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WAR AND PEACE AMONG STAKEHOLDERS 63 a H.H.Shugart, L.Bourgeau-Chavez, and E.S.Kasischke, 2000, Determination of stand properties in boreal and temperate forests using high-resolution imagery. Forest Science, v. 46(4), p. 478â486. Of course, high-resolution data are best interpreted within the regional context provided by medium-resolution imagery. b NASA's Scientific Data Purchase program was created in response to the 1998 Commercial Space Act, which directed NASA to purchase remote-sensing data from the private sector. Thus far, commercial data have been purchased from five companies, including Space Imaging; Positive Systems, Inc.; EarthSat, Inc.; Astrovision; and EarthWatch, Inc. See <http://www.crsp.ssc.nasa.gov/>. c K.Thome, University of Arizona, personal communication, May 16, 2001. Potential Conflicts in the Branches Many user groups want value-added products or services that make the core products more convenient to use (see Example 5.8). Such services may be provided by a wide variety of public and private-sector entities, including scientists, data centers, government project offices, nongovernmental organizations, and commercial vendors. Nevertheless, many private-sector organizations regard the creation of value-added products and services by publicly funded entities as unfair competition because they are subsidized by tax dollars (see Example 5.9). EXAMPLE 5.8 MAPS For many environmental applications, an accurate digital elevation model or topographic map is essential for placing other data in a physical geographic context. A topographic map is itself a core product of a different information system, using sources such as classical ground surveys; the Global Positioning System; and precision photography, laser altimetry and radar from aircraft and satellites. Some of these sources were developed by the military and are classified. However, a digital elevation model derived from them might have considerable public value, yet little military significance. Similarly, high-resolution (1 m) imagery of particular scenes can be used to derive topographic map products. Because high-resolution imagery can be obtained from a number of sources, the commercial value of the image product is not fully realized unless other information (e.g., street names) is added. To be useful for scientific purposes, the process by which the topographic map was created must be subject to scientific audit, although
WAR AND PEACE AMONG STAKEHOLDERS 64 the raw data from which it was derived do not necessarily have to be openly available. The audit can take place in two ways: (1) by specifying the consistency and accuracy of the topographic map, then commissioning a processing system to produce it in a restricted environment (i.e., an organization that collects relevant classified or proprietary information) or (2) by statistically spot-checking this map with other information to determine its reliability. Regardless of the audit technique, subsequent uses of the map must be unrestricted. Many commercial map products can be purchased and used on that basis. Commercial vendors also have a number of options for allowing unrestricted use by reducing the commercial value of the original map product (e.g., degrading the resolution of the processed images or removing the value-added commercial elements). Lessons learned. Core products from information systems commonly serve as input data to other core products. Great care must be taken in defining the essential requirements of an integrated product in order for a commercial vendor to provide full and open access to all data used at a reasonable price, without compromising other commercial applications from the same or similar raw data. EXAMPLE 5.9 WEATHER AND CLIMATE SERVICES One of the most contentious current debates between the government and the private sector concerns the development of weather and climate products and services. The government has an obligation to enhance public safety and protect property, so it devotes considerable resources to collecting and processing weather data and to communicating forecasts and warnings. In some countries the costs of the weather information system are partially defrayed by selling specialized forecasts. However, a number of commercial companies take government- produced weather data and package them into value-added products, including commercial weather forecasts. The competition between government weather services in Europe and private weather forecasting companies, many of them based in the United States, led to the adoption of WMO Resolution 40. Under Resolution 40, members are permitted to restrict the commercial use of data originating in their country (see Box 2.3). One of the points of contention among members is whether scientifically motivated sharing of such data through a publicly accessible information system, thus making them available also to commercial users, constitutes a violation of Resolution 40.a The United
