Research Institutes (a collaboration among NSF, the Department of Defense, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, and private foundations or corporations)
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From page 269... ...
supports either the design or implementation of unique and compelling infrastructure projects with costs up to $20 million. B.3 LONGER-RANGE GOAL Longer-Range Goal: Revolutionize the understanding of dynamic solar processes through rapid, direct observational measurements of magnetic fields throughout the solar atmosphere and inner heliosphere.
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From page 270... ...
A new diagnostic technique has recently been developed to measure the magnetic field strength in active regions using a single Fe X line observed by Hinode/ EIS. However, this does not provide any direct information on the magnetic field vector orientation and cannot detect the weaker coronal magnetic fields found in coronal holes and the quiet Sun.
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From page 271... ...
, the latter of which show polarization measurements that can lead to inferences about magnetic field geometry. Yellow stars mark the intersection of the two lobes of the pseudostreamer.
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From page 272... ...
Richardson, 2006, "In-Situ Solar Wind and Magnetic Field Signatures of Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections," Space Science Review 123:31–43, reproduced with permission from SNCSC; (Right) Howard et al.
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Nieves-Chinchilla, 2020, "Inferences About the Magnetic Field Structure of a CME with Both In Situ and Faraday Rotation Constraints," Astrophysical Journal 896:99, https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab93b8.
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From page 274... ...
A long-term plan for developing the ability to supplement synoptic magnetograms with 3D coronal field maps in the low and middle corona could yield transformational advancements in coronal physics. Likewise, developing the ability to monitor fields in the IPM would markedly advance studies of interplanetary plasma physics and provide new space weather forecasting capabilities, particularly Bz forecasting at Earth for geoeffective transients.
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From page 275... ...
of the magnetic field changes and particle acceleration that power solar eruptive events. The emerging capabilities of new solar MHD codes and techniques will be leveraged and extended to the astrophysical environments of stars, providing the needed physical information on spatial scales extending from the chromosphere to the wider realm of the astrosphere and ISM, which modulate GCRs and habitable zone conditions.
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From page 276... ...
Blueshifted coronal lines observed in SXR spectra after stellar flares have also been observed and interpreted as a CME signature. One solar CME detection technique that does have potential applicability to how stars are observed is coronal dimming, demonstrated using full-disk SDO Extreme ultraviolet Variability Experiment (EVE)
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On the Sun, this is unusual, but on active stars perhaps it is the norm. Strong magnetic fields overlying an active region can inhibit CME eruption.
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The current modeling approach attempts to embed the simulations in a realistic stellar environment -- in terms of magnetic topology, magnetic field strength, and gravitational acceleration -- all of which may be significantly different from the Sun. The various plasma instabilities, from those that trigger eruptions to those in the process of high-energy particle propagation, take on different thresholds and behaviors in the conditions that are inferred in stellar environments.
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From page 279... ...
This could involve, for example, coordinated "centers of excellence" support, analogous to the NASA Astrobiology Institutes, the Heliophysics DRIVE centers, or the joint NSF/NASA funding structures that have supported multiple-institution space weather research networks. Narrower efforts could be supported through existing funding programs within NASA and NSF.
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From page 280... ...
The technologies developed and lessons learned from these deep space habitation efforts will propel the next major leap toward human exploration of Mars. The infrastructure being developed and built for these efforts will provide exciting and unique opportunities that can enable heliophysics and space weather research with additional emphasis needed on space weather forecasting and nowcasting.
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From page 281... ...
Below, the panel lists several specific heliophysics science problems that would significantly benefit from increased exploration of the lunar environment. • Lunar magnetic fields and solar wind interaction: The Moon does not have a global magnetic field like Earth; however, there are numerous localized concentrations of magnetic fields (magcons)
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From page 282... ...
Near the Moon's surface, electrons remain magnetized because of their small radius of gyration about the strong magnetic fields, while ions move with little deflection by the magnetic field owing to their much larger gyroradius. The physics of this interaction is analogous to the diffusion region in studies of magnetic reconnection.
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From page 283... ...
Heliophysics, Mars, and Planetary Sciences Concurrent to the Artemis program, NASA has begun identifying the resources and technologies needed to enable Mars-forward missions through its Moon to Mars Architecture studies. The success of these truly deep space exploration missions will depend on a mature understanding of the radiation environment and space weather hazards to protect astronauts and technological resources en route to and at Mars.
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From page 284... ...
It is vital that researchers retain the capability of making full-disk spectropolarimetry measurements that allow determination of solar magnetic fields and plasma flows. However, it has become clear that having observations limited to the Sun–Earth line represents an observational gap that must be closed during the coming decade.
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From page 285... ...
Multiviewpoint observations 1.c. Determine the nature of surface of global flows and inertial waves at all latitudes, down Helioseismic measurements of Latitude–longitude Multiyear multiviewpoint to tachocline depth, and tachocline thickness, global flows, measurements of velocities doppler measurements their relationship to the inertial waves at all latitudes and and magnetic fields down to including equatorial near-side, solar dynamo.
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From page 286... ...
and composition Time varying and spatially In situ magnetic fields, Remote: EUV measurements, distributed measurements of Properties of bulk solar wind magnetograms, spectroscopy, the heliospheric magnetic plasma (electrons, protons, coronal fields, heliospheric field. Distribution, dynamics, alphas and heavy ions)
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From page 287... ...
species by the heliosphere; LISM 4.b. Establish how the properties of pristine dynamics and evolution of interstellar neutrals the global heliosphere are Interstellar dust composition Interstellar dust analyzer affected by solar activity, along outward trajectory from operating from the inner and by the LISM and its 1 AU to LISM heliosphere into the LISM inhomogeneities.
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From page 288... ...
Priority Science Goal 2 Detailed knowledge of dynamic processes over small scales in the solar atmosphere and of chromospheric magnetic fields are needed to fully understand the transfer of mass and energy in the solar atmosphere. The outstanding question of how the solar wind is heated and accelerated depends on this knowledge.
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From page 289... ...
To further advance the capabilities of measuring the coronal magnetic field over a broad region, significant development of instrumentation and methods across different wavelength regimes is required. As an example, advanced radio techniques can enable measurements of the rapidly varying coronal magnetic field in solar flares and CMEs from low to middle corona while offering new capabilities of measuring the coronal field in active regions and quiet Sun, both against the disk and off limb.
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From page 290... ...
New Horizons will make the first measurements of the heating of PUIs across the TS, which will occur within the next decade. However, because New Horizons does not provide magnetic field measurements, and it will not likely survive to the HP, the picture will be incomplete until an interstellar probe journeys deep into the heliosheath, across the HP, and into the LISM.
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From page 291... ...
Magnetic fields in the IPM are observed directly by numerous spacecraft with magnetometers, principally ACE, Wind, STEREO, PSP, and SO. It is still a long way from having routine coronal field data products that are analogous to the photospheric magnetograms that have for decades been commonly available from both ground- and space-based sources.
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From page 292... ...
To underline this mission concept construction process, the names assigned to the candidates are intentionally generic in nature so as not to imply endorsement of any one particular community input paper concept. The SHP also reviewed multiple community input papers proposing new ground-based facilities, and based on these and inputs from other sources, selected three facilities that most effectively address the SH science goals (FASR, Next Generation Global Oscillations Network Group [ngGONG]
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From page 293... ...
Indeed, SPO will transformationally inform all of the science objectives of PSG 1 and make significant contributions to many of those of PSGs 2 and 3. Summarizing the key science objectives of SPO: • Understand how polar magnetic fields and flows are connected to the Sun's global dynamics and the mechanisms that drive the solar dynamo, which ultimately shape the solar activity cycle.
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From page 294... ...
remove mode degeneracies, resolving controversies about subsurface structures; and (3) determine the roles Rossby waves and other inertial waves play in driving the 3D dynamo and longitude-dependent solar cycle features.
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From page 295... ...
ideally have the following instrument suites (all based on instrumentation with high technological readiness) : • Doppler vector magnetograph -- dopplergrams with 3+ month high-latitude continuity and magnetograms to quantify polar magnetic flux along with continuous ecliptic coverage • EUV imager -- EUV images out to 3 solar radii • White-light coronagraph -- view of extended corona • Heliospheric imager -- longitudinal views of transients from polar vantage • Magnetometer -- in situ vector magnetic fields • Ion–electron spectrometer -- solar wind proton and electron speed, density, and temperature • Ion mass spectrometer -- composition and kinetic properties of solar wind heavy ions • Energetic particle suite -- electrons -- 0.01–10 MeV, ions: 0.01–300 MeV/nuc The EHC Earth-orbiting spacecraft (EHC-Geostationary [GEO]
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From page 296... ...
But only through the direct measurement of the plasma and gas interactions that span the reaches from Earth into the LISM will researchers be able to unravel the interactions that uphold and drive the heliosphere. An interstellar probe will surpass the legacy of Voyager and New Horizons of direct in situ measurements of the outer heliosphere and beyond by being fully instrumented for focused study of the heliosphere and VLISM.
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From page 297... ...
Interstellar Probe would span a broad range of solar and space physics domains and offer natural opportunities for astrophysics and planetary science investigations. NOTE: Acronyms defined in Appendix H
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From page 298... ...
Optimally, an instrument capable of directly measuring coronal magnetic fields would be included at L1, possibly also at L4. However, such space-based technology has not yet been demonstrated for coronal applications at a cadence commensurate with eruptive events, although its development is of such importance that it has been highlighted as the SHP LRG.
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From page 299... ...
A coherent reconstruction of these processes would make great strides with complementary extreme ultraviolet and radio plasma diagnostics along with three-dimensional magnetic field measurements. SOURCE: Glesener (2023)
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From page 300... ...
constellation. In order to determine the inner heliospheric structure and evolution of ICMEs, multipoint, in situ measurements of the magnetic field and solar wind plasma properties are necessary.
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From page 301... ...
FASR is a next-generation solar-dedicated radio telescope that will bring exciting and transformative advances to several targeted objectives relevant to solar and heliophysics (namely, PSGs 1–3) , which include: • Making quantitative measurements of coronal magnetic fields in solar active regions/quiescent coronal cavities and their evolution before, during, and after solar flares and CMEs.
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From page 302... ...
• Determine the role of waves in solar atmospheric heating and solar wind acceleration by characterizing spatial and temporal wave properties. • Understand how the coronal magnetic field relates to the solar dynamo and evolving global heliosphere by characterizing variations on solar cycle timescales.
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From page 303... ...
with upgraded and augmented instrumentation would centrally support multiple scientific objectives within PSGs 1–3 as well as SH EO 1, including the following: • Helioseismology as a window into the Sun's interior and far-side • Origin of solar and stellar magnetic fields • Understanding and predicting solar eruptions and space weather • Understanding magnetic "connectivity" throughout the heliosphere • Understanding the Sun as a star, in support of fundamental astrophysics and physics of stars • Providing physical, environmental context for high resolution and space missions ngGONG instruments would cover both a wider range of solar phenomena than current systems, as well as observe with higher spatial resolution. The network would include spectropolarimeters for measuring magnetic fields at multiple heights; broadband imagers and coronagraphs for observing violent solar ejecta; and high-resolution and high-cadence Doppler velocity instruments for helioseismic measurements, while at the same time preserving current capabilities required for space weather operations.
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From page 304... ...
• STP-2: Understand how human society, technological systems, and the habitability of planets are affected by solar variability and planetary magnetic fields. • STP-3: Develop the capability to predict the extreme and dynamic conditions in space in order to maximize the safety and productivity of human and robotic explorers.
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From page 305... ...
B.5.3 Heliophysics System Observatory By the NASA definition, the HSO comprises the fleet of operational spacecraft observing the Sun, heliospheric space, geospace, and planetary environments to understand the solar system through a concerted effort. The current fleet operated by NASA along with international partners is extensive in its pursuit of foundational science goals but lacks key constituents relevant to SH objectives, including maintained direct observations of the solar poles from high latitudes; maintained global coverage of the Sun from multiple vantage points; high-energy imaging and spectroscopy capturing nonthermal processes during energetic events; in situ mesoscale measurements covering structural extents of propagating CMEs; and the capability to measure rapidly evolving coronal magnetic fields.
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From page 306... ...
Another key example of continued needed capabilities are in situ measurements of the solar wind, including plasma and field diagnostics, such as those that have been provided by Wind and ACE and will be improved upon by the upcoming IMAP mission. Combining the current state of the HSO with the priority space-based mission concepts and ground-based facilities along with the support of critical elements described by the panel would result in a tremendously robust research program for the Heliophysics Division.
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From page 307... ...
Longer-range goal Revolutionize our understanding of dynamic solar processes through rapid, direct observational measurements of magnetic fields throughout the solar atmosphere and inner heliosphere. Emerging opportunities Enable opportunities for multidisciplinary research to holistically explore how solar and stellar activity and the interactions of stars with their interstellar environments impact planetary systems.
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From page 308... ...
RHESSI transformed the knowledge of the properties of high-energy particles in solar eruptions. It also revealed new gaps in the understanding of energy transport within the solar atmosphere and the heliosphere (e.g., coronal sources of accelerated particles above flare loops, quasi-periodic pulsations in HXR signatures, and the displacement between HXR and gamma-ray sources)
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From page 309... ...
On a larger scale, the panel considered the benefits of an agency-funded center devoted to the creation of standards for the integration and homogenization of data and models. This center could be an extension of the CCMC, could also be part of the National Solar Observatory (building on the success and expertise of the VSO)
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From page 310... ...
the properties and propagation of dust in the heliosphere, which provides important, and perhaps under-appreciated, information about the history of the heliosphere; (2) the interaction of cosmic rays with the heliosphere -- such as ACRs, GCRs, and TeV-energy CRs, which are deflected by, and create gamma rays with, their impact with the Sun -- and their solar cycle dependence; (3)
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From page 311... ...
This new mission line would be analogous with the highly successful Discovery Mission Program, to which the planetary science decadal survey (NASEM 2023) recommended an increase of cost cap to $800 million in FY 2025, and the new PI-led Astrophysics Probe Explorer (APEX)
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From page 312... ...
2020. "Magnitude and Direction of the Local Interstellar Magnetic Field Inferred from Voyager 1 and 2 Interstellar Data and Global Heliospheric Model." Astronomy and Astrophysics 633:L12.
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From page 313... ...
2022. "STELLA -- In Situ Investigations of the Very Local Interstellar Medium." Community input paper submitted to the Decadal Survey on Solar and Space Physics.
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From page 314... ...
2006. "In Situ Solar Wind and Magnetic Field Signatures of Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections." Space Science Review 123:31–43.
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