References
Achard, F., H.D.Eva, H-J Stibig, P.Mayaux, J.Gallego, T.Richards, and J.P. Malingreau. 2002. Determination of deforestation rates of the world’s humid tropical forests. Science 297:999–1002.
Archer, S. 1995. Tree-grass dynamics in a Prosopis-thornscrub savanna parkland: Reconstructing the past and predicting the future. Ecoscience 2:83–99.
Arrhenius, S. 1896. On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground. Philosophical Magazine 41:237–276.
Birdsey, R.A. 2003. Data needs for partitioning direct and indirect effects on the terrestrial carbon cycle. Paper prepared for delivery at the National Research Council Workshop on Direct and Indirect Human Contributions to Terrestrial Greenhouse Gas Fluxes, Sept. 23–24, Washington, D.C. Available online at http://dels.nas.edu/banr/pres/greenhouse/birdsey.pdf.
Brown, S. 1997. Estimating biomass and biomass change of tropical forests: A primer. FAO Forestry Paper 134. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Available online at http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4095E/W4095E00.htm
Brown, S., L.Iverson, and A.E.Lugo. 1994. Land use and biomass changes of forests in peninsular Malaysia during 1972–82: Use of GIS analysis. Chapter 4 in, Effects of Land Use Change on Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations: Southeast Asia as a Case Study, New York: V.H.Dale, ed. Springer-Verlag.
Buyanovsky, G.A., and G.H.Wagner. 1998. Carbon cycling in cultivated land and its global significance. Global Change Biology 4:131–114.
Casas, R. 2003. Sustentabilidad de la agricultura en la Región Pampeana. Institute de Suelos, Institute Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 14 pp.
Clark, D.A., and D.B.Clark. 1999. Assessing the growth of tropical rain forest trees: Issues for forest modeling and management. Ecological Applications 9(3):981–997.
CTIC (Conservation Technology Information Center). 2002. National Crop Residue Management Survey Conservation Tillage Data. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University. Available online at http://www.ctic.purdue.edu/CTIC/CRM.html.
Currie, W.S., and K.J.Nadelhoffer. 2002. The imprint of land use history: Patterns of carbon and nitrogen in downed woody debris at the Harvard Forest. Ecosystems 5:446–460.
Davidson, E.A., and I.L.Ackerman. 1993. Changes in soil carbon inventories following cultivation of previously untilled soils. Biogeochemistry 20:161–193.
Davidson, E.A., K.Savage, P.Bolstad, D.A.Clark, P.S.Curtis, D.S.Ellsworth, P.J.Hanson, B.E.Law, Y.Luo, K.S.Pregitzer, J.C.Randolph, and D. Zak. 2002. Belowground carbon allocation in forests estimated from litterfall and IRGA-based soil respiration measurements. Agriculture and Forest Meteorology 113:39–51.
DeFries, R., C.Field, I.Fung, G.Collatz, and L.Bounoua. 1999. Combining satellite data and biogeochemical models to estimate global effects of human-induced land cover change on carbon emissions and primary productivity. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 13(3):803–815.
DeFries, R.S., R.A.Houghton, M.C.Hansen, C.B.Field, D.Skole, and J. Townshend. 2002. Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation and regrowth based on satellite observations for the 1980s and 1990s. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 99(22):14256–14261.
DeLucia, E.H. 2003. Forest production under elevated carbon dioxide and temperature. Paper prepared for delivery at the National Research Council Workshop on Direct and Indirect Human Contributions to Terrestrial Greenhouse Gas Fluxes, Sept., 23–24. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies. Available online at http://dels.nas.edu/banr/pres/greenhouse/delucia.pdf.
DeLucia, E.H., D.J.Moore, J.G.Hamilton, A.Finzi, J.Pippen, W.H. Schlesinger, and R.J.Norby. The changing role of forests in the global carbon cycle: Responses to Elevated Atmospheric CO2, Paper presented at the American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting, San Francisco, December.
Entry, J.A., and W.H.Emminghan. 1998. Influence of forest age on forms of carbon in Douglas-fir soils in the Oregon coast range. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 28:390–395.
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2003. U.S. Emissions Inventory 2003: Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990–2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available online at http://yosemite.epa.gov/OAR/globalwarming.nsf/content/ResourceCenterPublicationsGHGEmissionsUSEmissionsInventory2003.html?OpenDocument.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of Organization of the United Nations) 2001. Global Forest Resource Assessment 2000. FAO Forestry Paper 140. Rome, Italy.
Galloway, J.N., and E.B.Cowling. 2002. Reactive nitrogen and the world: 200 years of change. Ambio 31(2):64–7.
Gaston, G., S.Brown, M.Lorenzini, and K.D.Singh. 1998. State and change in carbon pools in the forests of tropical Africa. Global Change Biology 4(1):97–114.
Griffith, D.M., and C.L.Alerich. 1996. Forest statistics for Maine, 1995. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Resources Bulletin NE-135. Radnor, PA: USDA Forest Service.
Harmon, M.E., and B.Marks. 2002. Effects of silvicultural practices on carbon stores in Douglas-fir-western hemlock forests in the Pacific Northwest, U.S.A.: Results from a simulation model. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32:863–877.
Houghton, R.A. 1999. The annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use, 1850–1990. Tellus 51B:298–313.
Houghton, R.A. 2002. Terrestrial carbon sinks—Uncertain explanations. Biologist 49:155–160.
Houghton, R.A. 2003. Revised estimates of the annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use and land management, 1850–2000. Tellus 55B:378–390.
Houghton, R.A., K.T.Lawrence, J.L.Hackler, and S.Brown. 2001. The spatial distribution of forest biomass in the Brazilian Amazon: A comparison of estimates. Global Change Biology 7(7):731–746.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 1996. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, J.T.Houghton, L.G.Meira Filho, B.Lim, K.Treanton, I.Mamaty, Y.Bonduki, D.J. Griggs, and B.A.Callender, eds. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC Secretariat. Available online at http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gl/invsl.htm.
IPCC. 2000a. Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, J.Penman, D.Kruger, I.Galbally, T.
Hiraishi, B.Nyenzi, S.Emmanul, L.Buendia, R.Hoppaus, T. Martinsen, J.Meijer, K.Miwa, and K.Tanabe, eds. Japan: Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. Available online at http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gp/gpgaum.htm.
IPCC. 2000b. IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land use Change, and Forestry, R.T.Watson, I.R.Noble, B.Bolin, N.H.Ravindranath, D.J. Verardo, and D.J.Dokken, eds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Available online at http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/land_use/index.htm
IPCC. 2001. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , J.T.Houghton, Y.Ding, D.J.Griggs, M.Noguer, P.J.van der Linden, X.Dai, K.Maskell, and C.A.Johnson, eds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC. 2003. IPCC Meeting on Current Scientific Understanding of the Processes Affecting Terrestrial Carbon Stocks and Human Influences Upon Them, D.Schimel and M.Manning, eds. Report IPCC-XXI/INF.1. Available online at http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/session21/infl.pdf.
Jenkins, J.C., D.C.Chojnacky, L.S.Heath, and R.A.Birdsey. 2003. National-scale biomass estimators for United States tree species. Forest Science 49:12–35.
Johnson, D.W. 1992. Effects of forest management on soil carbon storage. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 64:83–120.
Johnson, D.W., and P.S.Curtis. 2001. Effects of forest management on soil C and N storage: Meta analysis. Forest Ecology and Management 140(2–3):227–238.
Keeling, C.D., 1978. The Influence of Mauna Loa Observatory on the Development of Atmospheric CO2 Research. Pp. 36–54 in Mauna Loa Observatory. A 20th Anniversary Report, J.Miller, ed. Boulder, CO: NOAA Environmental Research Laboratories.
Keeling, C.D., and T.P.Whorf. 2004. Atmospheric CO2 records from sites in the SIO air sampling network. In Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tenn. (http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/co2/sio-mlo.htm
Mann, L.K. 1985. A regional comparison of carbon in cultivated and uncultivated alfisols and mollisols in the central United States. Geoderma 36:241–253.
McConkey, B.G., B.C.Liang, G.Padbury, and R.Heck. 2000. Prairie Soil Carbon Balance Project: Carbon Sequestration from Adoption of Conservation Cropping Practices. Final Report to GEMCo. Semiarid
Prairie Agricultural Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, Canada. 190 pp.
McGuire, A.D., S.Sitch, J.S.Clein, R.Dargaville, G.Esser, J.Foley, M. Heimann, F.Joos, J.Kaplan, D.W.Kicklighter, R.A.Meier, J.M. Melillo, B.Moore III, I.C.Prentice, N.Ramankutty, T.Reichenau, A. Schloss , H.Tian, L.J.Williams, and U.Wittenberg. 2001. Carbon balance of the terrestrial biosphere in the twentieth century: Analyses of CO2, climate and land use effects with four process-based ecosystem models. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 15(1):183–206.
McKane, R.B., E.B.Rastetter, J.M.Melillo, G.R.Shaver, C.S.Hopkinson, D.N. Fernandes, D.L.Skole, and W.H.Chomentowski. 1995. Effects of global change on carbon storage in tropical forests of South America. Global Biogeochemical Cycle 9:329–350.
Morgan, J.A., A.R.Mosier, D.G.Milchunas, D.R.LeCain, J.A.Nelson, and W.J.Parton. 2004. CO2 enhances productivity, alters species composition, and reduces digestibility of shortgrass steppe vegetation. Ecological Applications 14:208–219.
Murty, D., M.U.F.Kirschbaum, R.E.McMurtrie, and H.McGilvray. 2002. Does conversion of forest to agricultural land change soil carbon and nitrogen? A review of the literature. Global Change Biology 8:105–123.
Ogle, S.M., F.J.Breidt, M.D.Eve, and K.Paustian. 2003. Uncertainty in estimating land use and management impacts on soil organic carbon storage for U.S. agricultural lands between 1982 and 1997. Global Change Biology 9(11):1521–1542.
Ojima, D. 2003. Indirect Effects: CO2, N deposition, and climate (interactions with land management). Paper prepared for delivery at the National Research Council Workshop on Direct and Indirect Human Contributions to Terrestrial Greenhouse Gas Fluxes, Sept. 23–24, Washington, D.C. Available online at http://dels.nas.edu/banr/pres/greenhouse/ojima.pdf.
Owensby, C.E., J.M.Ham, A.K.Knapp, and L.M.Auen. 1999. Biomass production and species composition change in a tallgrass prairie ecosystem after long-term exposure to elevated atmospheric CO2. Global Change Biology 5:497–506.
Polglase, P.J., K.I.Paul, P.K.Khanna, J.G.Nyakuengama, A.M.O’Connell, T.S.Grove, and M.Battaglia. 2000. Change in soil carbon following afforestation or reforestation. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report No. 20. Canberra: Australian Greenhouse Office.
Potter, C.S., E.A.Davidson, S.A.Klooster, C.D.Nepstad, G.H.De Negreiros, and V.Brooks. 1998. Regional application of an ecosystem production model for studies of biogeochemistry in Brazilian Amazonia. Global Change Biology 4(3):315–333.
Sampson, R.N., and R.J.Scoles. 2000. Additional Human-Induced Activities—Article 3.4. P. 181–281 in Land Use, Land use Change, and Forestry, A Special Report of the IPCC, R.T.Watson, I.R.Noble, B.Bolin, N.H. Ravindranath, D.J.Verardo, and D.J.Dokken, eds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Schlamadinger, B., and G.Marland. 1996. The Role of forest and bioenergy strategies in the global carbon cycle. Biomass and Bioenergy 10:275–300.
Schlesinger, W.H. 2003. The carbon cycle. Paper prepared for delivery at the National Research Council Workshop on Direct and Indirect Human Contributions to Terrestrial Greenhouse Gas Fluxes, Sept. 23–24, Washington, D.C. Available online at http://dels.nas.edu/banr/pres/greenhouse/schlesinger.pdf.
Schuster, W.S.F., K.L.Griffin, K.J.Brown, M.H.Turnbull, D.Whitehead, and D.T.Tissue. In press. Changes in tree biomass and carbon content over seven decades (1930–2000) in an aggrading deciduous forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research.
Skog, K.E., and G.A.Nicholson. 1998. Carbon cycling through wood products: The role of wood and paper products in carbon sequestration. Forest Products Journal 48:75–83.
Smith, J.E., and L.S.Heath. 2002. A model of forest floor carbon mass for United States forest types. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station Research Paper NE-722. Newton Square, PA: USDA Forest Service. Available online at http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/newtown_square/publications/research_papers/pdfs/2002/rpne722.pdf.
Stephenson, N.L. 2003. Mechanisms driving forest carbon dynamics: Demography, growth, fire, and research needs. Prepared for delivery at the National Research Council Workshop on Direct and Indirect Human Contributions to Terrestrial Greenhouse Gas Fluxes, Sept. 23–24, Washington, D.C. Available online at http://dels.nas.edu/banr/pres/greenhouse/stephenson.pdf.
Tian, H., J.M.Mellilo, D.W.Kicklighter, A.D.McGuire, J.V.K.Helfrich III, B. Moore, and C.J.Vorosmarty. 1998. Effect of interannual climate variability on carbon storage in Amazonian ecosystems. Nature 396:664–667.
Thornton, P.E., B.E.Law, H.L.Gholz, K.L.Clark, E.Falge, D.S.Ellsworth, A.H.Goldstein, R.K.Monson, D.Hollinger, M.Falk, J.Chen, and J.P. Sparks. 2002. Modeling and measuring the effects of disturbance history and climate on carbon and water budgets in evergreen needleleaf forests. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 113:185–222.
Townsend, A.R., B.H.Braswell, E.A.Holland, and J.E.Penner. 1996. Spatial and temporal patterns in terrestrial carbon storage due to deposition of fossil fuel nitrogen. Ecological Applications 6:806–814.
Uhlen, G. 1991. Long-term effects of fertilizers, manure, straw and biocrop rotation on total-N and total-C in soil. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica 41:119–127.
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). 1997. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Bonn, Germany: Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Available online at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf.
UNFCCC. 2001. Report of the Conference of the Parties on its seventh session, held at Marrakesh from 29 October to 10 November 2001. Bonn, Germany: Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Available online at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/cop7/13.pdf.
West, T. 2003. Efficacy and longevity of varying carbon storage practices. Paper prepared for delivery at the National Research Council Workshop on Direct and Indirect Human Contributions to Terrestrial Greenhouse Gas Fluxes, Sept. 23–24, Washington, D.C. Available online at http://dels.nas.edu/banr/pres/greenhouse/west.pdf.
West, T.O., and G.Marland. 2002. A synthesis of carbon sequestration, carbon emissions, and net carbon flux in agriculture: Comparing tillage practices in the United States. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 91:217–232.
West, T.O., and W.M.Post. 2002. Soil carbon sequestration by tillage and crop rotation: A global data analysis. Soil Science Society of America Journal 66:1930–1946.
West, T.O., G.Marland, A.W.King, W.M.Post, A.K.Jain, and K.Andrasko. 2003. Carbon management response curves: estimates of temporal soil carbon dynamics. Environmental Management (in press)
Wilding, L.P., L.C.Nordt, and J.M.Kimble. 2002. Soil inorganic carbon: Global stocks. In Encyclopedia of Soils, R.Lal, ed. New York: Marcel-Dekker.