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A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913 (1913)

Chapter: CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS

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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 105
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 106
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 111
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 112
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 113
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 117
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 118
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 119
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 120
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 121
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 122
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 124
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 125
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 126
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 127
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 128
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 129
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 130
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 131
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 132
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 133
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 134
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 135
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 136
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 137
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 138
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 139
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 140
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 141
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 142
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 143
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 144
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 145
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 146
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 147
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 150
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 153
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 154
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 184
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Page 186
Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Suggested Citation:"CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS." National Research Council. 1913. A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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CHAPTER III BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE INCORPORATORS THE tumultuous days of a great war would hardly seem a propitious time for the formation of an association to promote the arts of peace. Men of science, like men from every other department of life, were engaged directly or indirectly in the struggle, and it seems unlikely that any of them, and especially those in prominent positions, would find the leisure, or be in a mood, to consider the qualifications of their confreres for membership in an academy. The peculiar circum- stances of the time must have greatly increased the difficulties of this delicate task. It has been suggested that the exigencies of the day account for the large number of men connected with the military and naval branches of the Government that were included among the incorporators. This may be true, as the founders of the Academy undoubtedly had the idea that it would be a help to the Government, but a more just view is, perhaps, that so many men of high scientific attainments were connected with the Army and Navy that the choice naturally lay in that · - c erection. It would be interesting to know how the selection of incor- porators was guided, but no records at present available reveal the facts. A clew is, perhaps, to be found by a study of the mem- bership of scientific organizations already in existence when the Academy was founded. There were three general societies, the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. From a comparison of the lists of those who were members between ~860 and ~863', it appears that from two-thirds to nearly three-fourths of the incorporators of the The meetings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science were sus- pended during the Civil War. log i

I 04 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES National Academy were connected with one or the other of these societies, and that of the whole number of incorporators only four were not members of any of them. It would seem almost certain that the little group of men that guided the Academy movement had these lists before them when engaged in the selection of incorporators. Doubtless there were good reasons why the fifty original members, or some of them, were not notified of their inclusion in the list in advance of the passage of the Act of Incorporation, but it is significant that only two declined membership, or resigned in the months immediately following that event. The Academy has published sketches of the lives of nearly all the incorporators in the series known as the Biographical Memoirs, of which seven volumes have been issued. It has not seemed necessary or desirable to gather the same information again from original sources, but an attempt has been made to summarize, in the pages which follow, the principal events in the lives of the original members. The matter has been derived in the majority of cases from the Biographical Memoirs, and in each instance the authority is cited. The original list of incorporators as it appears in the Act of ~863 is as follows: Louts AGASSIZ, Massachusetts. I. H. ALEXANDER, Maryland. S. ALEXANDER, New Jersey. A. D. BACHE, at large. F. A. P. BARNARD, at large. I. G. BARNARD, United States Army, Massachusetts. W. H. C. BARTLETT, United States Military Academy, Missouri. U. A. BORDEN, Massachusetts. A~Ex~s CASWELL, Rhode Island. WILLIAM CHAUVENET, Missouri. T. H. C. COFFIN, United States Naval Academy, Maine. J. A. DAHEGREN, United States Navy, Pennsylvania. lo J. D. DANA, Connecticut. CHARLES H. DAVIS, United States Navy, Massachusetts. GEORGE ENGELMANN, St. Louis, Mis- sour~. T. F. FRAZER, Pennsylvania. WOLCOTT GIBBS, New York. J. M. G1I LISS, United States Navy, Kentucky. A. A. GOULD, Massachusetts. B. A. GOULD, Massachusetts. ASA GRAY, Massachusetts. ARNOLD GUYOT, New Jersey. JAMES HALL, New York. JOSEPH HENRY, at large. J. E. HIEGARD, at large, Illinois.

THE INCORPORATORS EDWARD HITCHCOCK, Massachusetts. I. S. HUBBARD, United States Naval Observatory, Connecticut. A. A. HUMPHREYS, United States Army, Pennsylvania. I. L. LE CONTE, United States Army, Pennsylvania. T. LEIDY, Pennsylvania. T. P. LESLEY, Pennsylvania. M. F. LONGSTRETH, Pennsylvania. D. H. MAHAN, United States Mili- tary Academy, Virginia. T. S. NEWBERRY, Ohio. H. A. NEWTON, Connecticut. BENJAMIN PEIRCE, Massachusetts. JOHN RODGERS, United States Navy, Indiana. IOS FAIRMAN ROGERS, Pennsylvania. R. E. ROGERS, Pennsylvania. W. B. ROGERS, 3/Iassachusetts. L. M. RUTHERFORD, New York. JOSEPH SAXTON, at large. BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Connecticut. BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, JR., Connec- ticut. THEODORE STRONG, New Jersey. lOHN TORREY, New York. J. G. TOTTED, United States Army, Connecticut. JOSEPH WINLOCK, United States Nau- tical Almanac, Kentucky. JEFFRIES WYMAN, Massachusetts. [. D. WHITNEY, California. LOUIS AGASSIZ Born, May 28, I 807; died, December I 4, I 873 Arnold Guyot remarked of Agassiz in 1878: " Agassiz, in more senses than one, is a unique figure in the history of the scientific progress of our day. In Europe he already occupied among men of science a position in some manner exceptional, I may say privileged, which no other scientific man of equal or even superior merit has enjoyed. In this country, during the last quarter of a century, he has been in the popular mind, more than any other man, the representative of the faithful, unflinching devotee of natural science. " In both hemispheres he found crowds of enthusiastic admirers; in both he became the center of a marvelous scientific activity, the guide of numerous fol- lowers in the investigation of the mysteries of nature. Such facts reveal an individuality of uncommon poorer which deserves our special attention." Louis Agassiz was born at Motier, in the Swiss Canton of Vaud, on May 2~3, Box. He was the son of the pastor of the village church, and was descended from French Huguenots. His father accepted a call to the town of Orbe, at the foot of the Jura, and young Agassiz's boyhood was spent among those impressive surroundings, which doubtless first served to arouse in him an interest in the study of nature. He returned hither in

IO6 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES later years to verify his geological deductions and to find mate- rials for his work on echinoderms. At the age of As, Agassiz engaged in classical studies at the College of Bienne, and afterwards was a student for two years at the Academy of Lausanne. In ~824 he entered the Medical School of Zurich where two additional years were spent. Hav- ing been encouraged in his natural history studies by the zoologist Schinz, according to the custom of the time he left Zurich and entered the University of Heidelberg, where he studied physiology and anatomy under Tiedeman, zoology under Leuckart, and botany under Bischoff. At this time Alexander Braun was studying at Heidelberg, and an intimate friendship was formed between the two young men, Braun inviting Agassiz to his home during the summer vacations. To this charming home, most delightfully situated at Carisruhe, many naturalists and other men of learning were attracted, and by the intimate intercourse with those who like himself were engaged in the study of nature, and by comparison of investigations made, Agassiz broadened his own views, and laid the foundations for his future work. Edith Braun and Schimper, Agassiz spent the years from ~7 to Also at the University of Munich, continuing his medical studies and mainly occupied with zoological investi- gations. These three men formed the nucleus of a company of young scientists who organized a society called the " Little Academy of Sciences," where each gave lectures on his favorite topic. In these years were finished those preliminary studies which formed the basis of his life work. With Oken he dis- cusse(1 classification; with Dollinger, embryology; Von Martins instructed him in the geographical distribution of plants; and Schelling in philosophy. He published his first work at this time and prepared two others. Owing to the death of Spix, Agassiz was chosen by Von Martins, the Brazilian explorer, to describe the fishes collected during his expedition. So Crest was this done by Agassiz, then but twenty-one years of age, that it gave him rank among the best naturalists of the time.

THE INCORPORATORS IO7 Previous to the accomplishment of this work, Agassiz had taken the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Eriangen in ~829, and Doctor of Medicine at Munich in ~830. While continuing his preparations for the publication of a natural history of the fresh-water fishes of Europe and a treatise on fossil fishes, Agassiz visited Vienna and Paris, where he examined the collections in the museums, and received help from various sources, as well as offers of attractive positions. He became acquainted with Fitzinger in Vienna and in Paris Humboldt introduced him to Cuvier, who generously placed in his hands the whole of the material which he himself had in- tended to use as the basis of a work on fossil fishes. By the advice of Humboldt, Agassiz refused the various offers of positions that were made to him, but at last in the autumn of ~832 was appointed to the recently-established chair of natural history in the College of Neuchatel, where for ~~ years he labored assiduously and published extensively. His " Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles," and his " Systeme Glaciaire," " those of his works which have made the deepest impress on progressing science," were written during this period. Always enthusiastic, he carried out his ideals in the publication of his books, and though often in pecuniary difficulties, aid came to him from many sources on account of his reputation for accurate scholar- ship and faithful devotion to research. Other important works published by Agassiz while at Neu- chate! were a prodromus of the echinoderms and a treatise on the fossil echinoderms of Switzerland, Critical studies of fossil Mollusks, " Iconography of the tertiary shells believed to be identical with living ones," the " NomencIator Zoologicus," and the " Bibliotheca Zoologica et Geological" In ~836 Agassiz's attention was directed to the subject of glaciers by his friend lean de Charpentier, and he spent some months with him at Bex, near the mouth of the Rhone. As a result of his studies and reflections, he conceived the idea of an universal glacial epoch at the end of the Tertiary Age. He pre- sented this before the Heivetic Society of Natural Science at

. I08 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Neuchatel in ~ 837 and produced a sensation throughout the scien- tific world. It was combated and ridiculed, but in course of time it has found universal acceptance, though in a modified form. Agassiz never lost interest in the subject, and made extensive and important contributions to it in later years. He intended to publish a comprehensive work on the results obtained through the researches of himself and his associates, but the enterprise was frustrated by the revolution of ~848, after the publication of the first volume. " If to Venetz and Charpentier belongs the honor of having first proved the transportation of the Swiss erratic boulders bv the agency of ice. and the existence of , O , ~ · ~ . . · ~ ~ ~ . great glaciers formerly extending lo tne aura, to Gassy we must award the merit of having given to these facts their full geological significance, of having brought them before the world at large and having made the glacial question, as it were, the order of the day." (Guyot.) Important as were these glacial researches of Agassiz, his friend Humboldt thought it unfortunate that he should be diverted from natural history investigations, and on that account induced the King of Prussia to send him on a scientific mission for the comparison of the faunas of temperate Europe and America. At the same time Agassiz received an invitation to lecture before the Lowell Institute in Boston. He came to America in ~846, and, as is well known, made an extraordinary impression in scientific circles and on the public at large. " Be- fore him America had had many able representatives of the science of nature, fully appreciated abroad, but too much i~n`~re(1 hv the mass of the neoole at home. who had not Yet ,~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , . ~ ~ .~ ~ ~ · . · 1 1 1 1 , espoused the cause. Sympathy and event ald had been want- ~ ~ , ~~ ~ · ~ r ~ · 1 1 _ 1 .1~ ing. l he stirring appeals of Agasslz were heard and the nation nobly responded.' ( Guyot. ) Professor Bache, Superintendent of the Coast Survey, gave him opportunities for investigations of marine life on the Atlantic Coast and among the Florida Reefs. Means were found for an expedition to Brazil and the Amazon, and for the publication of his " Contributions to the Natural History of the

THE INCORPORATORS IO9 United States," for the establishment of a biological laboratory and school on Penikese Island, and many other enterprises. Greatest of all was the organization of the Scientific School and the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard. In the latter, Agassiz's ideas on zoology were embodied in concrete form in the zoological, geographical, and embryological series which were there displayed. " By his large contributions to Science in America, by his power of developing a true scientific spirit, to excite and popularize the taste for scientific researches, by his vast influence on the American mind, and his universal popularity, which he kept to the very last, Agassiz had become emphatically a rzatio?zai mar'." (Guyot.) He died on December ~4, x873. It was probably Agassiz who induced Senator Wilson to introduce and urge the bill incorporating the National Academy of Sciences, and when established he became its first Foreign Secretary. (From ARNOLD GUYOT, in Biographical Memoirs of fee National Academy of Sciences, vol. 2, ~ 886, pp. 39-73. See also ELIZABETH C. AGASSIZ, Louis Agassiz; His Life and Correspondence," Boston, 1893; JULES MARCOU, " Life and Letters of Louis Agassiz, ' Boston, 1895.) JOHN H. ALEXANDER Born, June 26, I8I2; died, March a, 1867 Dr. Alexander was a man of remarkable versatility. A mathematician and a physicist, he was also a linguist and a poet. He was a successful man of affairs and a deeply-read student of theology and church history. ~ ~ . . . ~ . . .A ~ His father, who be- longed to a ~cotch-lr1sh tam1ly, came to America before the Revolution and settled at Annapolis, Maryland. Here John H. Alexander was born in 32. He was graduated from St. John's College in his native town when fourteen years old and entered upon the study of law. His attention being attracted, however, to the great possibilities of steam transportation and the utiliza- tion of the natural resources in iron and coal, he turned his energies in the direction of practical pursuits. He was at first connected with surveys for the Susquehanna Railroad (now

I I O NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES part of the Northern Central Railroad) and soon afterward became interested in a topographical and geological survey of Maryland. In association with Professor Julius T. Ducatel, he prepared a plan for these surveys and in ~834 was appointed Topographical Engineer by the Maryland Legislature, Pro- fessor Ducate! at the same time becoming State Geologist As the result of a trigonometrical reconnaissance, Alexander was en- abled within four years to construct a map of the State on which geological data could be plotted, and was contemplating the preparation of a more accurate map, through the cooperation of the United States Coast Survey, when the Legislature withdrew its support from reasons of economy and the work was left in- complete. Alexander in the meantime formed the George's Creek Coal and Iron Company and served as president of that organization from ~836 to ~845. In ~839 he visited Europe for the purpose of obtaining funds for the support of the enterprise. In Also he published a work entitled " Contributions to a History of the Metallurgy of Iron" which was followed in ~842 by a supplement, and constituted a " complete treatise on the subject up to his day." (Hilgard.) To meet the needs of surveyors and engineers he then pre- pared a copiously annotated edition of " Simms' Treatise on Mathematical Instruments used in Surveying, Leveling, and Astronomy." After the copies of the United States standards of weight and measure, which had been authorized by Congress for the use of the several States, had been completed, Dr. Alexander induced the Maryland Legislature to provide similar copies for the counties of that State, and was in turn charged with their con- struction and verification. In that connection, he prepared a com- prehensive report " On the Standards of Weight and Measure for the State of Maryland," which included an account of the origin of Anglo-Saxon measures, and a resume of legislation in England and the United States.

THE INCORPORATORS I I I In ~850 Dr. Alexander published a " Universal Dictionary of Weights and Measures, Ancient and Modern " which was " one of the most complete and exact works of the kind ever pub- lished." ~ Hilgard. ~ In ~855 he issued a pamphlet entitled " International Coinage for Great Britain and the United States," in which he explained his plan for equalizing the pound sterling and the half-eagle. He went to Europe in ~857 as the representative of the United States for the purpose of effecting arrangements for the unifica- tion of coinage, but his labors were unsuccessful, owing, as he believed, to the opposition of the bankers. At the request of the Lighthouse Board, Dr. Alexander re- ported on Babbage's numerical system of lighthouses, on steam whistles as fog signals, and on illuminating oils. At the outbreak of the Civil War he tendered his services to the Government and was appointed an engineer officer, in which constructing the defences of · ~ · "d ~ - capacity ne allied in planning and Baltimore. He also contributed largely from his own means for organizing and equipping a field battery of which his eldest son became the commander. He was about to be appointed Director of the Mint in Philadelphia in ~867, when he was attacked by pneumonia and died in his both year. Dr. A1exander's published works include, besides books and pamphlets on scientific subjects (the more important of which have been mentioned above), two volumes of religious poems; and he also left behind a considerable number of manuscripts, among which was " a Dictionary of English Surnames " in 12 volumes, and " a Dictionary of the Language of the Llenni- Lenape, or Delaware Indians." (From J. E. HILGARD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. 213-226. See also WM. PINKNEY, " Memoir of John H. Alexander," Maryland Historical Society, ~867. 8°. Pp. 3~.) ,, ~ . ~ . . _

I I2 ~ .' ~ ~ 1 ~ 1 1 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES STEPHEN ALEXANDER Born, September I, ~806; died, June z5, ~883 Stephen Alexander was born in Schenectady, New York? and resided there until after his graduation from college. His father, Alexander Alexander, was a successful business man in Schenectady. He died when in middle life, but left his widow and two young children with sufficient means to live in comfort. Stephen was graduated from Union College in ~824, with high honors, and immediately after began teaching. He first taught in the Academy at Chittenango, New York, and later Bras probably connected for some time with the Academy in Albany. In ~832 he went to Princeton with Joseph Henry, who became Professor of Natural Philosophy there in that year. Henry was Stephen A1exander's first cousin and, some years later, he married Harriet Alexander, Stephen's younger sister, thus mak- ing a double relationship, which doubtless influenced Alex- ander's life and fortunes to a considerable extent. Alexander's first idea in going to Princeton to study was to prepare himself for the ministry of the Presbyterian Church, but in ~833 he was appointed to a tutorship in the college, and thus began his forty- three years' service as a member of the faculty. In ~83~, he was made Adjunct Professor of Mathematics, and in ~840 Professor of Astronomy, which position he held until ~ 876, when he retired as professor emeritus. In ~83~ Alexander went to Maryland to observe the annular eclipse of February Ida, and ever after that time he was intensely interested in such phenomena, never missing an opportunity to make similar observations. Between ~83~ and ~875, he observed many annular eclipses, and several total eclipses. He journeyed from Georgia to Labrador to view eclipses which occurred at different dates, making many observations which he published later in a paper entitled " Physical Phenomena Attendant upon Solar Eclipses." He was not, however, a prolific writer. In fact, so much of his time was taken up with the duties of his professorship, that not a great deal was left for writing and i

THE INCORPORATORS I I 3 research. He lectured almost entirely from notes, which, as a rule, were not afterwards elaborated for the press. His best and most important works, in addition to the paper mentioned above are, "The Fundamental Principles of Mathematics "; " The Origin of the Forms and the Present Condition of the Clusters of Stars and Several of the Nebula," and " Certain Harmonies of the Solar System." American astronomy owes much to the diligence with which he pursued his study of that branch of science and to his long-continued efforts in the train- ing of youth. Stephen Alexander had a scholarly interest in a great variety of sub jects. He was a linguist of more than common attainments and was well versed and deeply interested in literature, history, philosophy, theology, mathematics, and several other branches of learning. He also wrote very good poetry. He died in ~83. (From C. A. YOUNG, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 2, ~886, pp. 249-259.) ALEXANDER DALLAS BACHE Born, July I 9, I 806; died, February I 7, I 867 Professor B ache was in every way a remarkable man. His scholarship was without a flaw, he had a deep sense of responsi- bility, and he possessed to an extraordinary degree that rare power of influencing his fellowmen, beating down their opposi- tion and molding them to his wishes, whereby he was enabled to carry out the plans which he conceived for the promotion of the welfare of mankind. He was a great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin, and was born in Philadelphia on July ~9, ~806. His mental abilities were conspicuous even when he was in the lower schools. At the early age of ~5 years he entered the U. S. Military Academy at West Point as a cadet, and was graduated in ~5 at the head of his class of which he was the youngest member. He was immediately appointed an assistant professor and afforded opportunities to extend his studies. At the end of a year he was at his own request detailed to assist Colonel Totten who was then engaged in the construction of Fort Adams at

I I 4 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Newport. In 1828 he was appointed Professor of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania and soon afterwards joined the then newly-founded Franklin Institute where he enjoyed association with the principal engineers and artisans of Philadelphia. He engaged in original researches and took a prominent part in the activities of the Institute, and after a few years became the director of its scien- tific investigations. One of his most important labors at that time was an inquiry into the causes of the bursting of steam boilers. It soon came to the attention of the Government which made an appropriation for the expenses involved. " The con- clusions arrived at were embodied in a series of propositions, which, after a lapse of more than thirty years, have not been superseded by any others of more practical value." (Henry.) At this time B ache was also a member of the American Philosoph- ical Society and in association with Espy, Hare, Frazer and others spent much time and thought in investigations relating to meteorology and terrestrial magnetism. To the latter subject he continued to make contributions throughout his life. In ~836 Professor B ache was prevailed upon to undertake the organization of Girard College for Orphans, then recently established in Philadelphia. He spent two years in Europe in its behalf, upon the study of the educational systems of France, Prussia, Austria and other countries, and his report, which was published in ~839, did " more, perhaps, to improve the theory and art of education in this country than any other work ever published." A delay having occurred in the opening of Girard College, Bache undertook the reorganization of the public schools of Philadelphia and caused them to be looked upon as a model for the entire system of the United States. In ~842, finding that the affairs of Girard College remained stationary. he returned to his professorship in the University of Pennsylvania, but the toi~ow~ng year, on the death of Hassler, he was appointed Superintendent of the Coast Survey, for which station his qualities and his training seemed especially to fit - , ~ ~ . ~ . , - ~ ~ .

THE INCORPORATORS I IS him. He found it when its operations had extended only from Point Judith to Cape HenTopen, and when he died twenty-five years later its work had extended from Maine to Texas and throughout the Pacific Coast. When asked by members of Con- gress " When will this survey be completed? " he replied " When will you cease annexing territory? ,, A~ ~~ 1_A~ ~~ ~~ ~` hi; . . ~ ~ ALL t11O U~11111111s By 1110 administration the work of the Coast Survey was not very thoroughly appreciated, but by his talents, and his industry he made it one of the strongest of the scientific bureaus of the Government. During the Civil War when the regular opera- tions of the Survey were necessarily suspended, it gave important aid to the Government from the knowledge which as an organi- zation it possessed regarding the coasts and harbors of the country. In ~846 Professor B ache was named as a member of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution in the act of incor- poration, and it was entirely owing to his influence that Joseph Henry was persuaded to become the Secretary of the Institution. He supported Henry in his program of organization, through the operations of which the Institution has attained its unique place among the scientific establishments of America. B ache alas also Superintendent of Weights and Measures of the United States, and a member of the Lighthouse Board, as well as of the commission of inquiry which preceded it. During the Civil War B ache served as Vice-President of the U. S. Sanitary Commission, and also planned the defences of his native city, Philadelphia. He died at Newport on February ~7, ~867, and was buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington where an imposing tomb was erected by the officers of the Coast Survey as a tribute to his memory. Professor Bache was a leading mind in the formation of the National Academy of Sciences, if not its original projector. It was at his house that the plans for the Academy were formu- lated, and doubtless his sagacity and his knowledge of the con- duct of affairs at Washington, which was probably greater than that of any other man of his time, formed a very important factor in their success.

I I 6 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES He was elected first President of the Academy and served in that capacity from the date of its organization until his death in ~867. He was also a member of many important committees appointed on behalf of the Government, notably those on weights, measures and coinage, and on the collection of excise duties on distilled spirits. (From JOSEPH HENRY, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. I, 1877, pp. ~8~-2~2d. See also B. A GOULD, " Address in com- memoration of Alexander Dallas Bache," Proc. Elmer. Assoc. Ads. Sci., vol. ~7, ~869, pp. ~-56.) FREDERICK AUGUSTUS PORTER BARNARD Born, May 5, 1809; died, April 27, 1889 President Barnard, brother of General John G. Barnard, was born at Sheffield, Massachusetts, May 5, ~809. He began the study of Latin at an early age, but later turned his attention from the classics to mathematics and allied branches of science. After his graduation at Yale in ~8~8, he became a teacher in the Hartford Grammar School and afterwards a tutor at Yale. In- ~83~ he was engaged as a teacher in the Deaf and Dumb Asylum at Hartford, Connecticut, and subsequently taught at the New York Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb. In ~837 he was connected with the University of Alabama in the capacity of Professor of Natural Philosophy and Mathe- matics for eleven years, and afterwards as Professor of Chemistry until ~854. During his connection with the University, Pro- fessor Barnard built an astronomical observatory for the insti- tution. During this time he served as a member of a com- mission to settle a dispute concerning the boundary between Alabama and Florida. From ~854 to ~86~ he was Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in the University of Mississippi, was its president from ~856 to ~858, and chancellor from the latter year until ~86~. The outbreak of the Civil War caused him to leave the South, and he then became director of printing and lithography in connection with the map and chart depart- ment of the United States Coast Survey. . 1 i

THE INCORPORATORS ~ I I7 In ~ 864 he was elected President of Columbia College and remained in that office until ~88 when ill health neces- sitated his retirement. During his administration he made many changes and improvements in the methods of instruction and the management of the University, and was also instrumental in adding the Law School, the School of Mines, the School of Political Science, and the Library of Economics. Barnard College for women, which was named for him, was established through his influence. In ~865 Dr. Barnard was president of the board of experts in the American Bureau of Mines and in ~867 served as a commissioner to the Paris Exposition. He pub- lished a report on machinery and industrial arts in ~ 868. He was a man of wide learning but among the sciences his · · ~ · · ed - principal interest was in mathematics. Among his published works are a " Treatise on Arithmetic,~' " ~ ~^1 <~ -&L Jollily L1~ ~J1 i1111111~1 W 1 U1 Symbolic Illustrations,'' `' Recent Progress of Science,~' the `` Metric System of Weights and Measures," `` Letters on College Government," and " History of the American Coast Survey." In ~860 Professor Barnard was one of the party of astron- omers who observed the eclipse of the sun in Labrador, and in ~862 he worked on Gilliss' observations of the stars of the ~ . ~ . . Southern Hemisphere. He was President of the American Jet · . · ~ . 1 ~ ~ Association tor tne Advancement of Science in ~ 860, of the Amer- ican Institute in ~ 8~z, and of the American Metrological Society. His death occurred in New York, April 27, ~ 889. He bequeathed his estate to Columbia University with which he had been so long connected. JOHN GROSS BARNARD Born, May I9, I 8 I 5; died, May I4, I 882 John Gross Barnard, born in Sheffield, Massachusetts, May ~9, ~5, was descended on both sides from Nests England ancestors. He obtained his early education in the village school and from his uncle, who was a teacher at Hartford, Connecticut. When ~4 years old, an opportunity was offered him by General Porter to enter the U. S. Military Academy at West Point.

I I 8 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Entering the Academy in 1829, probably the youngest pupil ever admitted there, Barnard was graduated second in a class of An. Passing from brevet second lieutenant through all the ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 grades, ne became colonel on December 28, 1865, and later major-general in both the regular army and the volunteers. As a civil engineer General Barnard's activities extended over all the United States, and also included surveys around the city of Mexico and on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Twice he was sent to Europe to collect information desired by the Government. During the Civil War, General Barnard took an active part in many battles, but his most important work was as chief engineer of the defences of Washington, where he built field-works which, while having some elements of perma- nency, did not require so long a time for construction as to defeat the purposes for which they were erected, and were of great value to the Government in more than one emergency. At the close of the war, General Barnard became president of the permanent Board of Engineers for Fortifications and River and Harbor Improvements. This position he held until his retirement in January, ~88~. The increased size of heavy guns and the advances in naval construction having rendered the coast defences inadequate, a series of new experiments in fortification was commenced at Fortress Monroe and Fort Delaware by the engineer department. General Barnard, with a corps of assistants, visited Europe and by the study of the latest develop- ments in the art was enabled to make most satisfactory recom- mendations to the board of which he was so long the president. His writings on technical engineering were numerous. He wrote also on mathematical and other sub jects, and was one of the associate editors of iohnson's Universal Cyclopedia, to which he contributed more than 90 articles. General Barnard had many intellectual interests besides his profession, among them a fond- ness for music. He was the author of a number of compositions, including a Te Deum. His death occurred on May I4, 1882, at Detroit, Michigan. (FrOm HENRY L. ABBOT, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, VO1. 5, 1905, PP. 219-229.)

THE INCORPORATORS WILLIAM HOLMES CHAMBERS BARTLETT Born, Hug; died, F`ebruary II, 1893 P~ ~ A. ~ . . rotessor . ~ , ~ at the head of his class and became second lieutenant of engineers. From ~827 to ~829 he was assistant professor in the Military Academy, and Acting Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy from ~834 to ~836. T I9 Bartlett was distinguished both as a soldier and as a man of science. He was born in Lancaster County, PennsyI- vania, in - , and early in life moved to Missouri. He was appointed to West Point from that State, graduated in ~826 ~ ~ ~ · In the inter- vening years, from 1829 to 1832, he was engaged in construction work at Fortress Monroe and at Fort Adams, and from ~2 to ~834 was assistant engineer at Washington. D. C. Resigning his i~eutenancv. he returned to West Point in I8~6 and was an, _ . . . .. , . - , . ~ ~ · , appointed to tne protessorsn~p or natural and experimental philosophy which he had held as an acting officer in previous years. In this position he remained until ELI. In that year, at his own request, he was retired, with the rank of colonel, and became actuary for the New York Mutual :Life Insurance Com- pany. During the year ~840, Professor Bartlett went abroad to purchase instruments for observations at West Point and travelled extensively, visiting the principal observatories of the world. He made numerous contributions to the American Journal of Science, and also wrote a treatise on rifled guns which was published in Memoirs of the ATational Academy of Sciences. Among his other writings are a " Treatise on Optics "; " Synthetical Mechanics," in which are some original problems; " Acoustics and Optics "; "Analytical Mechanics"; and " Spher- ical Astronomy." He also wrote a textbook for military cadets, which is still used in colleges. He died at Yonkers, New York, February ~ I, ~893. (See EDWARD S. HOLDEN, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, VO1. 7, 1912, PP. 171-193~) 1 i , - . ~ . ~ , I... ~ I,` ~ ~ or Ski-- ~ ? 6)~/ l

\ I20 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ALEXIS CASWELL Born, January 29, 1799; died, January 8, 1877 Alexis Caswell, who was descended from early settlers of New England and traced his pedigree back to Peregrine White, was born at Taunton, Massachusetts, January 29, ~799. His childhood was spent on a farm, and when he arrived at the proper age Bras prepared for college at Bristol Academy in Taunton. He entered Brown University at the age of ~q and was graduated in 1822' with first honors. For five years he was a tutor or pro- fessor in Columbian College, Washington, at the same time pursuing studies in theology under the guidance of the Presi- dent, Dr. Staughton. After preaching a year in Halifax, he became assistant to the Rev. S. Gano, at the First Baptist Church in Providence, Rhode Island, but in the course of a few weeks he was appointed Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Brown University. Except for a year spent in Europe, Professor Caswell performed the duties of this position for 35 years, adding to them those of the President, when Dr. Wayland's absence or indisposition necessitated a substitute. Resigning his professorship in ~ 863, he spent five years in pursuing his favorite studies, and was then called to the pres- idency of Brown University, and retained that once until ~872. A little later, Dr. Caswell was elected a member of the board of trustees of the University and in ~87< became a fellow in the . corporation. The University had previously conferred on him the degrees of Doctor of Divinity and Doctor of Laws. For nearly 50 years he was closely associated with his Alma Mater, and his life work was that of an educator. His greatest interest as a scientific investigator was in meteorology and astronomy. For z81 years, with few interrup- tions, he made a regular series of meteorological observations at College Hill in Providence, the results of which were pub- fished in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowle'dge. Adding later observations, a period of 45 years was covered. In 1858 Dr. Caswell delivered four lectures on astronomy at the Smith- sonian Institution in Washington. He joined the American · I

THE INCORPORATORS I2I Association for the Advancement of Science in Also, and was twice elected President. Dr. Caswell was an eminent speaker, a convincing writer, and a good citizen, taking an active part in all the interests of his city, his state and his country. He published a number of scientific papers, besides essays, biographical sketches, and sermons. His death occurred on January 8, r877, at Providence, Rhode Island. (From fOSEPH LOVERING, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy o f Sciences, vol. 6, ~ gag, pp. 363-3 72. ~ WILLIAM CHAUVENET Born, May 24, ~ 820; died, December ~ 3, ~ 870 William Chauvenet's father, William Marc Chauvenet was born in Narbonne, France, in 1790. Upon the downfall of Napoleon, he came to America and engaged in several unsuc- cessfuT business ventures, including a brief experiment in farm- ing at Milford, Pennsylvania. Here his son, William, was born in May, r 820. William Chauvenet received his elementary education in the schools of Philadelphia, and at the age of r6 entered Yale College, from which he was graduated in r840. From an early age, he had shown a special aptitude for mathematical and mechanical studies, and soon after graduation was engaged to assist Professor B ache in magnetic observations at Girard College. Not long afterwards he was appointed a professor of mathematics in the Navy, and upon the death of Professor David McClure in r842, was placed in charge of the naval schools, which were then located in the Naval Asylum in Philadelphia, but in r84S were removed to Annapolis. The old plan of instructing midshipmen when at sea had proved unsatisfactory, and an eight months' course at the naval schools was substituted. This in turn seemed far from adequate, and Professor Chauvenet elaborated a plan for a regularly organized institution for the training of naval officers, and urged it upon the consideration of several successive secretaries of the Navy. It was not until r8sr, however, that a regular four years' course ,, O

I22 lion. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES was finally adopted. " The Naval Academy is more indebted to him than to any other for its development and organiza- At first as professor of mathematics and astronomy, later of astronomy, navigation, and surveying, he was always the most prominent of the academic staff. The Academy derived reputation from his recognized ability." (Coffin.) In ~855 Professor Chauvenet was offered the position of Pro- fessor of Mathematics in Yale College and in ~859 that of astronomy and natural philosophy. At the same time he received an offer from Washington University, then newly- founded, of the professorship of mathematics. After considera- tion, he accepted the position in Washington University, and in ~86z, he became Chancellor of that institution. He labored assiduously and successfully in developing the University, but his health soon became impaired, and in r86g he felt himself obliged to resign his position. He died the next year at St. Paul Minnesota, at the age of 5~ years. Besides numerous papers on astronomical and mathematical subjects, Professor Chauvenet published several text-books of a high order of excellence. These included a work on trigo- nometry (~850), a manual of spherical and practical astronomy (~863), and a text-book of geometry (~870~. In addition to his abilities as a man of science and an educator, Professor Chauvenet possessed marked talent as a musical per- former, and his enthusiastic interest in that art continued to the end of his life. (From J. H. C. COFFIN, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. I, ~ 877, pp. 227-244.) JOHN HUNTINGTON CRANE COFFIN Born, September I4, I8I5; died, January 8, 1890 Professor Coffin was born at Wiscasset, Maine, in ~8~5. He was graduated from Bowdoin College in ~834. In ~836 he was appointed Professor of Mathematics in the United States Navy and served on various vessels. He was detailed to the Naval Observatory at Washington and placed in charge of the Mural

TEIE INCORPORATORS I23 Circle in 1843. In 1853 he was appointed Professor of Mathe- matics in the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Mary- land, and continued his work there until 186C. During the latter portion of this period, he was Professor of Astronomy and Navi- gation. The same year' 1865, he had charge of the American Ephem- eris and Nautical Almanac. This work was then published at Cambridge, Massachusetts, but the office was afterwards re- moved to Washington. Professor Coffin continued his labors in this connection until September, ~877, when he was retired from the Navy. He died at Washington, January 8, Who. He published a number of articles on the phases of astronomy and mathematics to which he had given special study. JOHN ADOLPHUS BERNHARD DAHLGREN Born, November I3, 1809; died, July I2, 1870 Admiral Dahigren was born in Philadelphia on November ~3, agog. His father, Bernhard Ullrik DahIgren, a Swede, was obliged to leave his native country in ~804, owing to his advocacy of republican principles. He came to America in ~806, and his government having withdrawn its opposition he obtained the post of Swedish Consul at Philadelphia. John Dahigren attrib- uted his inventive genius to his mother, while his desire for a seaman's life was stirred by the sight of the ships that lay at the wharves, or at the Navy Yard, at Philadelphia. Com- mencing his education at the Quaker School, he made such prog- ress under the watchful care of his father that when application was made for a midshipman's place in the Navy, the heartiest recommendations were received from his instructors. On the lath of April orders came to proceed to Norfolk and report to Captain Barron for duty on the frigate Mace`iortia, sailing for Brazil. A cruise in the Mediterranean followed, with promotion to a lieutenancy. A little later he took part in the work of the Coast Survey. About this time a threatened Toss of eyesight caused the young man to retire to a farm near Hartsville, Pennsylvania, and later he made a home for his ,. , . ~ 1 1

I24 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES family at Wilmington, Delaware. With restored sight, Lieutenant Dahlgren, in 1843, returned to active duty in the N avy and made a cruise of two years' duration in the Mediter- ranean in the ship Cumberiand. In i847, being ordered to Washington on ordnance duty, Lieutenant Dahlgren began the studies and labors which in ~6 years placed him at the head of the Ordnance Department of the Navy. In ~850 he announced the principles which he had evolved and after many discouragements and difficulties in protecting his inventions, and securing recognition for his ordnance system, on August ~3, ~856, he was given command of the sioop-of-war Plymouth, with which to introduce his new weapons of naval warfare and especially his ~ -inch gun. After a year's cruise, the ship returned, all objections to the heavy guns having been overcome, and their inventor after his ~~ years of labor, having obtained a complete victory for his ordnance principles. At the outbreak of the Civil War, Commander Dahlgren was placed in charge of the Washington Navy Yard and made Chief of the Ordnance Bureau. In July, ~ 862, he took command of the South Atlantic Squadron and the following year he was placed in charge of the fleet stationed before Charleston, S. C., succeeding Admiral Foote. For gallant conduct he received the thanks of Congress and was made a rear-admiral. At the close of the war, Admiral Dahigren returned to Washington and subsequently was placed in charge of the South Pacific Squadron. Returning from the cruise, he took up his duties as Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance at Washington, continuing in this position until his death, July ~2, ~870. He was the author of some important works on gunnery, including " Thirty-two pound Practice for Ranges," " Naval Percussion Locks and Primers," and " Shells and Shell Guns." During a period of `~ years he kept a journal which gives vivid pictures of his life and times. See ~IADELEINE V. DAHEGREN, Memoir of John A. Dahlgren, Boston, ~882.)

THE INCORPORATORS I25 JAMES DWIGHT DANA Born, February I2, I8I3; died, April I4, 1895 The Dana family is supposed to be either French or Italian in origin. Its earliest American representative was Richard Dana who came from England in ~690, and settled at Cam- br~dge, Massachusetts. From him many men illustrious in science and literature trace their pedigree. James Dwight Dana, the oldest in a family of ten children, was born in Utica, New York, February lo, ~8~3. " Honesty, virtue, and industry seem almost to be our natural inheritance," was his own estimate of his home. His first instruction in science was obtained in a school conducted by Charles Bartlett at Utica, and known as the " Utica High School." In ~830 young Dana entered Yale College, attracted there, as he said, by the reputation of Pro- fessor Benjamin Silliman. Entering as a sophomore, he was graduated in ~833. By the recommendation of his professors, he received the position of instructor in the Navy, leaving New York, on August Ad, of the same year, in the ship of the line Delaware, for a cruise to the Mediterranean. In July, ~834, he visited Mt. Vesuvius, and a letter written to Professor Silli- man describing its state at that time was published in the American Journal of Science the following year. On his return to New York after a voyage of ~6 months, Dana was invited to become assistant to Professor Silliman, which offer he gladly accepted and was thus brought into touch with the circle of scientific men at Yale. At this time he began work on his System of Mineralogy the first edition of which was published in ~837. When the United States Exploring Expedition, under Captain Wilkes, was preparing for its cruise in the Pacific Ocean, Pro- fessor Dana was selected as the mineralogist and geologist. This appointment was made in January, ~837, but the expedition did not sad! until August ~8, ~838. It returned to New York on June lo, ~8~. Dana's letters written during the cruise are most enter- taining, besides furnishing valuable geological and mineral- ogical information regarding the countries visited. While preparing his reports, which occupied him for a period of ~3 10

I26 ~ ~ ~ . . NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES l years, Professor Dana resided for a part of the time in Washing- ton, but atter hiS marriage to the daughter of Professor Silliman, he made his home in New Haven, that city then offering better facilities for his work. Besides the report on geology, which formed a large quarto volume with z~ plates, he also wrote the reports on zoophytes and crustaceans consisting of three quarto volumes, with atlases of more than ~50 plates. Most of the drawings were made with his own hand. On February ~8, ~856, Dana delivered his inaugural address as " SiTliman Professor of Natural History " at Yale, to which position he had been appointed in ~8So.2 During the 40 years that followed, he spent the greater part of the time not occupied by his duties as professor, in writing new general works on mineralogy and geology or preparing new editions of earlier ones, and in zoological and geological investigations. The titles of his communications to scientific societies and journals during this period number more than loo. The first edition of his " Manual of Geolo~v " annearec! in ~862. and in ~86~ the first ~ ~ ~ ~ _` ~ -OF r r ~ 7 - I edition of his " Textbook of Geology.'t In 1868, the fifth edition of his " System of Mineralogy'' was published; " a monumental work, the most complete treatise, indeed, that had ever been attempted." In ~ 870, Dana began the study of the glaciers of New England and published a monograph on the geology of the New Haven region. Two years later his book on " Corals and Coral Islands " was published, and he began the study of the so- called " Taconic " rocks of New England. In ~875 he published a book called " The Geological Story Briefly Told." After some years in which ill health interfered seriously with his activities, in ~887 he visited the Hawaiian Islands, where he studied the volcanoes. He prepared at this time a work on volcanoes which was published in ~890, and another called "The Four Rocks of the New Haven Region " which appeared the following year. In ~8~z he retired from his active duties as a professor in the 2 The title was changed in ~864 to Professor of Geology and Mineralogy.

THE INCORPORATORS university and in 1894 became professor emeritus. New Haven on April I4, IBM. I27 He died at . 1 ,, , Dana took great interest in the development of the Sheffield Scientific School and the Peabody Museum at Yale. He was President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1854, and of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1857. For about 50 years he served as one of the editors of the American Journal of Science. He received the Wollaston Medal of tile Geological Society of London in 1872, the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1877, and the Grand Walker Prize of the Boston Society of Natural History " for distinguished services in natural history ~ In I b92. me was the first Vice-President of the National Academy of Sciences. (See OILMAN, D. C., The Life of James Dwight Dana, 1899; also the bite graphical sketch by E. S. Dana, in Elmer. Joz~rn. Sci., ser. 3, vol. <9, pp. 329-356.) CHARLES HENRY DAVIS Born, January I 6, I 8~7; died, February I 8, I 877 Seventeen years of Admiral Davis' early life were spent almost constantly at sea, in the service of the Navy. He was born in Boston, January ~6, Doe, and educated at the Boston Latin School and at Harvard College. He entered the Navy in ~823, having left college for that purpose before his course was completed, but taking his degree with the class of 1825. His first cruise was to the Pacific on board the frigate United States, with Commander Isaac Hull. In this cruise Davis was also with the Dolphin, visiting the then unknown islands of the Pacific, when a new island of the Society group was discovered. The Dolphin was the first American man-of-war to visit the Hawaiian Islands. Davis received his midshipman's warrant in ~829, was appointed acting sailing-master of the Ontario, and made a three years' cruise in the Mediterranean. Later he served as flag-lieutenant on the Vincennes, Bras connected with the naval rendezvous in Boston, and made a cruise in the Independence. During this voyage, the ship stopped at South-

I28 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ampton and Davis was in London at the time of the death of William IV, and saw the young queen Victoria. He also visited St. Petersburg and was presented at court. During all these years he devoted himself to the study of astronomy and hydrography, and having had experience in navigation, he found the position offered him in the rapidly- developing Coast Survey most congenial to his tastes. The years ~842 to ~849 were spent in that service, during which he discovered " Davis' New South Shoal," no miles south of Nantucket shoals, and published several papers on the laws governing the neological action of the tidal and other currents His " Law of Deposit of the Flood Tide" is still an accepted authority. When the Navy Department resolved to publish an American Ephemeris and Nautical Al- manac, Davis was placed in charge of the work, and by suc- cessfully establishing it, made an enduring monument to his abilities. Enjoying the facilities of Harvard University and the Cam- bridge Observatory, and having built a house in Cambridge, Davis passed many happy years in the congenial society of the men of science and letters then residing there. In ~853, he served as commissioner to the " Crystal Palace " Industrial Exhibition in New York. After 3~ years' service in the Navy, in June, ~854, he received his commission as commander, and in ~856 returned to active naval service, making several voyages, and taking part in the " Walker episode " in Nicaragua. He also published several works of value to navigators. ~ ~ O O ~ c~ _ _ of the ocean. O During the Civil War' Davis rendered efficient service on the Construction Board of the Navy, and as fleet captain in the expedition against Port Royal, and flag officer in command of the Mississippi flotilla. For his gallant conduct he was made Rear-Admiral, February 7, ~ 863, and received the thanks of Con- gress. During this year, Admiral Davis became the first Chief of the Bureau of Navigation and in ~865 assumed the superin- tendency of the Naval Observatory, raising it to a high degree of efficiency.

THE INCORPORATORS I29 Called once more to service at sea, Admiral Davis in ~867 assumed charge of the Brazilian Squadron, when he encountered the unfortunate trouble with Lopez, which caused so much discussion in military circles. During his absence in Brazil, Harvard University conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Laws, the only instance up to that time in which it had been given to a naval commander. Admiral Davis commanded the naval station at Norfolk for three years, returning to the superintendency of the Observatory in ~874, when he became chairman of the Transit of Venus Commission. In editing Captain Hall's journal of Arctic expeditions and in stork on the naval exhibit at the Centennial Exhibition, he overtaxed his health and died at Washington, February ~8, ~877. He was buried on the banks of the Charles River, overlooking the University and his old home, and a stained-glass window, bearing his record, has been placed in the Memorial Hall at Harvard. Admiral Davis was one of the members of the " Permanent Commission " of the Navy Department, out of which the Academy appears in a measure to have developed. He was one of those most deeply interested in the Academy movement, and seems to have been the first to conceive the idea of having it incorporated under the Federal Government. He was a mem- ber of the first Council of ~863, and served on many important committees. (From C. H. Davis, in Biographical Memoirs of the National~cademy of Sciences, vol. 4, 1902, pp. 23-55; see also " Life of Charles Henry Davis, Rear- Admiral, 1807-1877," by the see author, 1899.) GEORGE ENGELMANN Born, February 2, 1809; died, February 4, 1884 Engelmann was descended on his father's side from a Tong line of ministers for the Reformed Dutch Church at Bacharach- on-the-Rhine, and on his mother's side from a family of Hugue- not emigres from the vicinity of Amiens. He was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, February a, ~809. His parents estab-

I 30 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES fished a school for young ladies, to which both contributed their superior talents, and his earlier education was guided by them. At the age of ~5 years he showed a great interest in botany, and began a collection of plants. Studying at home until his lath year, he entered the University of Heidelberg in ~8~7. Here he formed a friendship with Alexander Braun, which lasted until the death of that distinguished scientist. Having joined in a political demonstration in Heidelberg, young Engelmann was obliged to leave the University, and event to Berlin. After two years spent there he entered the University of Wurzburg, receiving the degree of Doctor of Medicine in ~83~. His inaugural dissertation, relating chiefly to the monstrosities and aberrant forms of plants, and illustrated by plates mace by himself, is stir! considered one of the most philosophical of its kind, and was highly commended at the time by the poet-philosopher Goethe. Spending the summer of ~832 in Paris with Braun and Agassiz as companions, where he says they "led a glorious life in scientific union in spite of the cholera " then raging in the city, Engelmann accepted a posi- tion as an agent of his uncles for the purchase of lands in the United States, and settled near St. Louis. He made many fatiguing horse-back journeys through the neighboring States, during which he kept a record of his botanical observations, which he afterwards used in his scientific work. Deciding to remain in St. Louis, then only a trading post, Dr. Engelmann commenced the practice of medicine with so little means, that he was forced to part with his gun and his faithful horse to furnish his offices. Four years later, however, his practice had become very successful. Familiarity with French and German added much to this success among the early settlers Who spoke those languages. This and his great profes- sional ability brought him financial independence, but even to the last year of his life he did not hesitate to respond to the call of those desiring his aid. His vacations, spent at the Harvard gardens and herbarium in the company of his friend Dr. Asa Gray, or in Europe with his wife and son, were devoted to gather- ing data for his scientific work.

THE I~TCORPO~TORS I3I In later life Dr. Engelmann visited the mountain region of North Carolina and Tennessee, the Lake Superior region, the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Coast, seeing for the first time in the native haunts many species of plants he had studied before from dried specimens, and adding to the great collections already made. He was deeply interested in the land of his adoption and showed his devotion to its scientific welfare by his efforts in the founding of the St. Louis Academy of Science, of which he was ~6 times elected President. He also delivered courses of lectures at Washington University, an institution in which he took great interest. In return, many marks of appreciation were given him, preeminently in the generosity of Mr. Shaw and others in collect- ing and republishing all his botanical works. His entire herba- rium, comprising ~oo,ooo specimens, and his library, including his notes and botanical sketches, have since been given by his son to the Missouri Botanical Garden, sometimes known as the Shaw Garden. Crushed in spirit by the death of his wife and the illness of his son. in ~879 Dr. Engelmann's health was seriousiv impaired. ~ . _% ~ ~ ~ but accepting Professor Sargent s invitation to accompany him to the forests of the Pacific Coast he gradually regained his spirit of cheerfulness, and though the journey was an arduous one for a man of his age he once more took up his work. In ~883 he revisited Europe, but soon after his return succumbed to the disease that had fastened itself upon him, and died February it, 884 Dr. Engelmann's last publication was his meteorological work the result of his observations for 47 years. His botanical work was very extensive, the notes made in the examination of specimens amounting to ~o,ooo slips, constituting 60 quarto volumes. His studies of the cactus family, of the yucca and the agave, of the American oaks and conifers, and of North American vines, show marks of his indomitable energy and patience. His endurance as a traveller was remarkable.

I32 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES His companions spoke of him as having " good spirits, good nature, and good fellowship." ~ From CHARLES A. WHITE, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, VO1. 4, 1902, PP. I'm.) JOHN FRIES FRAZER Born, JU1Y 8, I 8 I 2; died, October I 2, I 872 The career of John Fries Frazer was largely connected with the city of Philadelphia. He was the son of Robert Frazer, an eminent lawyer, and was born on Chestnut Street, opposite Inde- pendence Hall, July 8, Age. His grandfather was Lieutenant- Colonel Persifor Frazer, an officer in the Revolutionary War. . . Me first attended a school in Philadelphia, where he took high rank in study and likewise in sports, and after spending a year at the military school of Captain Partridge, at Middle- town, Connecticut, became a pupil of Rev. S. B. Wylie. By him he divas thoroughly drilled in the classics and in mathematics, as well as in ecclesiastical history. After graduation from the University of Pennsylvania, young Frazer served as laboratory assistant to Professor Bache. Later he held the position of assistant in the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, and also took up the study of law in the office of John M. Scott. In due course he was admitted to practice. The physical and chemical sciences, however, proved more attractive to Frazer, and after being professor in the High School of Philadelphia for some time, he accepted the professorship of chemistry and physics in the University of Pennsylvania. This position he held till his death, when, from being the youngest member of the faculty. he had become senior professor and Vice-Provost. As a teacher, Professor Frazer was most successful. His lectures were delivered with enthusiasm and enlivened by many anecdotes, and roused the deepest interest in the students. At the Franklin Institute, also, he carried on, with great sat~s- faction, the task of popularizing physical science. After his marriage in ITS, his house became a center of social and intellectual intercourse. He had assembled a large - l

THE INCORPORATORS I33 library, with the contents of which he was so well acquainted that, on a great variety of subjects, he could turn to the exact pages of works rarely referred to, and give the desired infor- mation. Ill health obliged him in ~867 to seek rest and recreation by journeying to Europe. He was so much benefited thereby that he was able to carry on his work again, which he did until his sudden death on October ~2, ~872. This occurred on the day following the inauguration of the new University building, while superintending the transfer of his apparatus and scientific library to the shelves in his department. (From JOHN L. LECONTE, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. I, ~ 877, pp. 245-256. ~ SO ~ · ~ ~ ~ WOLCOTT GIBBS well - 1 - Born, February 2~, ~8~2; died, December 9, ~908 Wolcott Gibbs belonged to a family in which scientific tastes were strongly manifested. His father, Colonel George Gibbs, wrote several memoirs upon mineralogical subjects, and his name was given to the mineral Gibbsite. His brother also attained some reputation as a geologist. On his mother's side, several of the Wolcott family held important positions under the Government, her father having been Secretary of the Treasury, a Justice of the U. S. Circuit Court, and finally Governor of Connecticut. An earlier representative of the family, another Oliver Wolcott, was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. The early childhood of Wolcott Gibbs was spent on the estate at Sunswick, Long Island. His father's death, when he was only ~~ years old, left him to the care of his mother, who impressed on him the influence of her superior character. At a very early age, he showed a fondness for minerals and flowers. He was sent to a private school in Boston when seven years old, and his summers were spent near Newport at the home of Dr. Channing, who was a connection by marriage. Returning to New York, young Gibbs prepared for college, and entered Columbia, from which he was graduated

I34 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in ~84~. In his junior year he published a paper on a new kind of galvanic battery in which carbon was used, probably for the first time, as the inactive plate. Though never practicing medicine, Gibbs obtained a diploma from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York, in ~845, having previously been associated with Professor Robert Hare in his laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania. To perfect his training in chemistry, Dr. Gibbs spent some time in Berlin, at Giessen, and in Paris, and among his teachers Hein- rich Rose probably stands foremost in the influence which he had in turning Gibbs' attention toward analytical and inorganic chemistry. After his return to America, Dr. Gibbs served as Professor of (chemistry In the ~ ree Academy, now the College of the City of New York, for ~4 years. Much of his time was given to research work, and in ~ 857, in connection with Genth, Dr. Gibbs published an important memoir on the ammonia-cobalt bases, which brought him prominently to the notice of the scientific world. He became associate editor of the American' Journal of Science in ~85~, and furnished abstracts amounting to 500 pages to that periodical. In ~86~ he published his researches on the platinum metals, which established his reputation as a chemist. In ~ 86~ he was called to the Rumford professorship at Harvard University. Besides lecturing on heat and light, Pro- fessor Gibbs had charge of the chemical laboratory in the Lawrence Scientific School. Associated in this school with Agassiz, Gray, Wyman, Peirce and Cooke, he carried on research work for eight years, at the same time supervising the work of the post-graduate students whose investigations were undertaken on their own initiative, with only a final examination for the bachelor's degree, after the pattern of the German schools, whose methods, through the influence of Gibbs, were thus intro- duced into the United States. After the consolidation of the Scientific School with the College at Harvard, Professor Gibbs retained only the Rum-

THE INCORPORATORS I 35 ford professorship. He equipped a small laboratory for himself and carried out those brilliant researches on complex inorganic acids, which brought him the highest praise. The chief piece of apparatus used in these important investigations was a cast- iron cooking stove, and the rest of the equipment was equally modest. After the closing of the Scientific School laboratory, Dr. Gibbs lectured to small classes upon the spectroscope, and on thermodynamics. Upon his retirement as professor emeritus, he removed his private laboratory to Newport, where he had a summer home. Here he took pleasure in his garden and especi- ally in the cultivation of roses. His death occurred on Decem- ber 9, HIS, when he was nearly 87 years of age. Gibbs wrote no books and delivered no popular lectures, but his researches and his voluminous scientific writings brought him honors from many scientific societies in Europe and America. He was the first Home Secretary of the National Academy of Sciences and its President for five years, and also presided over the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 897 As a citizen he was not devoid of public spirit. The Union :League Club was founded at his house, and he took an active interest in the Sanitary Commission, the forerunner of the Red Cross Society. (From F. W. CLARKE, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 7, Anglo, pp. ~-~2.) JAMES MELVILLE GILLISS Born, September 6, I 8 I I; died, February 9, I 865 Captain Gilliss was the eldest son of George Gilliss and Mary Melville Gilliss of Georgetown, D. C. His father, who was in the service of the Government, was a descendant of Thomas Gilliss, a native of Scotland, who settled at an early date on the Eastern Shore of 'Maryland. James Melville Gilliss entered the Navy, as midshipman, in ~ 826. He obtained leave of absence in ~833, and entered the University of Virginia, but was

36 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES able to remain there only a year on account of a serious affection of the eyes, brought on by overstudy. In ~836 he was assigned to the Depot of Charts and Instruments, an office whose function was in part the rating of chronometers. Gilliss was soon placed in charge of this office and began to make observations for the determinations of time. In the winter of ~837-8 he observed a large series of transits of the moon and moon-culminating stars. When the United States Exploring Expedition sailed in ~838, Gilliss remained in Washington under orders to observe moon-culminations, occultations and transits, and continued in that work during the four years in which the expedition was absent. He published the first American volume of astronomical observations, prepared the first catalogue of stars and con- structed a working astronomical observatory. At the same time he carried on magnetic and meteorological observations. Gilliss pursued his investigations with remarkable energy and studious application and was possessed of extraordinary powers of sight which enabled him to make extremely accurate obser- vations. The establishment of the U. S. Naval Observatory in ~842 was brought about largely through the efforts of Gilliss, and he was charged with the preparation of the plans for the construc- tion of the building and the arrangement of the instruments. In ~846 he was assigned to duty in the Coast Survey under Professor B ache. ~ ~ - At the suggestion of Dr. Gerling of Marburg, ne ~n~area a movement for an expedition to Chile, for the purpose of ob- serving the planet Venus and in ~8~9 established a station at Santiago where for nearly three years he carried on observations of Venus and Mars, together with meridian observations of Coon stars and also zones of about 2~,000 stars, as well as obser- vations on earthquakes, and barometer and thermometer readings. From ~852 to ~856 he was occupied in preparing the report of this expedition which comprises six quarto volumes. In ~858 he made a brief expedition to Peru and in ~860 to Washington Territory for the purpose of observing the total eclipse of the

THE INCORPORATORS I37 sun. In I86I he was placed in charge of the U. S. Naval Observ- atory, in which office he remained until his death in 1865. (:From B. A. GOULD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. i, ~877, pp. i35-~79.) AUGUSTUS ADDISON GOULD Born, April 23, I 805; died, September I 5, I 866 Dr. Gould was born in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, April 23, ~805. His father was a teacher of music and a skilful engraver, but turned his hand to many things, among which was the management of a small farm on which he lived. From ~8~7 to ~820 he was a member of the State Legislature. The care of the little farm among the hills demanded the help of his son Augustus, who at ~ 5 years of age took entire charge of it. Having a desire to obtain more education than he had received at the common school, young Gould by great industry suc- ceeded in gaining the preparation for entering Harvard College, which he did in ~82~. During his whole course he maintained himself by hard work and in strict economy. He studied medicine in Boston, and after spending one year as resident student in the Massachusetts General Hospital, received his doctor's degree in ~830. He was still obliged to perform many hard tasks to gain the means of support, and among these we find mention of cataloguing and classifying so,ooo pamphlets in the Boston Athenaeum :Library. Natural history was always his favorite study, and he became a member of the Boston Society of Natural History soon after its formation, and labored after- wards for it until his death, rising at four o'clock in the morning and working on the collections before his professionial duties began. His first collections were of insects, but afterwards he turned his attention to mollusks. He prepared a volume of nearly 400 pages, on invertebrate animals of Massachusetts, illustrated by more than coo drawings which he made with his own hand from nature. This attracted much attention from naturalists both at home and in Europe, and received special commendation from the elder Agassiz. In ~848, Dr. Gould, in !

I38 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES collaboration with Agassiz, published a text-book for schools on the principles of zoology. He also edited the unfinished work of his friend, Dr. Amos Binney, on the terrestrial air- breathing mollusks of the United States. Dr. Gould made his greatest contribution to natural history by the work done on the collection made by Captain James P. Couthouy, U. S. N., when attached to the United States Explor- ing Expedition. As all the notes were lost, and various restric- tions were made as to the manner of doing the ~ ork, the task was a perplexing one. Besides his papers on natural history, which number more than loo, he also published medical addresses ant! reports. which were of great value to his profession. ~ ~ , . ~ ~ . -ret ~ He was President of the Massachusetts Medical Society, and for several years consulting physician of the Massachusetts General Hospital. The church to which he belonged, and the public schools were benefited by his labors. Untiring in his work he was still hoping to attain better results as a physician and naturalist, when he was suddenly attacked bv cholera. and died on Sentember T C. Tang ~ ~ rib ~~ ____ (t rom WYMAN and DALL, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, VO1. 5, 1905, PP. 91-~13.) BENJAMIN APTHORP GOULD Born, September 27, 1824; died, November 26, 1896 The life of Benjamin Apthorp Gould was intimately con- nected with the city of Boston. Born there on September 27, ~824, he received his early education from his father. a teacher ~ . ~ ~ . of acknowledged merit, and entered Harvard College in ~844. For a short time after graduation he was head-master of the Roxbury Latin School. a , Though early in his college course he showed a fondness for the classics, the later years were devoted largely to mathematics, and he thus laid the foundation for his future work. In ~845 Gould went to Europe, and spent three years In astronomical study at Berlin, Paris, Gottingen and other cities. He received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the

THE INCORPORATORS I 39 University of Gottingen, and contracted friendships with many distinguished scholars. It is said that through the influence of Alexander von Humboldt, Gould obtained a home in the family of the astronomer Gauss. The favorable impression he made at that time was no doubt the cause of his being offered the chair of Professor of Astronomy in the University of Gottingen, and Director of the Observatory. Though this was considered a high honor, the first of the kind, probably, paid to an American, Dr. Gould declined the position, in spite of the fact that it was urged upon him a second time. His desire was to mark out for himself an astronomical career in America. From ~ 85z to ~ 867 Dr. Gould was connected with the Govern- ment service, carrying forward, under the Coast Survey, the work begun by B ache and Walker in fixing the longitude of places in the United States. During this period he served as Director of the DudIey Observ- atory at Albany, assisted in reducing and computing astronom- ical observations made at the Naval Observatory in Washington, and made some valuable contributions to astronomical literature, which added greatly to his European reputation. During the Civil War, Dr. Gould served for a time as Actuary of the United States Sanitary Commission. In ~86~, he married Mary Apthorp Quincy, daughter of Rev. Josiah Quincy, and by her aid he was able to build an observ- atory at Cambridge, and engage in astronomical observations, which he did for several years. In ~870 Dr. Gould went to the Argentine Republic for the purpose of organizing a government observatory at Cordoba. He remained in Argentina for ~ ~ years and devoted himself to the study of the southern celestial hemisphere, the crowning work of his life. The loss of his two elder children by drowning and afterwards the death of his wife, who had ever aided him in his labors, bore heavily upon his spirits, but after the last of three trips to his home in Boston, he resolutely returned alone to Cordoba to complete his task. When in ~885 he finally came back to this country he brought with him ~400 photographic

I40 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES plates of southern stellar clusters. To the measurement and reduction of these he devoted the rest of his life, and had the satisfaction of seeing the last of these results printed in the strorzomical Journal, which was brought to him a few hours before his death. For the continued publication of the Journal he had made adequate provision. A public dinner was given Dr. Gould on his arrival in Boston, presided over by Hon. :Leverett Saltonstall, Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes welcoming him by a poem from " his celestial wanderings back to earth." In his later years Dr. Gould did valuable work for the American Metrological Society of which he was at one time president. He was one of the founders, and first president, of the Colo- nial Society of Massachusetts, and received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from Harvard and Columbia. Many dis- tinguished societies enrolled him among their members, and he Eras made a Knight of the Order of Merit in Prussia, a distinc- tion given to only two other Americans. His life ended by an accident on the evening of Thanksgiving Day, November 26, 896. (From the biographical sketch by ANDREW MCF. DAVIS, in the Proceedings of the American Ar~tiq2carian Society, April, ~897.) ASA GRAY Born, November ~ 8, Ho; died, January 30, ~ 888 Asa Gray was of Scotch-Irish ancestry, and was born at Paris, New York, November ~8, Rio. His father was a farmer and tanner. Asa, the oldest of eight children, assisted his father, and attended the country school. Later, he attended the grammar school at Clinton, New York, and was also a student at Fairfield Academy for four years. His first interest in natural science was aroused by the lectures of Dr. James Hadiey at the Fairfield Medical School. His taste for botany was aroused by reading in Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopedia and Gray soon became interested in collecting plants about Fairfield, besides making excursions to other parts of the State of New York. In ~829 he became a

THE INCORPORATORS I4I student at Fairfield Medical School and received a doctor's degree in ~83~, but never practiced. While a student, Dr. Gray assembled quite an extensive herbarium, and many mineralogical specimens, and began a correspondence with Dr. Lewis C. Beck of Albany and Dr. John Torrey of New York. After teaching at Bartiett's High School, giving a course of lectures on botany at the Fairfield Medical School and on botany and miner- alogy at Hamilton College, Dr. Gray was called to Neal York as assistant to Professor Torrey. From this time, his attention was chiefly given to botany, and some original papers were soon published. In ~835 Gray became Curator and Librarian of the Lyceum of Natural History in New York, and issued in ~836 his first text-book, the " Elements of Botany." The Wilkes Exploring Expedition, to which he had been appointed botanist, failing to sad! until two years later than the time originally set, he accepted the chair of botany at the newly-founded University of Michigan, with the condition that he be permitted to spend a year in Europe. The University proved unable, however, to meet its engagements and Dr. Gray returned to New York and continued work on the " Flora of North America," which he had begun in ~836, in collaboration with Professor Torrey. The first volume of this important treatise appeared in ~838, and the second in ~843. Attracting the favorable notice of President Quincy of Har- vard, the newly-endowed Fisher Professorship of Natural His- tory was soon offered him. Dr. Gray entered on his duties there in ~842. Having married, he established himself in Cambridge and surrounded himself with books and plants. His home soon became a center for the study of botany by students both old and young. Out of his small salary, Gray contrived to find means to carry on his investigations in botany and to accumulate speci- mens, so that in ~865, when he presented his collections to the Harvard College, the herbarium contained more than 200,000 specimens and the library about Woo books. ~1

I42 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES From the beginning of his botanical work, Dr. Gray believed that the description and classification of the flowering plants was of the utmost importance and after thirty-five years spent in the development of this branch of botany he could safely be said to stand at the head of American systematists, and ranked with the great botanists of the world. His " Botanical Text-book," " Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States," and " How Plants Grow," and " How plants Behave " have been of inestimable value to American students of botany. He died on January30, r888. (From W. G. FARLOW, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 3, ~895, pp. ~6~-~75. See also the biographical sketches in the " Memorial of Asa Gray," published by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1888, and by JAMES D. DANA, in Amer. Jo2~rn. Sci., ser. 3, vol. 35, ~888, pp. ~8~-zo3.) ARNOLD GUYOT Born, September 28, 1807; died, February 8, 1884 Guyot was descended from one of the Protestant families which settled in Neuchate! after the revocation of the edict calf N antes, and was born at Boudevilliers on September z8, Doe. He was named after the Swiss patriot Arnold von WinkeIried. His boyhood was passed at Hauterive, and from his home there he hac! glorious views of the Bernese Oberland. the Tunafrau. _ ~ . , ~ rat ~ ~ ~ ~ .~ . · 1 1 · _1 _ __^ 1~ the ~chreckhorn' and other mountain peaks, wnlcn must nave helped to inspire in him the love of nature which he manifested early in life. Young Guyot's first school days were spent at La Chaux-de- Fonds, a village " at the foot of a narrow and savage gorge of the _ ~q ~ ~ 1 Jura,J' 3,070 teet above the sea. At the age of I4 he entered the College of Neuchatel, where he pursued classical studies and also formed a friendship with Leo Lesquereux, the botanist, which lasted throughout his life. In ~825 Guyot went to Ger- many to complete his education. He spent some months at Metzingen, and later at CarIsruhe in the family of Mr. Braun, the father of Alexander Braun, the distinguished botanist and

THE INCORPORATORS I43 philosopher, where he met Agassiz, Schimper, Imhoff, and other naturalists. After a short sojourn in Stuttgart, Guyot returned to Neuchatel in ~ 827. Here, uncler the preaching of the. Reverend Samuel Petit-pierre, he turned from science to the- ology, and began to prepare himself for the church, although his leisure hours were still spent in collecting plants and shells, and in other scientific activities. In ~829 he went to Berlin, chiefly to attend the lectures of Schieiermacher, Neander and other historians and theologians at the University of Berlin, but he also became interested in those of Hegel, Steffens, Hofmann, Dove, and other professors of the scientific faculty, and made the acquaintance of Humboldt. After a little time he found his inclinations toward the study of nature so strong that he abandoned theology for natural science. While in Berlin, Car! Ritter, the geographer, made an especially strong impression on him and turned his mind in the direction of geographical studies. At the end of five years at the University of Berlin, he received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, tak- ing as the subject of his graduating thesis " The Natural Classifi- cation of :Lakes." After leaving the university, he went to Paris and became tutor to the children of Count de PourtaTes-Gorgier, and with them he visited the Pyrenees and travelled in Italy, Belgium, and Holland, and along the Rhine. While in Paris in ~838, he was urged by Agassiz to take up the study of the glaciers of the Alps, to which he himself had attracted the attention of the scientific world the preceding year by the announcement of his glacial theory. Guyot acceded to the request of his friend and spent some weeks in an examination of the Alpine glaciers. He made several important original discoveries regarding their structure and action, but as it had been agreed between himself and Agassiz that his special field should be considered to be the phenomena of the Swiss erratic boulders, his results were with- held from publication for forty years. He did, however, present a communication on the " blue bands " of glaciers and the incli- >

I44 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES nation of their strata before the Neuchate! Society of Natural Sciences in December, ~84~, the substance of which was cited by Agassiz in his " Systeme Glaciaire " in r847. In ~839 Guyot returned from Paris to Neuchatel, joined the Society of Natural Sciences, and accepted the chair of history and physical geography at the postgraduate school known as the " Academy." Here he remained for ten years, during which time he engaged in extensive investigations; " meteorologic, barometric, hydrographic, orographic and glacialistic." For seven years his principal work related to the Swiss erratic boulders. His results were to have appeared in the second volume of Agassiz's work on glaciers, but unfortunateIv the · · . . . . . .. . . . enterprise was terminated abruptly by the outbreak of the revolution of ~848. The Academy was suppressed, and the pro- fessors, including Guyot, were left without occupation. Guyot was urged by Agassiz to come to the United States, which he finally decided to do. He arrived in August, ~848, and the to~ow~ng winter Every a course of lectures before the :Lowell Institute in Boston on " Comparative Physical Geography," which he spoke of as " a brief epitome of his teaching in Neuchatel." They were delivered in French and afterward translated into English by Professor Felton, and published under the title of " Earth and Man." After this time C~uyot was occupied for six years, under the auspices of the Massachusetts Board of Education, in lecturing to teachers on geography and methods of teaching, and also prepared a series of geographies and maps for schools which had a very extensive use throughout the country. In ~854 Guyot was appointed Professor of Physical Geog- raphy and Geology at Princeton. Besides carrying on his pro- fessional duties, he lectured in the State Normal School of New Jersey, and the Princeton and Union Theological Seminaries. He delivered two courses of lectures at the Smithsonian Insti- tution, one in ~853 on the " Harmonies of Nature and History," and the second in ~ 862 on " Unity of Plan in the System of Life." He also interested himself at Princeton in organizing a museum,

THE INCORPORATORS I45 which Libbey has called " The most substantial monument that Professor Guyot has left behind him in Princeton." Soon after coming to the United States, Guyot made the acquaintance of Joseph Henry, who consulted him regarding the development of the system of meteorological observations, and also entrusted him with obtaining improved instruments. He prepared directions for meteorological observations for the Smithsonian Institution in Who, and a volume of meteorological and physical tables, which was published originally in ~852, and has passed through several editions. Under the joint auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and the State governments of New York and Massachusetts, Guyot located meteorological stations throughout the States mentioned. In ~86~, on the occa- sion of a visit to Europe, he instituted a comparison of American and European barometers. " It is believed that these compari- sons establish a correspondence of the European and American standards within the narrow limit of one or two thousandths of an inch." ~ Henry. ~ For thirty years Guyot carried on, largely with the encoura~e- ~ .~ ~ · .~ · T , ·, A ment of the Smithsonian institution, extensive barometric investigations throughout the mountain ranges of the Atlantic slope, frOm the White Mountains of New Hamoshire to the Smoky Mountains of North Carolina. He made thousands of barometric measurements of altitudes, including those of .Mount Washington and other high peaks, which were remarkable for their exactness. He died at Princeton on February 8, ~884. ~ From JAMES D. DANA, in Biographical Memoirs o f the National A academy o f Sciences, vol. 2, 1880, PP. 309-347.) JAMES HALL Born, September 12, ~8~ I; died, August 7, ~898 James Hall was of English parentage, and was born in Hing- ham, Massachusetts, on September 12, 1811. In I83T, he began studies in natural history under Amos Eaton at the Rensselaer School (now the Polytechnic Institute) in Troy, New York,

I46 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES where he afterwards occupied the chair of geology until 1876, at which time he became professor emeritus. He was appointed assistant geologist in the geological survey of the Fourth District of New York in ~836, and the following year, as geologist, was placed in charge of the work of this western district. He pub- lished reports annualIv from ~8~8 to ~84~. and in ~84q a final T rid J I · ~ ~— report in quarto form one of the series of volumes on the natural history of the State printed by order of the Legislature. In this, the fossils, the lithological characters of the rocks, and the succession of the strata are fully described. The same year Hall was appointed paleontologist of the State and continued in that position until ~874. The principal work of these years is embodied in the eight volumes of the " Paleontology of New ~' ~ `` ~ · ~ ~ ~ 1 ·1 1 t! cat - York77 which has been described as one of the most remark- able monuments of scientific labor, zeal, and industry, which this country has produced." In order to trace the western extension of the New York strata, Hall studied the formations of the Mississippi Valley and the Rocky Mountains. In ~855, he vvas appointed Geologist of Iowa, and in ~857 Geologist of Wis- consin, and the results of his western investigations are largely embodied in the reports of the surveys of those States. [n ~858, he received the Woliaston Medal of the Geological Society of London, of which he was a foreign member. At about this time he took up the study of the graptolites of the so-called Quebec group, and in ~865 published an elaborate monograph in the 20th Report of the New York Cabinet of Natural History. He was the Director of the New York State Museum from ~866 to 1893. T ~ ~ ~ · 1 ~ - ~ n Ado, ne aided In organizing the International Congress of Geologists, and was Honorarv President of the Congress held · ~ · · ~ J ~ In Washington In ~~. He was also the first President of the Geological Society of America in ~889. In addition to his work on the paleontology of New York, Professor Hall wrote the paleontological portions of the reports of various surveys of the Western Territories under the Govern- ment, including those of the Fremont Expedition, the Stansbury

THE INCORPORATORS I47 Expedition, and the first United States ancI Mexican Boundary Survey. He also contributed many papers to the American Journal of Science and to the transactions of American and foreign scientific societies. Besides paleontological investigations, he engaged in the study of the crystalline structure of the rocks, and " was the first to point out the persistence and the significance of mineralogical characters as a guide to their classification." He also devoted attention to questions of dynamic geology, especially in relation to the structure of mountain ranges. He died on August 7, ~ 898, at the advanced age of eighty-seven years, at Echo Hill, New Hampshire. JOSEPH HENRY Born, December I 7, I 799; died \lay I 3, I 878 The life of Henry may be properly divided into three periods; his early years, the period during which he was a professor in the Albany Academy and at Princeton University, and the period during which he was Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Simon Newcomb said of him in ~880: " Few have any conception of the breadth of the field occupied by Professor Henry's researches, or of the number of scientific enterprises of which he was either the originator or the effective supporter. What, under the circumstances, could be said within a brief space to show what the world owes to him has already been so well said by others that it would be impracticable to make a really new presentation without writing a volume." Henry was born on December I7, 1799, at Albany, New York. He was of Scotch descent, and both his maternal and paternal grandparents came to New York at the same time in 1775. His early years were spent at Albany and at Galway, a village near Saratoga. His father was William Henry, his mother Annie Alexander, an aunt of Stephen Alexander, also one of the incor- porators of the Academy. As a boy he was imaginative. His mind ran on romance and adventure, and his reading was made up largely of novels, poetry and plays. He even organized an amateur dramatic company, and took part as an actor or directed the acting of others. When

I48 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cony of Gregory2s " Lectures on Ex- about sixteen years Ad a --rat perimental Philosophy, Astronomy and (chemistry, intended chiefly for the Use of Young Persons " fell into his hands and, " although by ~ ' ' " ' - -~~ · — impression on to the pursuit afterwards the ~ . . . no means a profound work,,' made so strong an him that he at once resolved to devote himself of knowledge. Alh~n`r Arnclemv once also ~n~d In the StUCIV He attended a night school, and · ~ ~ · .. . 1 ~ J ~ J ~ —— ~ O ot medicine. Having occupied himself for a little time as a private tutor and a surveyor, at the age of twenty-six he became Professor of Mathematics in the Albany Academy. Here in ~827 he began that most important series of investi- gations which in a few years placed him at the head of Ameri- can men of science. In ~832 he was elected Professor of Natural Philosophy at Princeton University, then the College of New Jersey, and during the fourteen years in which he occupied this position, all his spare time was spent In original research In electro-magnetism, the results of which were published at frequent intervals. Regarding these investigations the Academy registered its opinion in ~ 876 in the following terms: " Resolved, That in response to the letter of the British Minister, Sir Edward Thornton, asking the Academy for a suggestion as to the names and services of persons considered eligible to receive the Albert Medal of the Society of Arts, to reward ' distinguished merit in promoting arts, manufacture, or commerce,' the Academy suggest the name of Professor Joseph Henry as most worthy of all living Americans to receive that' recognition. They base this suggestion upon his distinguished merit in the following respects, viz.: " I. As being the first to develop the power of the electro-magnet as actuated by an intensity or a quantity battery. · · CL 2. As the first to apply the electro-magnet in the invention of an electro- magnetic telegraph. " 3. As the first to invent a machine to be moved by electro-magnetism. " 4. For the application of the electro-telegra,ph to forecasting the weather. " 5. For the plan of the Smithsonian Institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men, and the successful development of this plan during an administration of more than twenty-Eve years as Scientific Director of this Establishment. " 6. For the improvement in fog-signals in connection with the United States Light House Board, and discoveries in sound." 3 3Proc. NTat. Acad. Sci., vol. I, p. ~4, April, ~876.

THE INCORPORATORS I49 In 1846 Henry resigned from Princeton and became the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, then just established. The following year he presented his plan of organization and from that time until his death in ~g78, a period of 3~ years, he devoted all his energies to its practical development, whereby he gained an unique position among American men of science and made the Smithsonian Institution better known throughout the world than any other American institution. " His original investigations during his thirty years at the Smithsonian Institu- tion," remarks Dr. Goode, "were not of great extent; but his influence, not only upon the development of scientific work in the United States, but upon its character, cannot be overestimated. His official position brought him into constant contact, either nersonalIv or bv letter. with all in the United States Who were engaged in scenic work, and the inspiration and direct control which he exercised were constant and far-reaching." Such researches and studies as he undertook had their origin chiefly in problems encountered or brought to his attention in the course of his administrative work. They related to a areas variety of rip J - -J ~ subjects acoustics, meteorology, education, the phenomena of physical and organic forces, evolution, the qualities of building materials and of illuminating oils, etc. In ~852 he was appointed by President Fillmore a member of the Lighthouse Board. Early in the Civil War he, with Pro- fessor B ache and Admiral Davis, was appointed by the Secretary of the Navy on the commission to investigate various practical questions connected with the operations of the Navy. It was the work of this commission that appears to have suggested the organization of the National Academy of Sciences in the form which it finally assumed. Henry, according to his own utter- ances, did not take part in its organization but he was one of the charter members and the chairman of the first committee of the Academy, that on weights, measures and coinage. In ~866 he was elected Vice-President, and in ~868 became President, his term of office extending over eleven years. (From SIMON NEWCOMB, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 5, 1905, pp. I-45, and G. BROWN GOODE, in " The Smithsonian !

I50 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Institution, ~846-~896, the History of Its First Half Century," Washington, 1896, p. II5. See also the sketch by WM. B. TAYLOR, entitled " A Memoir of Joseph Henry," in Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washir~gtor:, vol. 2, pp. 230, and 368, 1879; and that by JAMES C. WELLING, entitled, " Notes on the life and character of Joseph Henry," in the same publication, pp. 203-229.) JULIUS ERASMUS HILGARD Born, January 7, 1825; died, May 9, 1890 Julius Erasmus Hilgard was born at Zweibrucken, Rhenish Bavaria, January 7, ~825. His father, Theodore Erasmus Hil- gard, was for many years Chief Justice of the Court of Appeals, but on account of his liberal opinions was so dissatisfied with con- ditions in his native country that in ~ 835 he emigrated to America. The journey from his native place to Havre was made in wagons. After a voyage of 6z days, the family landed at New Orieans at Christmas, and journeyed up the Mississippi to St. Louis, and thence to a farm at Belleville, Illinois. As the oldest son, Julius gave valuable help by his practical talents. His education was carried on at home. Music, chemistry, ancient and modern {an- guages and mathematics (the higher branches of the latter being studied without outside help), occupied his attention until ~843, when he went to Philadelphia to study engineering and to obtain employment. In that city he made the acquaintance of Professor Bache, and commenced a life-Ion" friendship with Elisha Kent Kane, the arctic explorer. The first work obtained was in the preliminary surveys of the Bear Mountain Railroad. Soon, however, Professor B ache, recognizing his abilities, procured young Hilgard a position in the Coast Survey, in which service he continued, with short inter- ruptions, until his death. In the field work? in computations and investigations in the once, in the publication of the records and results of the Survey, in his influence on political leaders, Mr. Hilgard rendered highly intelligent and valuable aid to the ser- vice. During the failing health of Professor B ache, Hilgard, who was at that time in charge of the Coast Survey office, was obliged to perform the duties of Superintendent, which he did without

THE INCORPORATORS ISI extra compensation until the appointment of Benjamin Peirce to the position. Though it seems fitting that Hilgard should have become Superintendent upon the death of B ache, he did not receive the appointment until ~88~. At that time his health was so impaired that, as he said, " it came too late." He was soon forced to resign. While Assistant Superintendent, his work in the Office of Weights and Measures gained him most fa~ror- able notice in Europe and he Bras invited to the directorship of an International Bureau of Freights and Measures about to be established in Paris. Declining this, but continuing his con- nection with the International Committee, a beautiful Sevres vase was presented to him by President Thiers on behalf of the French Government in recognition of his services. He also had great satisfaction in being instrumental in bringing to a successful ending the operations for the telegraphic determination of trans- atiantic longitudes. Among his other valuable services, Hilgard delivered in ~876 a course of twenty lectures at Johns Hopkins University on the subject of " Extended Territorial Surveying." Resigning his position in July, ~85, he lived in retirement for five years, and died at Washington, May 9, ~ Sgo. (From E. W. HILGARD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 3, ~895, pp. 327-33g.) EDWARD HITCHCOCK Born, May z4, I 793; died, February 27, I 864 Edward Hitchcock was born in Deerfield, Massachusetts, in ~793. His parents were intellectual, high-minded, and deeply religious people, and from them he inherited on the one hand his interest in religion and theology, and on the other his love of learning, and the inquiring turn of mind which early in life led to a persevering study of science. He began teaching when only 22 years of age, first in his native town, and later in Conway, Massachusetts. Ten years later, at the age of 32, he became Pro-

I52 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES fessor of Chemistry and Natural History at Amherst College. Although interested in many subjects, he devoted almost all of his time to geology, and in taco was made chief of the Geologi- cal Survey of Massachusetts. In ~836, he was appointed Geol- ogist of the First District of New York, and in ~857, State Geologist of Vermont. Dr. Hitchcock was the first to suggest and carry on the survey of the State of Massachusetts, which was the first, not only in the long series of surveys subsequently carried on in the United States, but the first survey of an entire State under government authority inaugurated anywhere in the world. For his extensive and important work in geology he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from Harvard at the age of 4~. His name will always be closely associated with the beginnings of geology in this country. He has, indeed, been called one of the fathers of American geology. He was the first to give a scientific exposition of the so-called " bird tracks " in the Red Sandstone of the Connecticut Valley, and this new science, which began with him, he termed ornithichnology. The paper was published in ~836, and was followed from year to year by descriptions of his investigations, tables of species and other articles. In i840 he was elected the first President of the American _ , Association for the Advancement of Science, which was organ- ized at that time, and in ~845 was made President of Amherst College, and Professor of Natural Theology and Geology, which positions he held until i854. His life was closely con- nected with Amherst, from the very beginning of the college, and in his own presidency he established it on a firm financial O He also pro- cured for it a number of buildings increased and improved the He died the footing. besides elevating the standard of study equipment, and enlarged the number of students. year after the National Acaclemy of Sciences was organized. (1?rOm I. P. LESLEY, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, VO1. I, 1877, PP. II3-134.)

THE INCORPORATORS I53 JOSEPH STILLMAN HUBBARD Born, September 7, I 823; died, August I 6, I 863 As Hubbard died within a few months after the Academy was formed, his influence upon that organization was, of course, but slight. It is of interest, however, to summarize his scientific labors if for no other reason than to show why he was chosen a member of the Academy. Hubbard's family settled in Ipswich, Massachusetts, in ~635, but afterwards moved to Meridian and New Haven, Con- necticut. His ancestors were for the most part clergymen and physicians, and several of them held important public offices. As a boy, Hubbard showed a decided taste for mechanics and astronomy. He was graduated from Yale College in ~843 and the following year went to Philadelphia as assistant to the astron- omer Walker in the High School Observatory, working with such zeal as to seriously impair his health. After some months he went to Washington and computed the observations made by Fremont on his expedition to the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Coast. The next year (~845), he was appointed a pro- fessor of mathematics in the Navy and assigned to duty at the Naval Observatory. Here he made observations for several years with the transit instrument and meridian circle, working particularly on a system of zone observations devised by Professor Coffin and him- self. These observations were interrupted soon after Also, but taken up again in ~862 and continued by Hubbard until his death. His first extended computation consisted in the determination of the zodiacs of all the known asteroids. This was followed by a study of the orbit of the great comet of ~843. In ~846 Hubbard began an extended investigation of the peculiar phenomena presented by Biela's comet, and later published three memoirs relating to them. He also undertook an investigation of the Fourth Comet of ~825. Hubbard was deeply interested in the establishment of the strorzomicai Journal, and his contributions to it occupy more . l

I54 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES than 200 columns. His astronomical calculations also fill many pages of the Washington Observations. One of his last researches related to the magnetism of iron ships, a subject which a committee of the Academy afterwards investigated at the re- quest of the Navy Department. Hubbard was present at the meeting in New York at which the Academy was organized and welcomed its inauguration in his enthusiastic manner as " the most important epoch ever witnessed by science in America." He was not destined, how- ever, to contribute to its developments as he died a few months later, his demise having been hastened, as some have believed, by the unhealthy surroundings of the old Cravat Observatory at Washington in which he labored. ~ From B. A. Gourd, in Biog' aphical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. I, ~877, pp. ~-34.) ANDREW ATKINSON HUMPHREYS Born, November 2,. I8IO; died, December 27, 1883 Andrew Atkinson Humphreys was of Welsh ancestry. He came from a family of naval constructors his grandfather hav- ing been the architect of the Constitution, and her five sister frig- ates. After his graduation from the U. S. Military Academy at West Point, Lieutenant Humphreys was assigned to the Second Artillery, and served in the South, taking an active part in the Florida War. Resigning his commission on account of impaired health, he served for two years as a civil engineer under Major Hartman Bache. On July 8, ~838, he became assistant in the Bureau of Topographical Engineers at Washington. While in this position he prepared the first project for the extension of the National Capitol. In ~844 he was detailed as assistant in charge of the Coast Survey Office. After eighteen years of work in his profession he entered upon the areas labors of original research ~ _ and a~m~n~strat~ve direction, which have made his name illustri- ous. The Government having turned its attention to the ques- tion of reclaiming the lands along the Mississippi subject to inundation, and subsequently making two appropriations of

THE INCORPORATORS I55 $so,ooo each, the Delta Surrey was formed, and Captain Humphreys undertook with what would now be considered inadequate means, the task of solving the problems of controlling the mighty river, which the sufferers from flood personified as " an evil spirit, which periodically reared his tawny front from the chasm where he writhed in uneasy slumber at low water." " Captain Humphreys conducted for ten years a series of researches which accomplished their object, and which have placed his name high on the list of the distinguished hydraulic engineers of the world." r 1 1 1 ~ 4= _ ~ __J _ _ ~ (Abbot.) His arduous labors per- tormea under a burning sun, caused a " coup de soled " in the summer of ~8sr, which obliged him to suspend work. When somewhat recovered, he obtained permission to visit Europe for the purpose of studying methods of protection against inundation and returned in ~ 854 ready to renew operations on the Mississippi. In the meantime, however, the question of a railroad to the Pacific Coast had arisen, and the Secretary of War, appreciating Humohrevs' great ability. insisted unon having him as his con- ~ J O J ~ 1 - - O — 1 . · ~ ~ · ~ ~ · , , · . ncentla1 adviser. In thlS work, and in preparing reports on the Mississippi enterprise, he was occupied until the Civil War. He served throughout that war with the Army of the Potomac, and rose to the command of an Army corps. The two corps of engineers having been consolidated during the war, he was ap- pointed brigadier-general and chief of engineers, discharging the duties of this office until, at his own request, he was placed on the retired list on June 30, ~879. After his retirement he contributed to the Scribner's Series a history of his campaigns in two small volumes cased on an analysis of the official records of both armies, that has been saicl by General Abbot " to be worthy of a place beside Charts Commentaries or Xenophon's Ana- basis." In ~857 General Humphreys was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society. He was also an honorary member of the Imperial Geological Institute of Vienna, and a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. , ~ 1 ~ 1 ~ 1

I56 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Subsequent to ~ 863 when he became one of the incorporators of the National Academy of Sciences, many honors and degrees were conferred on him at home and abroad. General Abbot remarks that the keynote to his whole life may be found in his own words: " ~ cannot understand how any Nan can be willing to assume charge of a work without making it his business to know everything about it from A to gizzard." (From HENRY L. ABBOT, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 2, 1886, PP. 201-215.) JOHN LAWRENCE LE CONTE Born, May I3, 1825; died, November I5, 1883 Among the many families of Huguenots who fled from France after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, may be found the name of LeConte. The family was of noble birth and possessed of wealth, and no small number of its members had that spirit of scientific investigation, which characterized so many of the refugees. John Lawrence LeConte traced his descent from Guillaume LeConte who was born in Rouen in ~859. John Lawrence LleConte was born in New York, May ~3, ~8~5. After taking a collegiate course at St. Mary's College in Emmettsburg, Maryland, he entered the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York, from which he was graduated in 1846. Possessing an independent fortune, he practiced his profession but to a limited extent, though during the Civil War he entered the army medical corps of the volunteers, becoming medical inspector, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. After this, he held no regular position until ~878, when he became connected with the United States Mint in Philadelphia, remaining there until his death on November ~5, ~883. As early as ~848, Dr. L`eConte made several journeys to Lake Superior and California to study the fauna, and later travelled more extensively, visiting the Rocky Mountains, Honduras and Panama, Europe, Egypt and Algiers. He inherited from his father a taste for natural history and at the early age of nineteen 1

THE INCORPORATORS . I57 he published a paper describing over twenty new species of Carabid beetles from the eastern United States. His attention was next Graven to certain anomalies of geo- graphical distribution and his extensive studies of the problems resulted in the publication of several important papers on that general subject. Dr. LeConte's father had made the Coleoptera his favorite study and had also published papers on mammals, reptiles, batrachians, and crustaceans. ~ . He had collected a large amount of material relating to the natural history of our insects, and made a series of water-color illustrations of them and also of plants. The son carried on the work thus begun, and during his lifetime published more than 60 monographic essays some of them large works on the Coleoptera and other groups of insects, investigating as far as practicable all the various phenomena connected with their life-histories. He devoted himself especially to systematic work, in a manner new in America in his time, defining more than Woo of the higher groups, and forming nearly 250 synoptic or analytic tables. Half of the Coleoptera of the United States were described by him for the first time. So extensive and important was his work that he may with safety be called the greatest of American ento- mologists. That he was so regarded abroad is evidenced by the fact that he became an honorary member in all the older and larger entomological societies of Europe. In ~86~, as the result of many years of systematic study of American beetles, he published the first part of a classification of the Coleoptera of North America, the second part appearing the following year, and in ~873, a third part of the same work. In the meantime, he had reached the conclusion that the Rhynchophora, or weevils, represented a quite distinct group of Coleoptera, and in 1876, in association with Dr. Horn, his former pupil, ne published a thorough monographic revision of this group, which completely revolutionized the accepted classi- fication of the day. Finally, in ~883, a few months before his death, he published (also with Dr. Horn as joint author) a new ~ . . . I2

58 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES " Classification of the Coleoptera of the United States," in which much of his previous work was revised and brought up to date. Between ~848 and ~857, Dr. LeConte published minor essays on geology, on radiates, on recent and fossil mammals, and on ethnology, thus showing the wide range of his scientific studies and investigations. While accepting the modern evolutionary philosophy, he still believed, as he expressed it, in the " Prov- idence which presides over and directs the system of evolution." In his private life his friends speak of him as " a cultured scholar, a refined gentleman, a genial companion, a true friend." ~ From SAMUEL H. SCUDDER, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 2, 1886, PP. 261-293.) JOSEPH LEIDY Born, September 9, 1823; died, April 30, I89I At the memorial meeting held at the University of PennsyI- vania, Dr. Joseph L`eidy's scientific career was commemorated under five heads: " Work in Vertebrate Anatomy "; " Work in Invertebrate Anatomy"; "Work in Paleontology and Geol- ogy "; " Work in Mineralogy "; " Work in Botany." The cata- logue of his writings contains five hundred and fifty-three titles, a remarkable contribution to scientific I;terature. This many-sided scientist, " almost the sole survivor of that class of intellectual giants which seemed able to assimilate as much as Science in her many forms could produce," was born in Philadelphia on Sep- tember 9, ~ 823. He was the son of Philip Leidy. At an early age he showed a taste for the study of nature and a talent for drawing. He began the study of medicine at the age of nineteen, and received his degree at the University of Pennsylvania in ~844, immediately after which he was appointed Prosector to the chair of anatomy under Professor Homer. With the exception of one year, when he followed his teacher, Dr. Paul M. Goddard, to the Franklin Medical College, Dr. L`eidy continued his con- nection with the University during his life. At the death of Dr. Homer, in ~853, he was elected Professor of Anatomy and held that position for thirty-eight years. In ~87~ he became Pro-

THE INCORPORATORS I59 lessor of Natural History in Swarthmore College, in Swarth- more, Pennsylvania. In ~88~ he was chosen President of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; in ~884, Director of the Biological Department of the University of Pennsylvania; and in ~886, President of the Wagner Free Institute. Among the honors he received at this period should be mentioned the Walker Prize (which was doubled in special recognition of his services), the prize of the Royal Microscopical Society, the L`yell Medal of the Royal Geological Society, and the Cuvier Medal of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. " The bare enumeration of his published works, extensive in length and in variety though it be, would give those who had never seen this great naturalist no idea of the man or of the source of this combination of versatility and accuracy which rendered almost every observation he made directly or indi- rectly an addition to science. In all that pertained to the acquisi- tion of facts and to coordinating them afterwards he made of himself a perfect machine in so far as he was insensible to and unaffected by the ordinary passions of ambition or rivalry which influence even the best scientists. He had a marvelous eye for noting the minutes" phenomena and appreciating the most insensible differences; he had an unusually retentive memory for recording and keeping in order the vast fund of his observations and the records of those made by others; and he was conscious of the limitations of pure inductive philosophy to an extent which made the conclusions reached by him safe." (Frazer.) During the Civil War Dr. LJeidy acted as surgeon of the SatterIee Hospital in Philadelphia. Leidy's name is not only remembered by his remarkable contributions to anatomy, paleontology, and other sciences, but in the lofty Rockies stands " Mt. Leidy," named by Dr. Hayden, the distinguished explorer ^ the coast of Grinnell Land , is a token of the devotion of Drs. Kane and Hayes to their college friend. and geologist; and " Cape Leidy," on

I60 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The love of flowers and of gems was a feature of Dr. :Leidy's character. His knowledge of them often served to correct errors that had crept into collections as well as to entertain his friends. No one loved social intercourse better than he, and his conver- sation was always instructive and charming. He died in his native city on April 30, ~89~. (From PERSIFOR FRAZER, " JOSePh Leidy, M. D., LL. D.," in the American' Geologist, January, 1892. See also WILLIAM HUNT, " An Address Upon the Late Joseph Leidy, M. D., LL. D.," Philadelphia, ~892; and " In Memoriam, Dr. Joseph Leidy, Personal History," read before the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, May 12, 1891; HENRY F. OSBORN, " Joseph Leidy," in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 7, p. 335.) J PETER LESLEY Born, September I7, I8I9; died June I, 1903 Peter Wesley, the fourth of that name, was born at Phila- lelphia on September ~7, ~8~9. The first Peter LesIey was remembered as the " Miller of Fifeshire," and his descendants were of mingled Scotch and German blood and were noted for their practical traits and thorough education. It appears to have been Lesley's father's intention to prepare him for the church, but his health was so precarious while he was in college that an out-of-door life was imperative. O Through the inter- position of Professor Bache, he obtained appointment in ~838 as an assistant on the first Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. The personal knowledge of the poor and ignorant German settlers, which he obtained during two seasons spent in the field, turned L.esTey's thoughts toward missionary work, and in ~ 84~ he entered the Princeton Theological School. After studying three years and obtaining his license, he determined on a trip to Europe, largely to perfect his knowledge of German. He travelled on foot through England and France and afterwards through Switzerland, where the geological features of the country aroused his strongest interest. He then settled at Halle to study German, and also attended the lectures of Tholuck and other theologians. l

THE INCORPORATORS I6I On his return to America in 1845, he spent two years in mis- sionary work in Pennsylvania, after which he was invited to assist Professor H. D. Rogers in Boston in preparing a map of Pennsylvania, showing the work of the first geological survey of the State. After a winter spent in Boston, Lesley was for three years pastor of a church in Milton, Massachusetts, at the end of which time, his religious views having undergone a change which made it impossible for him to remain a clergyman, he resigned his parish in May, ~852, and went to Philadelphia. Afterwards he was engaged for a period of about ten years in surveys of iron, coal and oil fields for the Pennsylvania Rail- road and other companies, as well as on his own account. During the summer of ~855, Llesley performed a notable piece of geolog- ical work, consisting of a survey of the Broad Top Mountain region of central Pennsylvania, which included a contour-line map of the semi-bituminous coal-field, " with over eleven thou- sand stations levelled." In ~856, he became Secretary of the American Iron Association, which necessitated his visiting all the iron works of the United States. He published at this time a large volume of statistics of the iron industries, also the " Iron Manufacturers' Guide," and his " Coal Manual." In 1858 he was elected librarian of the American Philosophi- cal Society, which position he held for twenty-five years, giving much time and attention to the duties of the once. In ~860 he became interested in a process for the desulphurization of coal, but it was not financially successful, and he confined his energies thereafter to scientific and literary work. In ~86z and ~86~ he was engaged in surveying at Glace Bay, on the coast of Cape Cretan, and in the latter year made a trip to Europe to study the Bessemer steel process. During the season of ~865-66, Lesley delivered a course of lectures before the Lowell Institute in Boston, choosing for his subject " Man's Origin and Destiny." 111 health again obliged him to desist from work, and he spent a year in Europe and a winter on the Nile. After his return, in ~869, he became editor of the United States Railroad arid ~ . ~ . ~ ~ ~ .

I62 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Mining Register, and from that time until 1872 was engaged chiefly in surveys in the South. In the latter year he was appointed Professor of Geology in the School of Mines of the University of Pennsylvania. In the organization of the Towne Scientific School Professor Wesley took great delight and gave much time and thought to his teaching, which was always a favorite work, and aroused enthusiasm in his pupils. The crowning event of his life was, however, his appointment to the once of State Geologist of Pennsylvania, which occurred in 1874. The second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania was an undertaking of great magnitude and extended over a period of no years. Lesley organized it with much care, and had as his assistants Frazer, Stevenson, Prince, Chance, D'Invilliers, Genth, and many other geologists and chemists. To the publication of results he gave the closest personal attention. His system was to publish numerous " reports of progress," each containing all the data relating to a single district or county. More than a hundred such volumes were issued, and at the end a final report summarizing the whole. He had nearly finished this latter work when in ~ 893 his health gave way completely, and he was obliged to desist. Sir Archibald Geikie said of the survey in a letter written at this time " It is in my opinion a monument of patient skill, thoughtfully organized, sympathetically carried on, and admirably co-ordinated, through all its branches and all its prog- ress. ~ think it will be of the utmost value industrially to the State of Pennsylvania." Lesley remained some years in Philadelphia, and afterwards returned once more to Milton, Massachusetts, where he died in June, 1903. (From MARY LEs~Ev AMES, " Life and Letters of Peter and Susan Lesley," 1909.) MIERS FISHER LONGSTRETH Born, March ~5, ~ 8~9; died, December 27, ~89~ L.ongstreth was born in Philadelphia in 1819. He was edu- cated in the schools of the Society of Friends, and his early life was spent as a merchant. He devoted his leisure hours, however,

THE INCORPORATORS I63 to the study of astronomy, and had charge of the Friends' Observ- atory on Cherry Street, Philadelphia, until 1856. He entered the University of Pennsylvania, and was graduated from the medical department. Afterwards he removed to Sharon Hill, Pennsylvania, and engaged in the practice of medicine. He still devoted much of his time to astronomy, and wrote many valuable papers relating to that branch of science. These were published in the Transactions of the Almerican Philosophical ~Society, of which Dr. Longstreth had been a member since ~~. He was of a retiring disposition and declined public office. For forty years, however, he served on private and public educational boards. DENNIS HART MAHAN Born, April 2, I 802; died, September I 6, I 87 I Dennis Hart Mahan was born in the city of New York, but his parents soon moved to Norfolk, Virginia, where his boyhood was spent. He was brought up with the idea that he would be a physician, but having a talent for drawing, and learning that this was taught at West Point, he sought and, through the good offices of a friend of the family, obtained admission into the Military Academy. From this institution he was graduated in ~824, at the head of his class, which numbered thirty-one students. In his third year at the Academy he was appointed Acting Assist- ant Professor of Mathematics. Following graduation he became a lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers, and after holding the posi- tion of instructor for two years in the Academy was sent to Europe to study engineering works and military institutions. In France, by special permission of the Government, he studied for more than a year in the military school at Metz, and became associated with many prominent French military engineers and artillerists, and was often the guest of the family of Lafayette. He returned to America in ~830 and was detailed as acting professor- at West Point. Two years later he vacated his com- mission in the Engineer Corps, and became Professor of Civil and Military Engineering. In this important position he remained

I 64 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES i for a period of more than forty-one years, during which both the Mexican War and the Civil War occurred. " His teachings bore glorious fruit upon the fields of Mexico," and during the Civil War, " with hardly an exception on either side, those who had studied under Professor Mahan had won the highest laurels." (Abbot. ~ Mahan published many text-books on civil and military engineering. These comprised a " Treatise on Field Fortifica- tions " ~ ~ 836), " Course of Civil Engineering " ~ ~ 837), one on " Permanent Fortifications," "Advanced Guard, Outpost and Detachment Service of Troops " ~ ~847), " Industrial Drawing " (~855), and "Treatise on Fortification Drawing and Stere- otomy" (~865~. Some of these works passed through several editions. His treatise on civil engineering was reprinted in England and also translated into several foreign languages. Professor Mahan also published an American edition of Moseley's "Mechanical Principles of Engineering," in which many of his own ideas were incorporated. This was originally published in 1856 and reprinted in T869. In ~87~, on account of his advanced age and impaired health he was recommended by the board of visitors to the Academy for retirement, and although the President gave him assurances that no action would be taken on the recommendation, he was so deeply wounded in spirit that overcome by dejection he threw himself from the steamboat on which he was journeying to New York to consult his physician. (FrOm HENRY L. ABBOT, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, VO1. 2, 1886, PP. 29-37.) JOHN STRONG NEWBERRY Born, December 22, 1822; died, December 7, 1892 General Roger Newberry, grandfather of John S. Newberry, was one of the proprietors of the Connecticut Land Company, which owned the northern part of Ohio, known as the Western Reserve. His son, Henry Newberry, located his father's land on the Cuyahoga River and founded there a town, to which he

THE INCORPORATORS I65 moved with his family in 1824. John Strong Newberry, the youngest of nine children, was two years old at this time, having been born at Windsor, Connecticut, December 22, 1822. The flora and fauna about his home, and the fossils found in his father's coal mines roused in his youthful mind an interest in nature, and we find him making large collections before he entered college. Preparing in a special school, he matriculated at the Western Reserve School, and was graduated in ~ 846. During the last two years of his course he studied medicine and after- ards entered the Cleveland Medical School, from which he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine in ~ 848. Sub- sequently he spent two years in Paris in medical studies, and engaged in the practice of his profession for four years at CIeve- land, Ohio. During all this time, he continued his natural history studies and published several papers. Dr. Newberry was appointed in ~855 assistant surgeon in the U. S. Army and botanist and geologist to the expedition, which, under the com- mand of Lieutenant R. S. Williamson, explored the country between San Francisco Bay and the Columbia River. Return- ing to the capital in ~856, while preparing his report, Dr. lSTew- berry served for one year as Professor of Chemistry and Natural Historv in Columbian J ~ _ College, now George Washington University. The following year he acted as physician and naturalist to-the Ives Expedition, and in ~859 as geologist of the San Juan Exploring Expedition. In these two positions the work was very arduous, as journeys were made through some of the wildest portions of the Western country, but much valuable scientific material was gathered. The report of the San Juan Expedition was not published for seventeen years, owing to the unsettled state of the nation caused by the Civil War. Thus, Dr. Newberry lost much credit due to him as an original geological and ethnological observer. Abandoning his scientific work at the breaking out of the War, Dr. Newberry entered the sanitary service, where, as secretary of the western department of the United States San- itary Commission, he showed his great executive ability, and

I66 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES received the highest commendation. His report made to the Government consists of 5~3 octave pages. At the close of the War, he became scientific associate of the Smithsonian Institu- tion for one year. In ~866 he entered on his chief life-work as Professor of Geology and Paleontology at the School of Mines of Columbia University, which position he held for twenty-six years. The fine museum containing many fossils, rocks and minerals collected by him, and the rejuvenating of the old Lyceum, now the flourishing New York Academy of Sciences, are notable results of the efficient labor of that period. Dr. Newberry retained his residence in Cleveland, and from ~869 to ~874 was Director of the Geological Survey of Ohio, but after the failure of the Legislature to provide funds, he returned to New Haven, where he die(l, December 7, ~892. He had served as President of the Torrey Botanical Club in ~880. His part in the U. S. Geological Survey was the investiga- tion of the fossil fishes and some of the fossil plants of the United States. He was one of the organizers of the International Con- gress of Geologists, of which he was elected President for the Washington meeting of ~ 89~. In ~ 888 he received the Murchison Medal of the Geological Society of London, and the same year was elected first Vice-President of the Geological Society of America. Dr. Newberry's published writings numbered over two hun- dred, besides editorial work in geology and paleontology for Johnson's Cyclopedia. ~ From CHARLES A. WHITE, in Biographical Memoirs of the National ,] cademy of Sciences, VO1. 6, I 909, PP. I -24. ~ HUBERT ANSON NEWTON Born, March I 9, I 830; died, August I 2, I 896 Professor Newton was born on March ~9, ~830, at Sherburne, New York. His parents were descended from early settlers of Massachusetts and Connecticut, who had moved westward into what was then the wilds of central New York. Newton showed at an early age a taste for exact studies which he seems to have !

THE INCORPORATORS I67 inherited from his father. After attending the schools of Sher- burne, he entered Yale College and was graduated in Also. He became tutor there in ~853, and on the death of Professor Stanley, the Corporation appointed Newton, at the early age of twenty-five to the professorship of mathematics, a position which he held until his death. Early in his career he spent a year in studies in Europe, and was greatly influenced by the teaching of Chasles of Paris in higher geometry, which influence showed itself in his contributions to the Mathematical Monthly in ~858 and the three following years. Although this branch of science for many years was his favorite study, Professor Newton ultimately turned his attention to astronomy, and especially to the subject of meteors or " shooting stars." crew _~ ~` ~ .. ~ , , . ~ . . . . . 1 11t; TV OllU~1 1 U1 Assay or meteors In ~~ nag created sucn an interest in the country, and so much material had been collected concerning previous showers, that in ~86~ the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences appointed a committee of which Professor :Newton was a member, to promote systematic observations on the August and November showers in different localities. As an aid to this work, he prepared a valuable map of the heavens for plotting meteor tracks, and as a result of his studies of the obser- vations, published in ~865 a paper on the paths of more than a hundred meteors, observed on the nights of August lo and November ~3, ~863. Continuing his researches on the orbits of meteoroids, and the times of their reappearance, Professor Newton solved many important problems regarding them, and raised this branch of research to an honorable place in astro- nomical science. M. Faye remarked of his results in ~867, in the Comifes Rendus, " We may find in the works of Mr. Newton, of the United States, the most advanced expression of the state of science on this subject." From meteors he turned his attention to statistical studies of the orbits of comets, and in the following years published several important papers containing the results of his investigations of the relationships of these two classes of celestial objects. Im- portant as were these researches, his serious life work was that t l l

1 I68 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of an instructor in the University with which he was connected for so long a time. " If from all those who have come under his instruction we should seek to learn their personal recollections of Professor Newton, we should probably find that the most universal impression which he made on his classes was that of his enthusiastic love of the subject which he was teaching." Gibbs. ~ In ~882 the observatory was established at Yale and Professor Newton, to whom it largely owed its existence, was the first director. He introduced there the use of the photographic camera to record the tracks of meteors, and in one instance, through a simultaneous observation of Mr. Lewis at Ansonia, was able to calculate the course of a meteor in the earth's atmos- phere. He was naturally and the fine series in of his efforts. Professor Newton was one of the founders of the American Metrological Society, and for several years was President of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. In ~864 he became associate editor of the American Journal of Science. He was awarded the first Lawrence Smith Medal by the National Academy of Sciences in ~ 888. He died in New Haven on August ~ 2' ~ 896. (:From,J. WILLARD GIBBS, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 4, egos, pp. 99-~24.) . interested in collections of meteoric stones the Peabody Museum is largely the result BENJAMIN PEIRCE Born, April 4, ~809; died, October 6, ~880 An important incident in Professor Peirce's boyhood was his acquaintance with Dr. Nathaniel Bowditch, whose son was a schoolmate. In the dedication of one of his books he speaks of Dr. Bowditch as " my Master in Science, Nathaniel Bow- ditch, the father of American Geometry." Professor Peirce was born in Salem, Massachusetts, April 4, 1809' and entered Harvard College in 1825. Dr. Bowditch had l

THE INCORPORATORS I69 at that time removed to Boston, and young Peirce assisted him in reading the proofs of his translation of Laplace's M~ecanique Celeste. For two years after his graduation, Professor Peirce taught at Northampton, Massachusetts. In ~ 83 I, he was appointed a tutor in Harvard College, and in ~833 was elected Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. Afterwards he was called to the Perkins chair of mathematics and astronomy, which he occupied until his death. During the first years of his professorship, he published a series of text-books for use in colleges. The first was a " Treatise on Sound," and was followed by one on " Plane and Solid Geometry," a " Treatise on Algebra," and a treatise on " Plane and Spherical Trigonometry." These books produced very beneficial effects on the methods of teaching mathematics. In ~84~, Professor Peirce began a work on " Curves, Func- tions and Forces," two volumes of which appeared at intervals. In place of the third volume, he published in ~ 855, his " Analytic Mechanics." This was rather a treatise than a text- book, and exhibits in a striking manner Peirce's peculiar mathe- matical powers, and his concise and logical style. In ~842, he began work on the mathematical part of the " American Almanac," of which he prepared ten volumes. One of these con- tained a list of the known orbits of comets, to which he added several approximate orbits for historic comets that had been imperfectly observed. In ~849, Congress established a bureau for the publication of the " American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac," under the supervision of Admiral (then Lieutenant) Charles H. Davis, and Professor Peirce was appointed consulting astronomer. To his work while in this position may be attributed largely the high character which this publication attained. For it he~pre- pared his " Tables of the Moon," which were used for many years. After the discovery of the planet Neptune, Professor Peirce took great interest in the researches of Leverrier and Adams, and his papers written on the disputed questions regard-

70 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ing this newly-found body excited much discussion among astronomers. In ~852, Professor B ache, then Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey, obtained the help of Professor Peirce in preparing the longitude determinations in the Survey, and from the work he then did appears to have originated his article in Gould's Astronomical Journal, entitled " Criterion for the Rejec- tion of Doubtful Observations." " It would seem almost certain that ' Peirce's Criterion,' or possibly some modified form of it, will in time secure general acceptance. In any case, it will ever stand as the first, and as a satisfactory solution of this delicate and practically important problem of probability." For seven years Professor Peirce vitas Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey, having been appointed in ~867 after the death of Professor B ache. While in this position, he made several tours of inspection, and raised the standard of the ser- vice by giving greater freedom to the officers of the corps, plac- ing responsibility on each person engaged in the work, and giving aid to all scientific work connected with the Survey. As Superintendent he took personal charge of the expedition to Sicily in ~870, to observe the eclipse of the sun which occurred in December of that year. By his efforts as a member of the Transit of Venus Commission, a party from the Coast Survey was sent to Nagasaki, and another to Chatham Island, to take part in the observations on the occasion of this important astro- nomical event. In ~ 864, Professor Peirce read his first paper before the National Academy of Sciences, and from ~866 to ~870 a series of papers that were published later in his " Linear Associative Algebra." matical effort of my life," and a writer has said of it that it " must ever remain a monument to the comprehensive grasp of thought and analytical genius of its author." Interested in all astronomical questions, and especially those concerning the solar system, Professor Peirce studied the nebular hypothesis, the rings of Saturn, the phenomena of comets and This work he pronounced " the pleasantest mathe-

\ THE I~TCORPO~TORS I7I meteors, and many other topics, and published many papers relating to them. His last contributions to science were a series of eight propositions in cosmical physics, and his " Lectures on Ideality in Science." Besides his additions to the literature of science, Professor Peirce assisted in the organization, in ~ 855, of the DudIey Observ- atory at Albany, and was instrumental in the establishment of the observatory at Harvard University. He died at Cambridge October 6, 1880. (From Proc. Amer. Acadl. Uris arldt Sci., new series, vol. 8, ~88~, pp. 443-454.) JOHN RODGERS Born, August 8, I8I2; died, May 5, 1882 Admiral John Rodgers, the third of that name, was the grand- son of John Rodgers, who came from Glasgow, and settled in Harford County, Maryland. The elder Rodgers was a colonel of the Maryland line in the Revolutionary War, and among his descendants were several sailors and soldiers who rendered valiant service to their country. John Rodgers, third, was born at Sion Hill, near Havre de Grace, Maryland, on August 8, ~3~2. His mother was the daughter of Gideon Denison, who vitas a native of Connecticut and noted as an Indian fighter. With such an ancestry it is not strange that we find John Rodgers a midshipman in his sixteenth year. He served three and a half years at sea, spent one year at the Naval School at Norfolk, and another at the University of Virginia, then, three years on the South American Station. While he was on the Florida coast, Lopez, the Cuban insurgent, was pursued by the Pizarro, a Spanish sIoop-of-war, but Rodgers with the Petrel, a small schooner of one gun, prevented his cap- ture. The charts of the Florida coast prepared by Rodgers at this period have been of great service. In ~852 Rodgers joined the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition in command of the steamer John Han- cock, and on the retirement of Commander Ringgold, owing to ,1 i ., i . ,. !, , ~ ., .b 1~

I72 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ill health, was placed in charge of the Squadron. He made extensive explorations and deep-sea soundings in the northern waters, and obtained valuable knowledge of the surrounding territory. Nearly forty sea charts were based on these surveys. During the Civil War, Commander Rodgers performed arduous and gallant service in southern waters. He was made captain in ~86z and given command of the Weehawken, one of the new monitors, which headed the line in the attack on Fort Sumter, April 7, ~ 863. For his bravery in the engagement with the atia?'ta, Secretary Welles recommended that he be promoted to the rank of commodore, and receive the thanks of Congress. After the War, when in command of the Squadron which con- voved the monitor Monadnock to San Francisco, Commodore Rodgers so guarded the American interests, during the hostilities between the South American Republics and Spain, especially in the threatened bombardment of Valparaiso, that he received special commendation of the Navy Department. From ~866 to ~869, Commodore Rodgers was in charge of the Boston Navy Yard, and in the latter year promoted to the grade of rear-admiral. Ordered to the command of the Asiatic Squadron, Admiral Rodgers, sailed in ~87~ to Corea, where in consequence of treachery five forts were taken and destroyed. In ~872 Rodgers became President of the Naval Examining and Retiring Board, and after four years of service at the Navy Yard at Mare Island, he was appointed Superintendent of the Naval Observatory in Washington. By his advice, a site on Georgetown Heights was bought for a new observatory. but the building was not completed until after his death. He was successful in obtaining from Congress an appropriation of Mono a year for the purchase of new books, by means of which he formed one of the best astronomical and mathematical libraries in the country. Added to his duties at the observatory, Admiral Rodgers was called upon for extra service as President of the Transit of Venus Commission, of the Naval Advisory Board, of the Jearlrlette Relief Board, and as chairman of the Lighthouse

THE INCORPORATORS I73 Board. In the last position he visited many stations, and took part in many experiments, both in acoustics and optics. This work, while adding to his fame, was a severe strain upon his physical forces. A serious illness overtook him, and he died at the Barber house, the site of the New Observatory, on May 5, ~882, after fifty-four years of public service. (From ASAPH HALL, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 6, agog, pp. 81-92. See also CHARLES 0. PAULLIN, " Services of Commodore John Rodgers in the War of 1812," and " In Our Wars with the Barbary Corsairs "; also " A Biography of Commodore John Rodgers.") FAIRMAN ROGERS Born, November I5, 1833; died, August 22, 1900 The faculties that gave Fairman Rogers prominence as a man of science seem to have been inherited in large part from his father, Evans Rogers, and from his maternal grandfather, Gideon Fairman, who was a noted inventor. He was born on November ~5, T833 in Philadelphia, and while yet in the pre- paratory school gave promise of a brilliant career. He entered the University of Pennsylvania in ~849, and was very successful in his studies, especially in the physical sciences, so much so that Dr. John F. Frazer, then Professor of Chemistry and Physics in the University, foreseeing a brilliant future for his pupil, not only aided him in his class work, but introduced him to his scientific acquaintances. Two years after graduation, Mr. Rogers became connected with the United States Coast Survey, and in ~857 assisted Professor B ache in determining the Epping base-line in Maine. At this time he was Professor of Civil Engineering in the University of Pennsylvania, and also lectured at the Franklin Institute, and later at Harvard University. In 1861 he delivered a course of lectures in the Smithsonian Institu- lion, on the construction of roads and bridges, and, later, a course OI1 glaciers. He also made a survey of the Potomac River for the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. At the beginning of the Civil War, Professor Rogers served as first sergeant of the Philadelphia city cavalry in a three months' IS

I74 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES campaign, and later, as a volunteer engineer officer, in the Philadelphia Militia, was present at the battles of Gettysburg and Antietam. In his connection with the National Academy of Sciences, Professor Rogers made a study of the compasses of the iron vessels used in the service of the Government. This investigation led him to write a treatise on the " Magnetism of Tron Vessels " which was published in the van Nostrand Science Series. Severing his connection with the University of Pennsylvania in ~88~, after being nine years a trustee of that institution, Pro- fessor Rogers became chairman of the Committee on Instruction at the Academy of Fine Arts, reorganized its system and rendered valuable services in other directions for several years. Professor Rogers was one of the founders of the Union League Club of Philadelphia. He exhibited the versatility of his mind by writing a treatise on horsemanship and a manual of coaching, in which he endeavored to show that these arts were properly based on scientific principles. Credit for suggesting to Professor Muybridge the principle to be employed in photographing animals in motion has been given to Professor Rogers and modi- fications of this principle form the basis of the present day biograph and cinematograph. He died at Vienna on August 22, 1900. He was the first Treasurer of the National Academy of Sciences and served in that capacity for eighteen years. (From EDGAR F. SMITH, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 6, 1909, PP. 93-107.) ROBERT EMPIE ROGERS Born, March 29, ISIS; died, September 6, 1884 Robert Empie Rogers was the youngest of four brothers, all of whom became eminent as men of science. His father, Dr. Patrick Kerr Rogers, emigrated from {relend in ~798, and after living in Philadelphia and Baltimore for several years, became Professor of Natural Philosophy and Mathematics in William and Mary College. Robert who was born at Balti-

THE INCORPORATORS I75 more, March 29, ISIS, was only seven years old when his mother died. He was tenderly cared for, however, by Rev. Adam P. Empie and his wife, and in gratitude to them he adopted Empie as his middle name. Although his brothers, after his father's death, favored the idea of his becoming a civil engineer, he was more inclined toward teaching, and in preparation for this work continued his studies in botany, geology, and mineralogy. He added to these a medical course at the University of Pennsyl- vania. Though receiving a doctor's degree in 1836, he did not practice medicine but turned his attention to chemistry, in which he had become deeply interested, and joined his brother Henry as chemist of the first Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. In March, 1842, he had the gratification of receiving an appoint- ment as Professor of General and Applied Chemistry in the University of Virginia. In conjunction with his brothers James and William, Dr. Rogers made many experiments, wrote numer- ous valuable scientific papers, and published text-books on chem- istry. Indeed, so intimately were the four brothers connected in their researches that the results were often spoken of as those of " the brothers Rogers." No jealous rivalry existed among them. At the death of James, in 1852, Robert was chosen to fill his place as Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsyl- vania, and afterwards became dean of the medical faculty. To his numerous duties he added those of assistant surgeon in the Military Hospital, and while showing a woman the dangers connected with the use of a steam mangle, he was so unfortunate as to lose his right hand. He soon learned to use his left hand and his right arm with great skill in carrying on his experiments. In ~872 Dr. Rogers took part in an investigation concerning the waste of silver in the United States Mint at Philadelphia, and devised new methods of refining precious metals. He also pre- pared the plan for the refinery at the San Francisco Mint. On account of changes in the administration of the University of Pennsylvania, Dr. Rogers, after twenty-five years of service in that institution, withdrew from it, and accepted in 1877 the chair .

I76 . NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of chemistry in the Jefferson Medical College. In ~884 he be- came professor emeritus, and died on September 6, of the same year. As indicating the practical side of Dr. Rogers' mind it should be recalled that he was the inventor of a steam boiler, knower as the Rogers and Black boiler, and also made improvements in electrical apparatus. His courage in an emergency is shown by the fact that three times he rescued persons from certain death. His success as a teacher was undoubted, due probably in large part to the love and respect he inspired in his pupils, his fine literary style, and his great cleverness in experimentation. (FrOm EDGAR F. SMITH, in Biographical Memoirs of the National academy of Sciences, VO1. 5, 1905, PP. 291-309.) WILLIAM BARTON ROGERS Born, December 7, 1804; died, May 30, 1882 The name of Rogers is a prominent one in the history of Amer- ican science. The son of Dr. Patrick Kerr Rogers, a native of the north of {relend, William Barton Rogers was one of four brothers who attained celebrity in their chosen fields of research. He was born in Philadelphia ant! educated at William and NIary College, and delivered his first lectures at the Maryland Institute. He succeeded his father in ~ 828 as Professor of Chemistry and Physics in the college from which he was graduated. In ~835 he was called to the University of Virginia as Pro- fessor of Natural Philosophy and also appointed Geologist of Virginia. Professor Rogers gained the greatest popularity by his scholarly exposition of the subjects which he presented in public addresses, not oniv at the University of Virginia, but also ~ ~ .~ ~ · . · t _ __ A before the British and the American Associations for the Ad- vancement of Science, and the other scientific bodies with which he was connected. His rare gifts of diction and poetic expres- sion, united with a voice of commanding quality and a distin- guished personal appearance, gave him preeminence among the

THE INCORPORATORS I77 scientific lecturers of his time. He and his brothers Henry and Robert performed most important work for American geology by presenting the results of their observations in a series of papers of enduring importance. The wave theory of mountain ~ . chains, which was the result of extended study of the Appa- lachian chain in Pennsylvania and Virginia, excited great interest at the time of its presentation and was confirmed by later obser- vations. Removing to Boston in ~853, Professor Rogers was associated with the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Boston Society of Natural History. At this time, his work was largely in physics. The variations of ozone in the atmosphere, improvements of the Ruhmkorff coil, some phenomena of sight and the properties of sonorous flames were among the subjects he investigated. He was appointed by Governor Andrew inspector of gas and gas-meters for the State of Massachusetts, and made a visit to Europe, in ~864, to study the latest methods. At this time he delivered at Bath a paper before the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The establishment of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology of which Professor Rogers was the first president, was due to his labors which continued until his death. Physical inability obliging him to desist for a while from active work and finally to resign the presidency, though remaining professor emeritus of physics and geology, his last act was performed in the interest of the students. Rising to present the diplomas to the graduating class he had uttered but a few words, when he fell lifeless to the platform. Thus on the 30th of May, ~882, was closed a life devoted to the search of scientific truths and their presentation in a manner so attractive and so convincing as to impress their importance on the minds of others. Professor Rogers was the third President of the National Academy of Sciences and served from ~879 to ~882. (From FRANCIS A. WALKER, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, VO1. 3, 1895, PP. I-13.)

I78 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LEWIS MORRIS RUTHERFORD Born, November 25, I8I6; died, May 30, 1892 :Lewis Morris Rutherfurd numbered among his ancestors some who were prominent in the early history of the United States, including Senator John Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris, Chief Justice of New York and New Jersey, who was also the first Governor of New Jersey, and that other Lewis Morris who signed the Declaration of Independence. The subject of the present brief sketch was born in Morrisania, now a part of New York City, November z5, ~6. After his graduation from Williams College in ~834, he served as assistant to the professor of physics and astronomy in preparations for experiments, and in the construction of apparatus. Law studies in the once of William H. Seward occupied his attention for ~ ~ . ~ ~ two years, and later ne became a partner of Hamilton Fish. Mr. Rutherfurd's greatest interest, however, had always been in astronomy, and through his marriage with Margaret Stuy- vesant Chandler, niece and adopted daughter of Peter Stuy- vesant, he found the means of engaging in this study. The Stuyvesant home became a center for astronomical observations. Under Mr. Rutherfurd's direction, an observatory with an ~ ~~- inch telescope and a transit instrument was established, a work- shop also being added in which excellent instruments were con- structed. After some years his law practice was given up, and on his return from Europe, which he had visited on account of his wife's ill health, he threw all his energies into scientific investi- gations. While in Paris, Mr. Rutherfurd became intimate with Amici, who was carrying on experiments upon achromatism of objectives for.microscopes, and to this may possibly be attributed Rutherfurd's application to microscopes of the devices he had so successfully used for telescopes. The observatory in New York was, by courtesy, used as a primary station for the deter- mination of longitudes, by the Coast Survey, " Stuyvesant Garden," being named as one of the points.

THE INCORPORATORS I79 In 1858 experiments were begun in astronomical photography, which were carried on so successfully, that on the occasion of the total solar eclipse in ~860, observed in Labrador with the first telescope constructed especially for photographic purposes, a distinct difference was shown in the character of the limbs of the sun and the moon. In ~86~ Rutherfurd constructed " a Cas- segrainian reflecting telescope with silvered glass mirror, having ~3 inches aperture and 8 feet focus," but the necessity for fre- quent resilvering and the tremors caused by the location in the city interfering with good work, the reflector was abandoned after a short trial. Mr. Rutherfurd's first astronomical paper was published in ~86~. In this he confirmed CIark's discovery of the companion of Sirius, has-in" found the object with his Chinch telescope. The next season he made seventy-nine measures of position-angle, and thirty-eight of distance. These observations, added to those made at Cambridge and at Pulkowa, gave the principal basis of knowledge of this newly-found body for two years. In ~863 Mr. Rutherfurd published in the numerical' Journal of Science his second scientific paper entitled " Astronomical Ob- servations with the Spectroscope," in which he gives the result of his observations and measurement of the spectra not only of the sun, moon, Jupiter and Mars, but also for seventeen stars. He continued his observations of the companion of Sirius, and also published a paper in ~86~ on " Observations on Stellar Spectra." Not long afterward he began to employ photography in these investigations, and obtained a fine representation of the solar spectrum which he exhibited to the National Academy of Sciences in ~864. He further improved his apparatus by the use of extraordinarily delicate diffraction gratings, the secret of making which he learned for himself, and with these obtained results in the study of solar and stellar light that were unequalled until Draper entered upon the same field some years later. Even more interesting and important are the results which Rutherfurd obtained in the construction of telescopic object- glasses for photographing celestial bodies. After much thought

I80 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and labor, he succeeded in ~86~ in making a most excellent lens with which he obtained remarkable photographs of the Pleiades and other star-clusters, and an exquisite one of the moon. Next he turned to the problem of making measurements on the pho- tographic plates and invented a micrometer. This work of photographing and measuring, and the constant introduction of improvements in the instruments employed, was carried on until ~877, when failing health obliged him to desist. In ~880 the city having encroached upon the home and the observatory, Mr. Rutherfurd removed to a rural estate named " Tranquillity " in northwestern New Jersey. His winters were passed in Florida and in visits to southern Europe. Finding his health steadily failing in ~884, he presented to the Observatory of Columbia College his -inch telescope, with its corrector and the im- proved micrometer, together with ~456 plates and records of the measures made, providing also means for continuing the work of measurement. His death occurred May 30, ~892, at Tran- quillity. (From B. A. GOULD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 3, 1895, PP. 415-441~) JOSEPH SAXTON Born, March 22, 1799; died, October 26, 1873 Joseph Saxton was a man of remarkable inventive ability. His imagination ran in scientific lines, and when he had grasped the principles underlying the action of natural forces, he knew how to make them subservient to the needs of his fellowmen. The town of Huntington, Pennsylvania, was a small village at the time of his birth, in ~799, and afforded few- opportunities for education. His father, James Saxton, after engaging in a num- ber of different pursuits, became the proprietor of a small nail factory. At the age of twelve his son Joseph entered the factory and it was not long before he had made improvements in the machinery which increased its efficiency. Tiring of the limita- tions of his work, however, he was permitted to apprentice him- self to a watchmaker, but after two years his employer died, and

THE INCORPORATORS I8I while waiting for some new opening, he occupied himself by constructing a printing press and publishing a small newspaper. At the age of eighteen he resolved to leave his native village and seek his fortune in the world. Accompanied by two friends, he made his way down the Juniata River to Harrisburg in a boat which he had constructed as a model of a man-of-war, and hence proceeded to Philadelphia. Here he obtained employment for a short period as a watchmaker and afterwards as an engraver. Later he became associated with Isaiah Lukens, a noted machinist, and at this time constructed an astronomical clock with a compensating pendulum and an escapement of his own devising, and also constructed the town clock of Philadelphia. His inventive ingenuity led to his election to membership in the Franklin Institute, where he came into contact with many prominent men of science. Having resolved to visit London, he accumulated savings sufficient for the purpose and about the year ~83~ proceeded on his journey. The banking house in which he had deposited his money stopped payment soon after his arrival in London, and he was compelled to seek employment. He found an opening in the recently-established institution of practical science known as the Adelaide Gallery, where new scientific instruments and apparatus were exhibited by inventors and manufacturers. Here Saxton quickly rose to notice by a series of inventions, some of them of practical importance and others interesting as ingeniously devised scientific toys. Among these was a large magnet, a diving bell, an ingenious toy known as " the paradoxical head," and a series of miniature vessels moved by concealed clock work. Having made the acquaintance of a number of prominent English engineers and mechanicians, he was introduced into the Royal Institution and entered into friendly relationships with Michael Faraday. Faraday had already discovered induction currents, but it remained for Sax- ton to invent an instrument to make their effects manifest. This he did in an ingenious manner, and by means of the instrument which he constructed he decomposed water, exhibited a power- ful spark, and an electrical light between carbons. The instru-

I82 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ment was exhibited at the meeting of the British Association in ~833. " The poet Coleridge, who was present at its exhibition in Cambridge, spoke with enthusiasm, not only of the magnitude of the discovery of the inductive electrical effects of magnetism, one of the claims of Faraday- to imperishable reputation but also of the ingenious invention of Mr. Saxton, by which the transient electrical currents might exhibit their effects in so brilliant and so powerful a manner." (Henry.) Saxton produced many other inventions while in London, among them a locomotive differential pulley, an instrument to measure the velocity of vessels, another for measuring the height of water in a steam boiler, a fountain pen, etc. He also devised a method for locating the interior magnetic poles of the earth, and constructed the apparatus used by Wheatstone to measure the velocity of electricity in a long wire. Leaving London in ~837, he was appointed constructor and curator of the standard weighing apparatus in the Mint at Philadelphia. While here his improved form of Gobrecht's instrument for reproducing the designs of medals by engraving was brought into use. He also constructed balances for weighing coins, of such delicacy that they would turn with one three- millionth part of their load. In ~834 Saxton was awarded the Scott Medal of the Franklin Institute for the invention of a reflecting pyrometer, an instru- ment which was capable of indicating changes in the length of a metal bar to the one-hundred-thousandth part of an inch. In ~843 Saxton was appointed by Professor B ache to take charge of the construction of the standard balances, weights and measures which were authorized by Congress for distribution to the several States of the Union. While in this position he also devised many instruments for use in the Coast Survey, including an automatic instrument for recording the height of tides, and an improved automatic dividing machine. At the meeting of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science in ~ 858, Saxton gave an account of the use of the revolving mirror in minute measurements, such as the expansion 1

THE INCORPORATORS I83 of building stones from heat, the motion of the axis of the aneroid barometer, changes in magnetic dip, etc. Other inven- tions of Saxton's were an automatic damper for stoves, a fusible metallic sealing compound for official papers sent to tropical countries, and a hydrometer. About fifteen years before his death, Saxton suffered a partial stroke of paralysis, from which he never entirely recovered. He died in Washington on October 26, 1873. (FrOm JOSEPH HENRY, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, VO1. I, ~ 877, PP. 287-3 ~ 6. ~ BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, SENIOR Born, August 8, 1779; died, November 2~4, 1864 In common with several other founders of the Academy, the lifetime of Benjamin Silliman extended from the period of the Revolution to that of the Civil War. At the time of his birth, the independence of the United States was not yet an accom- plished fact. His father, General Gold Selleck Silliman, bore an honorable part in the Revolutionary struggle. The Silliman family had resided for many years in the town of Fairfield, Connecticut, but in ~~p the British forces invaded the coast towns of that State and the family took refuge in Stratford (now Trumbull), and here Benjamin SilTiman was born on the 8th day of August. He entered Yale College at the early age of thirteen years, and was graduated in T796. Upon graduation he took up the study of law and after the lapse of three years also assumed the duties of a tutor in Yale College. He was admitted to the bar in T802, but was not destined to follow the profession for which he had fitted himself. He was persuaded by President Dwight of Yale to abandon that calling and devote himself to chemistry and the natural sciences, which were then beginning to be looked upon as necessary to a college curriculum. Accord- ingly, he was elected the same year Professor of Chemistry and Natural History at Yale, though he did not begin to lecture on these subjects until two years later. These two years he spent in Philadelphia as a student of Dr. Woodhouse and in pursuing ( ,, . i .;

I84 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES experiments with Dr. Hare with the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, which Hare had just then invented. In ~805 he visited Europe, spending much time in England and Scotiand where he met or studied under Professors Hope, Murray, Playfair and other eminent men of science, at the same time recording his impres- sions of men and things which he published later under the title of a " journal of Travels in England, Holland, and Scot- land in ~809-o6." Upon his return to America, Professor Silliman resumed his lectures at Yale, and continued in the duties of his professor- ship for half a century. In age ~ he conducted an extensive series of experiments in melting refractory minerals with Hare's blow- pipe, of which he published an account the following year. At the same time, while working with Hare's " galvanic defla- grator," he observed that the charcoal of the positive pole was transferred to the negative pole and that it was fused. " It is claimed for Professor Silliman that he was the first to establish this transfer of the particles of carbon, and the first also to fuse carbon in the voltaic arch." (Caswell.) In ~8~9 he established the highly important scientific period" ical, the American Journal of Science, with which his name is most widely associated, and of which he was the sole editor for twenty years, and the senior editor for eight years in addition. In ~820 he published an account of a journey from Hartford to Quebec, in ~829 an edition of Bakewell's Geology, with an appendix containing a summary of his own lectures on that sub- iect, and in ~830 the whole body of his lectures on chemistry at Yale, under the title of " Elements of Chemistry, in the order of the lectures given in Yale College." From ~834 to ~845 Professor Silliman delivered courses of lectures on scientific subjects in the principal cities of the United States from Boston to New Orleans. He visited Europe again in ~85~, and in ~853 published an account of his observations in three duodecimo volumes. ~ ~ . ~ . . . Regarding Professor Silliman's labors, Caswell remarks " His special field was the diffusion of science; and his special gifts

THE INCORPORATORS I85 and acquirements made him one of the most popular scientific lecturers in the country. . . . It see-me to me that the utility of science, in its broadest sense, was always uppermost in his mind. He is always tracing abstract principles to their practical appli- cations." ~ FrOm ALEXIS CASWELL, in Biographical Memoirs of the National HI cademy of Sciences, VO1. I, 1877, PP. 99-~.) BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, JUNIOR Born, December 4, I8I6; died, January I4, 1885 Haven. Decem- Benjamin Silliman, Junior, was born in New her 4, ~8~6. His father was Professor of Chemistry in Yale College, and the son spent his early life in the wholesome intel- lectual atmosphere of that institution. He graduated from Yale in ~837, and became assistant to his father the following year, being instructor in chemistry, mineralogy, and geology. In ~842, at his own expense, he equipped a chemical laboratory in a room in one of the college buildings for the instruction of private pupils. His zeal in the work and his efforts to arouse an interest in others were prominent factors in the founding of the Yale Scientific School, now known as the Sheffield Scientific School, in ~ 847. He was appointed Professor of Applied Chemistry in ~846, and succeeded his father in the chair of chemistry in ~853. This position he held until his death on January ~4, ~885. From ~849 to ~854 he had been Professor of Medical Chemistry and Toxicology at the University of LJouis- ville, Kentucky. During the year ~847, Professor Silliman visited California and engaged in professional work connected with the mines and made extensive geological explorations. He also delivered an oration before the College of California in r86g. As an expert in chemical arts and manufactures he was often called by the courts to testify in law cases. He also delivered popular lectures throughout the country. For many years he was one of the editors of the American Journal of Science.

I 86 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES His collection of minerals was bought by Cornell, and called the Silliman Cabinet. Another collection was added to Yale College Scientific School, and Professor Silliman personally solicited the money to buy the mineralogical collection of Baron de L`ederer in ~843. During the WorId's Fair in New York in ~853, Professor Silliman had charge of the departments of chemistry, miner- alogy, and geology, and in ~869 he became one of the State Chemists of Connecticut. He was a trustee of Peabody Museum ant! a member of numer- ous European and American scientific societies. Of his principal writings, the " First Principles in Chem- istry " was published in ~846, and " Principles of Physics " in 854, and " American Contributions to Chemistry " in ~ 875. Investigations in mineralogy and chemistry formed the basis of Professor Silliman's scientific work, but he engaged also in studies relating to geology, to meteorites, and to physical optics. ~ See ARTHUR W. WRIGHT, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 7, pp. ~ ~5-~4~.) THEODORE STRONG Born, July 26, I 790; died, February I, I 86g Theodore Strong was descended from Puritan ancestors. His father Joseph Strong and also his grandfather were clergymen of the Congregational denomination. His mother, Sophia Wood- bridge, was a daughter of the Rev. John Woodbridge of South Hadley, Massachusetts. In this town Theodore Strong was born on July z6, ~790, in the house of his uncle, Colonel Benjamin Ruggles Woodbridge. Joseph Strong, having a large family of children to provide for, was induced to transfer the respon- sibility for the education and training of his son Theodore to Colonel Woodbridge by whom he was practically adopted. Theodore Strong's schooling began at an early age and when he entered Yale College at eighteen he was well prepared in lan- guages, though not in mathematics. Having, however, on one occasion been subjected to ridicule by a classmate for his poor ~ ~ . ~ ~ ,. ~ ~ 1,

THE INCORPO=TORS I87 mathematical recitation, he set himself to master the science, and in ~8~2, when he was graduated from college, he was awarded the mathematical prize. Immediately after graduation, he was recommended by Dr. Dwight (then President of Yale) for a tutorship of mathematics, then vacant, in Hamilton College, Clinton, New York. He accepted the position and held it for four years, after which he became Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. He found more time for study and re- search at Hamilton than he would have enjoyed at a larger insti- tion, and he was able while there to contribute largely to a number of scientific journals and magazines. One of the most prominent of these was the American Journal of Science, to the first volume of which, published in ~8~8, he contributed a very clever demonstration of a geometrical problem. His papers always attracted attention because of their originality and depth of learning. His reputation as a man of power and originality in his sub- ject was constantly growing, and in ~825-~6 he received several calls from different colleges and universities to accent the chair , . . - O - · ot mathematics. Bate in ~~; a second invitation, which was finally accepted, came from Rutgers College, in New Jersey, and here he spent the rest of his long life. In ~ 859, the trustees, thinking that he needed an assistant, as he was then 6g years of age, appointed an associate professor. It was at this time that he published his work on algebra. In ~86~ he was made professor emeritus, and two years later severed his con- nection with the college. In spite of his rather advanced age, he was in full possession of his mental faculties and employed this time in writing a treatise on differential and integral cal- culus, which, however, was not published until after his death. Both this and his treatise on elementary and higher algebra, display Strong's profound knowledge of these branches of mathematics, and the remarkable logical power of his mind. In fact, his power of reasoning was far better than his memory, so much so that he seldom relied on the latter for a formula or theorem, but worked them out anew. ' :

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In the field of pure mathematics, Dr. Strong was one of the leading minds of his day. But two of his contemporaries among American mathematicians may be mentioned as sharing his preeminence Dr. Bowditch and Dr. Adrian—to whom and to Dr. Strong more than to any others, is due the introduction of the study of the higher mathematics into the schools of this country. (From T. P. BRADLEY, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 2, I 886, PP. I-28. ~ JOHN TORREY Born, August I5, 1796; died, March IO, 1873 Although most widely known as a botanist, Torrey's life was spent as a professor of chemistry. His father, William Torrey, was of New England ancestry. He served throughout the Revolution in a New York infantry regiment of which his uncle, Joseph Torrey, was a major, and returned to that city at the close of the war. Here his son, John Torrey, was born on August ~5, ~796. His early education was obtained in the schools of New York and Boston. While still a youth, he became acquainted with Amos Eaton, who taught him the elements of botany, and he soon developed a taste for other branches of natural science. At the age of nineteen years he began the study of medicine in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and three years later began medical practice in New York. His first scientific papers were published while he was still a medical student, the earliest being one on plants growing near New York, which appeared in ~7. In ~4 he published the first volume of his " Flora of the Northern and Middle Sections of the United States," an important descriptive work, which, however, was never completed. The same year he became Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology at West Point, and three years later transferred his field of labor to the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, where he became Pro- fessor of Chemistry and Botany (" practically that of chemistry l

THE INCORPORATORS I89 only, for botany had already been allowed to fall out of the medical curriculum in this country "~.4 While in this position he published many important botanical papers, including an account of the plants; collected by Edwin James, the botanist of :Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, the first part of which appeared in ~823. In ~826 he published a fuller account of the botany of this expedition in which the plants, for the first time in an American botanical publication, were arranged in accordance with the natural system. At this time he began the study of the sedges of the genus Carex, and, jointly with Von Schweinitz, published a monograph of the genus in ~825. Some ten years later his monograph of the other North American Cyperaceae appeared, together with a revision of the Carices. In ~836 Torrey was appointed Botanist of the State of New York and undertook the preparation of a flora of the State. After many delays and discouragements, this extensive work was published in ~843 in two large quarto volumes. " No other State of the Union has produced a flora to compare with this." (Gray.) At an early date Dr. Torrey projected a flora of North America, or of the United States. About ~836 he invited Asa Gray, then his pupil in botanical studies, to loin him in the enter- prise, and in ~838 the first two parts of the first volume made their appearance. The remainder of this volume, and also the second were published between ~840 and ~842 and the third and last volume in ~843. From this time nearly to the close of his life Torrey labored constantly to improve and extend this epoch- making work. Torrey published a long series of papers, many of them large and important works, on the botanical collections of the Govern- ment expeditions and surveys of the West, beginning with Long's Expedition and including those of Nicollet, Fremont Emory, Sitgreaves, Stansbury, and Marcy, and of the surveys of the Pacific Railroad and the Mexican Boundary. 4 He also became a professor in Princeton College. I4 V'

I9O NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES These botanical labors, as already mentioned, were supple- mentary to his regular duties as a teacher of chemistry and other branches of science, which he performed for more than thirty years. In ~857 Torrey entered upon the office of United States Assayer, and while thus engaged carried out many commissions of a confidential or especially difficult nature. In his last years, as professor emeritus in Columbia College, he continued to lecture at intervals. He also served as a trustee of the College and bequeathed to it his very valuable herbarium and his botanical library. Torrey was twice President of the New York Lyceum of Natural History and also presided over the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science. He was a member of the Order of the Cincinnati. (From ASA GRAY, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. I, ~ 877, PP. 265-276. ~ · — JOSEPH GILBERT TOTTEN Born, August 23, 1788; died, April 22, 1864 The lifetime of General Totten extended nearly from the close of the Revolution to the close of the Civil War, and his period of public service covered more than fifty years. He was born in New Haven, Connecticut, August 23, ~788. His father, Peter G. Totten, was the son of Joseph Gotten who came to America from England before the Revolution. Totten's mother died when he was three years old and his father having been appointed consul of the United States at Santa Cruz, in the West Indies, he was placed in charge of his uncle Jared Mansfield, " a graduate of Yale College, ~777, and a learned mathe- matician." Upon the organization of the Military Academy at West Point in 1802, Mansfield was appointed a teacher in that institu- tion. Young Totten accompanied his uncle to West Point and afterwards was appointed a cadet. He remained in the Academy during the term of ~8o3, but in November of that year his uncle Captain Mansfield became Surveyor-General of Ohio l

THE INCORPORATORS I9I and the Western Territories, and Totten accompanied him to his new station as an assistant. While in Ohio, his inborn curiosity regarding novel or unusual objects and phenomena led him to make a description and survey of the remains of the so- called "mound builders," particularly at CirclevilIe; probably the earliest observations on these singular works. In ~808 Totten re-entered the Army, was re-appointed Second :Lieutenant of Engineers, and began his career as military engineer. He was assigned to duty in connection with the construction of Castle Williams, and Castle Clinton, in New York harbor. During the War of ~8~z Totten served as Chief Engineer of the armies under command of Generals Van Rensselaer, Dear- born, lizard and Macomb. He obtained the rank of captain in ~8~2, and was brevetted major in ~8~3 for " meritorious service," and in ~8~4 lieutenant-colonel for " gallant conduct at the battle of Plattsburg." At the close of this war, Totten entered upon the most im- portant epoch of his career, in which he was engaged in the con- struction of coast defences. Congress in ~8~6 constituted a board of engineers whose duty was to formulate a system of defensive works. After some v~c~ss~tu~es, the permanent Doara, tnroug~' circumstances which cannot be detailed here, finally consisted of General Simon Bernard (an eminent French engineer who was invited to America to assist in this important undertaking) and Colonel Totten. The reports of this board, which were prepared by Colonel Totten, " exhibit in a masterly manner the principles of sea- coast and harbor defence, and their application to our own country." "They are themselves the best expressions of the life labors and services of the subject of our memoir." (Bar- nard.) These plans having been decided upon, Colonel Totten was assigned to the construction of Fort Adams in the harbor of Newport. This work, " the second in magnitude of the fortifi- cations of the United States, is one of the best monuments of genius as a military engineer." (Barnard.)

I92 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In connection with the construction of this great work, Colonel Totten instituted extensive investigations into the qualities and strength of materials, the expansion and contraction of buildin.~- .~ ~ · . · ~ stone turougn variations in temperature, the composition of mortars, and many other matters of importance in engineering operations. While engaged in the construction of Fort Adams, Colonel Totten also served as a member, and for six years as President, of the Board of Engineers whose duty was to plan new works authorized by Congress. His advice was also sought in con- nection with various harbor improvements, chiefly on the Great Lakes. When Fort Adams approached completion in ~838, Totten was appointed Colonel of the Corps of Engineers and Chief Engineer, with headquarters in Washington. While occupying this high office he directed his energies topiary the development of the system of coast defences, especially in the South, and personally inspected every fort in the United States at intervals not exceeding two years. During the Mexican War, Colonel Totten directed the engineering works at the siege of Vera Cruz, and on March z9, ~847, was brevetted a brigadier-general for gallant and merito- rious conduct. In ~855 General Totten, Commander Charles H. Davis and Professor Bache, by invitation of the State of New York, served as an advisory commission on the preservation of the harbor of New York. The members of this commission had previously reported on Cape Fear River and harbor, and on the harbor of Portland, Maine, and later rendered similar service to the State of Massachusetts relative to the port and harbor of Boston. To General Totten is due the credit of perfecting the case- mated battery and casemate embrasures. He was a member of the first Lighthouse Board and while serving in this capacity induced the board to accept his views regarding the proper site for the Minot's Ledge lighthouse, prepared the plan for its construction, and selected the engineer to build it. He was a

THE INCORPORATORS I93 member of the first Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution and favored the plan of Joseph Henry for the organiza- tion of that establishment. General Totten was deeply interested in many branches of natural history, and particularly in mineralogy and conchology. While Fort Adams was under construction, he spent his spare hours in collecting shells in the vicinity of Newport and also about Provincetown, Massachusetts. He published descriptions of several new species, and a list of the shells of Massachusetts, and furnished much important information for Gould's " Inver- tebrata of Massachusetts." He presented his collection of rare shells to the Smithsonian Institution. (From T. G. BARNARD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. I, ~ 877, pp. 35-97. ~ JOSIAH DWIGHT WHITNEY Born, November 23, I8I9; died, August I9, 1896 Josiah Dwight Whitney, the oldest of a family of thirteen chil- dren, was of English ancestry. Both the Dwight and Whitney families were descended from early New England settlers, who counted in their numbers graduates of Yale and Harvard, college presidents, able business men, missionaries, soldiers, and mem- bers of all the professions. Whitney was born at Northampton, Massachusetts, November 23, ~9, and at eight years of age left the district school in his native village and went to Plainfield, where according to the custom of the day, Rev. Moses Hallock took boys into his family for instruction. After further school- ing at Round Hill, Northampton, New Haven, and Andover, he entered Yale College as a sophomore in ~836. Returning to New Haven after graduation, young Whitney entered his father's bank, and for a time enjoyed the delights of a cultured home, where music played a prominent part. Art, science, music, law, and business attracted-him by turn, but finally in ~839 he yielded to his love for chemistry and entered the University of Pennsylvania to study under Dr. Robert Hare. The following year he made the acquaintance of Dr. Charles T. Jackson, and

I94 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES under him assisted in the Geological Survey of the State of New Hampshire. Again uncertain as to a remunerative profession, Whitney turned to the law and was about to enter Harvard Law School, when, on the advice of Dr. Jackson, his father offered to send him to Europe, where three years were spent in travel and study. During this time he made a translation of Berzelius' work on blowpipe analysis. While yet at Giessen, Dr. Jackson offered Mr. Whitney the position of first assistant in the Government Survey of the Lake Superior Mines. From chemistry his atten- tion was now turned to geology which thenceforth became his special study. As assistant, or as the head of a division, several years were spent in the survey of the Lake Superior mines and by the knowledge thus acquired, added to his thorough German training, and his acquaintance with fossils, Whitney became an acknowledged mining expert. At this time he published his work on The Metallic Wealth of the United States. It was written at Clover Den in Cambridge, " an old bachelor hall," where Whitney kept his own extensive library, and returned after his excursions to enjoy the society of other scientists. This home was given up at his marriage in ~654. In ~855 Whitney became professor in the University of Iowa, his chief duties, however being in connection with the state geological survey. A Geological Survey of California was established in ~ 860 and Whitney was appointed to take charge of it. Accompanied by a corps of able assistants he left Northampton for California on October ~8, ~860, and entered upon this new work with enthusi- asm. Many important features of the geology and geography of the State were determined, but the Survey soon encountered diffi- culties, chiefly of a political and pecuniary character, and after a precarious existence extending over fourteen years, it was finally abandoned. Only a few volumes containing the results of the work were published. Whitney's contributions to geology were numerous and many reports of official work were published at his own expense. In ~875 he was re-appointed to the Sturges-Hooper Professorship of Geology at Harvard which had been founded ten years pre-

THE INCORPORATORS I95 viously largely in his behalf, and also became a member of the faculty of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. These positions he retained until his death. His works on " The Climatic Changes of Later Geologic Times " and on the " Azoic System " were written during this period. For eight years Professor Whitney gave his spare time to assisting his brother William D. Whitney in connection with the scientific part of the Century Dictionary. After thirty-one years of teaching at Harvard, Professor Whitney died at Lake Sunapee, New Hampshire, August ~9, ~896. He was buried at Northampton and a glacial boulder of rose quartzite of the geological age of the lead district about Galena and the rocks of the Upper Michigan which border the " Azoic System," marks his grave. The highest peak of the Sierra Nevada bears his name. (See EDWIN T. BREWSTER, " Life and Letters of Josiah Dwight Whitney," Boston, agog.) JOSEPH WINLOCK Born, February 6, 1826; died, June I I, 1875 Though born in Kentucky, Joseph WinIock was of Virginia stock. His grandfather, after whom he was named, was a captain in the Revolution and in the War of T8~z held the rank of brigadier-general. In the latter war his son, Fielding Win- lock, served as his aid. Professor Joseph Winiock was educated at Shelby College, Kentucky, and was graduated from that institution in ~845. His abilities were already so manifest that he at once received an appointment as Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy from his Alma Mater. In ~85~ he became acquainted with " the chief of American mathematicians," who recognized his intel- lectual capacity, and induced him to join the corps of computers in the Nautical Almanac Once in Cambridge the following year. He served in this capacity until ~857, when he received an appointment as Professor of Mathematics in the Naval Ob- servatory at Washington. In this position he remained but a

I96 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES short time, after which he was appointed Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. Not long afterwards, in 1859, he was given charge of the mathematical department in the Naval Academy at Annapolis, but at the outbreak of the Civil War, he again re- sumed the office of Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac in Cambridge. During the years in which he was connected with this once he made many contributions to mathematics and astronomy, the most important of which was his series of tables of Mercury. In ~ 866 Professor Winiock was appointed Professor of Astronomy in Harvard College and Director of the Harvard Observatory.5 Here he exerted himself in strengthening the equipment of the observatory by the addition of many important instruments and aids to astronomical work. The transit circle of the observatory, a costly instrument, had proved unsatisfactory, and Winiock succeeded in obtaining funds from friends of the Observatory to replace it. To arrange for the construction of the new instrument, he visited the principal observatories in Europe in ~867. He also devised improvements which were afterwards adopted by other astronomers. Between ~87~ and ~87c. ~o.ooo , _, _ , observations were made With this Instrument, under Winiock's direction. In ~869, Professor WinIock was appointed head of a party to cooperate with the 'Coast Survey in observing the total eclipse of the sun in Kentucky. On this occasion he succeeded in making the first photograph of the solar corona made during any eclipse. At the request of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, he organized and led the party sent to Spain to observe the total eclipse of the sun occurring on December 22' ~870. During this eclipse a telescope of long focus, fixed horizontally, and without an eyepiece, which ' was devised by WinIock for photographic work, was used by all the observers. Winiock devised many improvements in spectroscopic instru- ments, and also in ~872 greatly improved and extended the time- 5 At a later date he also held the position of Professor of Geodesy in the Lawrence and Mining Schools of Harvard College. ~ ,

THE INCORPORATORS I97 signal service between Cambridge and Boston. In i874 he was appointed by the Secretary of the Navy chairman of a commis- sion established by Congress for the purpose of investigating the causes of the explosions of steam boilers and formulated plans for experiments which should test the truth or falsity of the accepted theories, but he was not destined to see them carried into execution. He died suddenly at Cambridge, Massachusetts, on June or, ~875. (FrOm lOSEPH LOVERING, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, VO1. I, 1877, PP. 329-343.) JEFFRIES WYMAN Born, August I I, I 8 I 4; died, September 4, I 874 Jefiries Wyman, the third son of Dr. Rufus Wyman, was born on August IT, ~8~4, at Chelmsford, near Lowell, Mas- sachusetts. In ~8~8, his father moved to Somerville where he was one of the physicians at the McLean Asylum. The early schooling of Jeffries Wyman began in Chariestown, Massachu- setts, and later he was sent to the Academy at Chelmsford. He became interested in natural history when very young, and often searched for objects of interest along the Charles River, near his home. His talent for drawing also developed early, and he afterwards used it to great advantage in the lecture-room. He entered Harvard in ~829, was graduated in ~833, and the next year took up the study of medicine with Dr. John C. Dalton. He received his degree of Doctor of Medicine in ~837, and began his work in Boston by acting as demonstrator of anatomy under a well-known comparative anatomist, Dr. J. C. Warren. This occupation was not very lucrative, and was often a source of discouragement, but Wyman pursued his scientific studies in connection with his medical work, and never entirely gave them up. At about this time the Lowell Institute was founded, and John A. :Lowell, who was then in charge of its affairs, offered Wyman

I98 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the curatorship. During the season of I840-4~, he delivered twelve lectures on comparative anatomy and physiology, and with the means thus procured went to Europe, where he came in contact with many prominent men of science, such as De Blainville, St. Hilaire, and Valenciennes. His sojourn was shortened by the illness and death of his father. In ~843, after . ~ _% ~ ~ ~ his return, he was made Professor ot Anatomy and Physiology at Hampton Sidney College in Richmond, Virginia. In 1847 he succeeded Dr. Warren to the Hersey chair of anatomy at Harvard College. While here he established and developed a museum of com- parative anatomy to which he devoted all of his spare time. On the many trips he made both North and South, he gathered great numbers of valuable specimens and added them to the ~ ~ . . . . ~ · 1 ,, , ~ ~ ~ , ~ 1 collections In hiS museum, when was a~e~aras tncorpuratcu with that of the Boston Society of Natural History. He spent the winter of ~852 in Florida on account of bad health, but in spite of his malady he was able at intervals to make investigations of the Indian shell-heaps, the results of which were afterwards published. Later, he made many trips to the coast of Maine and Massachusetts, any examined shell- heaps in as many as twenty-five localities, securing several thou- sand specimens. In ~856 he made an expedition to Surinam, and the same year was elected President of the Boston Society of Natural History, which office he held for fourteen years. In ~858-9, he went to the L`a Plata, and after ascending the Uruguay and Parana rivers crossed the continent to Santiago and Val- paraiso, with his friend G. A. Peabody, returning home by the Isthmus of Panama. In ~866 the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology was founded by George Peabody, and Wyman was appointed one of the seven trustees. By vote of the board, he was named as curator of the museum. In the duties of this office there was great scope for Wyman's ability and enthusiasm and though he worked at all times under the disadvantage of ill l

; THE INCORPORATORS I99 health, he accomplished much for the museum. He was obliged, however, to spend his winters in Florida, and once or twice he visited Europe for the purpose of recuperating. Thus he con- tinued until the summer of ~874 when he unfortunately under- took an unusual amount of work in the museum, enough indeed to overtax the strength of a man physically sound. In the fall of the same year he went to the White Mountains for a short rest, but he was unable to regain his energies and died on September 4, quite suddenly, while in Bethlehem, New Hampshire. Dr. Wyman's lack of physical vigor was probably the prime rea- son why he was not a voluminous writer. His papers though numerous are generally brief. He often summarized in a few pages the conclusions to which he had come after months, per- haps, of painstaking experiments. He wrote on many different zoological subjects, and his published papers relate to numerous classes of animals both recent and fossil, and to physiology and teratology, as well as to anatomy. One of the most important and best known of his scientific papers is that on the Gorilla, of which he was the joint author with Dr. Savage, who sent him specimens for study. This great anthropoid ape was here first described under the name of Troglodytes gorilla, and Dr. Wyman gave a full account of the skeleton. It was this article which helped to establish his reputa- tion among comparative anatomists. He also published an elaborate essay on the anatomy of the blind fish of the Mammoth Cave, another on the homology of limbs, and a third on the rela- tionship between vertebrates and invertebrates, based on a study of the nervous system of the frog. His most original essay in physiology was one relating to experiments on vibrating cilia, published in ~87~. His anthropological writings were marked by care, ingenuity, judiciousness and extensive knowledge, and gave him rank among the principal anthropologists of his day. Besides the work on shell-heaps already referred to, he made numerous studies of human crania.

200 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Wyman was one of the original members of the Association of American Geology and Natural History, and President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in ~857; also a member of the faculty of the Museum of Com- parative Zoology. (From A. S. PACKARD, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 2, ~886, pp. 75-~26.)

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A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913 Get This Book
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The National Academy of Sciences is the third oldest American institution, being established after the Smithsonian Institute and the American Association for the Promotion of Science. The Academy dates back to 1863, right in the midst of the American Civil War. Fortunately for the time, the Academy was vital to the development of the war in favor of the Union through its establishment of much needed scientific advancements and insight tantamount to those of the academies in Great Britain and the rest of Europe despite the involvement of science's most primary men. Since then, the Academy has served as a scientific adviser to the government, an adviser greatly appreciated by the government. The Academy's recommendations have been adopted, its findings accepted, and its investigations used to better advance the nation as a whole.

A History of the First Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences: 1863-1913 (1913) illustrates the Academy's history from its creation to the appointment of Woodrow Wilson as president. The book features a detailed look into the founding and forming of the Academy; the annals of the academy including the classifications of membership in 1892; lists of those involved with the Academy including officers and foreign associates; the Academy's publications, and more.

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