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Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness (2007)

Chapter: 4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?

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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us?." National Research Council. 2007. Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11968.
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Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

4 Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness: What Has Experience Taught Us? INTRODUCTION Over the last 20 years, various contaminated sediment sites have been remediated in whole or in part through dredging. The committee examined 26 dredging projects to evaluate whether dredging was able to meet short-term and long-term goals. Short-term goals are defined as cleanup levels that can be measured during or immediately post- dredging to verify the effective implementation of the remediation. The ability to maintain cleanup levels in the long term is ideally linked to the achievement of long-term risk-based goals or remedial action objectives. Appendix C presents the various sites’ cleanup levels and remedial ac- tion objectives and describes whether they were achieved at individual sites. Taken as a whole, the projects indicate what can and cannot be achieved with dredging and the conditions that favor or discourage the use of dredging. Evidence that dredging projects led to the achievement of long- term remedial action objectives and did so within expected or projected time frames is generally lacking. It was often not possible to evaluate long-term remedy performance relative to remedial action objectives be- cause of insufficient post-remediation data, quality, or availability or be- cause of lack of an equivalent pre-remediation dataset. Post-remediation 90

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 91 conditions are always influenced by long-term natural attenuation proc- esses and ongoing sources of contaminations if they exist, so long-term monitoring—over decades—may be needed to establish effectiveness; few of the sites reviewed by the committee have reached that level of maturity. Not counting the 5 pilot studies or hot-spot removal actions, about one half of the sites apparently did not achieve remedial action objectives or had inadequate monitoring to judge performance relative to remedial action objectives. Insufficient time has elapsed to judge achievement of remedial action objectives in approximately one quarter of the sites. The remaining sites apparently met remedial action objec- tives although the extent to which those remedial action objectives achieve long-term risk reduction may not be known. There were often sufficient data to evaluate performance relative to cleanup levels or short-term implementation goals, but the relationship of these measures to long-term risk reduction was often not clear. An examination of Appendix C shows that many sites achieved cleanup lev- els; however, many were operational goals (mass removal or dredging to elevation) rather than contaminant-specific goals. Natural processes are always modifying conditions at a site; their influence can be difficult or impossible to separate from the remedial action, particularly when control or reference sites are not monitored before and after remediation. Conditions also are often influenced by the implementation of combined remedies, such as dredging and capping, which complicate the assessment of the performance of dredging alone. Thus, the committee was unable to evaluate the effectiveness of dredging alone at most sites. Experiences at the sites can nevertheless inform remedial project managers as to what may be achievable with dredging and what site and operational factors may limit dredging effectiveness or contribute to its success. Experience is especially useful in identifying factors that con- tribute to success or failure of dredging to meet short-term cleanup levels because monitoring has been conducted at most sites to judge perform- ance relative to these standards. The ability to meet chemical-specific cleanup levels, however, does not in itself mean the ability to meet long- term risk-reduction targets or indicate the time frame over which any such targets might be met. This chapter discusses the lessons learned from sites where dredging was conducted and uses specific examples to

92 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites illustrate them. It also provides recommendations regarding implemen- tation of successful remediation with dredging. DATA AVAILABILITY AND ACCESSIBILITY The potential utility of a review of remedial effectiveness is gov- erned by the availability of pre-remediation and post-remediation moni- toring data. That issue has three components: whether data were ac- quired at a site, whether the data are available for review, and whether the data are sufficient to support conclusions about effectiveness. The goal of acquiring data for this type of analysis appears relatively simple: collect and evaluate pre-remediation and post-remediation monitoring data on concentrations and effects from Superfund sites. However, ob- taining this information is surprisingly difficult.1,2 For example, the post-dredging sediment concentrations at the Waukegan 1 Harbor, IL, Superfund site were of interest. In response to the committee’s re- quest for these data, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stated only “Post-Cleanup: 1/1/2005, Ave. 2.5 ppm (Source: RPM),” with no supporting data (EPA 2006a [OMC Waukegan Harbor Site, May 15, 2006]). To pursue sediment data further, the committee reviewed the site’s 5-year reviews (EPA 1997a, 2002). The 1997 5-year review states that “confirmation sampling was taken at the base of dredge to verify that contaminants levels required for this cleanup were met.” However, the sampling did not include chemical analyses of contaminant levels in the sediment (Canonie Environmental 1996). The 2002 5-year review does not indicate that any post-remediation monitoring of the harbor sediments had been conducted. However, another literature search indicated that EPA contaminants studied in harbor sediments collected in 1996, a few years after dredging (EPA 1999) and again in 2003 (ILDPH/ATSDR 2004). 2For example, the post-dredging sediment concentrations at the Bayou Bon- fouca, LA, Superfund site were of interest. In EPA’s summary to the committee (EPA 2006a [Bayou Bonfouca Superfund site, May 12, 2006]), they indicate that COC concentration data in sediment and biota are unavailable. The “monitoring” section in EPA’s summary refers only to a study by the Hazardous Substance Research Center S&SW which contains an analysis of remedy performance but not the raw monitoring data. However, the conclusion contains an excerpted paragraph from a 2003 report on the site (EPA 2003a) that indicates that post- dredging sediment samples were collected (a portion of the 2003 report [without sample locations or relation to the dredging site] was provided). The locations were later received from EPA. To pursue obtaining sediment data further, the

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 93 The amount, frequency, and type of data collected at dredging sites are highly variable. Some of the earlier sites had very little post-dredging monitoring. For example, Bayou Bonfouca, LA, and Outboard Marine Corporation, IL, did not sample sediment concentrations immediately after dredging (see footnotes 1 and 2). Marathon Battery, NY, is an ex- ception in that sediment and biota concentrations were collected and bioaccumulation was tested, but obtaining monitoring data proved diffi- cult, requiring several iterations, and ultimately the committee could not access the full range of reports. At some more recent sites, dredging is supported and guided by chemical confirmation sampling, and the re- sulting data are accessible. For example, the U.S. Environmental Protec- tion Agency (EPA) provided the committee concentration and location data on the recently completed dredging in the Grasse River, NY, and Hylebos Waterway in Commencement Bay, WA, including date, location coordinates, and chemical concentration information. Information on the operations and sampling and the monitoring results at pilot projects (such as conducted at the Grasse River, NY; Fox River, WI; and Lavaca Bay, TX, sites) are often well documented, as would be expected from studies specifically intended to document remedial effectiveness on a smaller scale. Data and reports from remediation sites are often held by various entities (including EPA, consultants, states, and responsible parties), and site’s 5-year reviews (EPA 1996a, 2006b; CH2M Hill 2001) were examined. The 2001 5-year review (the first to address the dredging activity) states that “no monitoring of the water level or quality conditions in the bayou are currently conducted—and no water quality data has been collected in the bayou adjacent to the site since the end of the source removal remedial action in 1995.” However, it also states that “the swimming and sediment contact advisory remains in effect based on the sediment samples collected [by the State of Louisiana] in 1997.” The 5-year review (CH2M Hill 2001) does not provide these sampling data or indicate locations or average concentrations of the samples. Later efforts to obtain the data through EPA were not successful. The 2006 5-year review indicates that sediment samples were taken after Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The post-hurricane sampling report was not provided to the committee, but the data (without sam- ple locations) were provided in the 2006 5-year review. The post-hurricane report (CH2MHILL 2006), with sample locations, was later requested and acquired from EPA.

94 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites this complicated the compilation of information. Committee requests for data on sites were sent to Superfund Headquarters, which did not have them and forwarded the requests to project managers in the EPA region who were responsible for a particular site (although these managers may or may not have been in that position during the remediation). The data might not be held by the EPA region, but instead may reside with the contractors that performed the work or the responsible parties that funded the work. Some data at sites where remedial actions had been completed are archived or not readily retrievable. Thus, even when in- formation was available to EPA it might have been inaccessible. In some cases, reports containing monitoring data and interpretations were held by the responsible parties but EPA wished not to have them released because sensitive negotiations were under way. When reports and data were available, they may have been repro- duced only on paper although they were originally produced electroni- cally. Such conditions severely limit distribution and faithful replication of information, because many site documents rely on large-scale maps in color. The ability to access reports and data via public Web sites was generally extremely limited, but there were exceptions. The mid-Atlantic EPA Region 3 has each site’s administrative records on line, and this permits the public and researchers to access site files electronically (al- though typically these files are in a scanned, nonnative format).3 Public information is available on all Superfund sites via the CERCLIS database, which frequently contains a site’s record of decision and 5-year reviews, if available. It was presumed that a site’s 5-year review would contain explicit statements of the sampling that had been conducted and provide, at a minimum, concentration and location data on sampling, but the committee was surprised to see that that was not necessarily the case.1,2 Comments regarding the ready public accessibility of electronic data may seem trivial. However, pre-remediation and post-remediation information is the end result of massive planning, implementation, and The administrative records contain much information that is ancillary to un- 3 derstanding site conditions (for example, e-mails, records of phone discussions, submitted comments, and written communications among states, agencies, and responsible parties). Those materials are important for maintaining a transparent decision-making process, but the primary data reports and summaries are most important for reviewing remedial effectiveness.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 95 data collection efforts that typically have involved large expenditures of public resources (whether the expenditures result from remediation itself or from the establishment of agreements with responsible parties who conduct it). Provision of pre-remediation and post-remediation data on chemicals of concern in an accessible, intuitive manner that defines col- lection efforts and results is a prerequisite to reviewing and understand- ing the results of remedial projects. An issue related to the availability (or lack) of complete sampling data is the need to rely on data summaries and various site reports to evaluate pre- and post-remediation results. At times the committee relied on reports and summaries that did not convey the necessary raw data to confirm summary statistics. That is because the committee did not have access to the primary sources or the resources to complete an ad-hoc re- assembly and evaluation of all the information. A note of caution rele- vant to this and other studies that summarize site information is that data on concentrations and effects should be collected consistently over time (for example, from the same locations, media, depth interval, and developed with similar techniques and protocols) to be most useful. Summary statistics may not be derived from similar datasets and reports may have incomplete annotation on sample location (for example, the relation of the samples to the dredging footprint), sampling protocols, and chemical analyses. Over time, analytical methods, contractors, sam- pling locations, and sampling methods can change. These changes com- plicate pre- and post-remediation comparisons. When possible, the committee provides information on these issues. DREDGING EFFECTIVENESS Dredging to Remove Contaminant Mass The direct effect of dredging is the removal of sediment and its as- sociated contaminant mass. Experience at a variety of sites has shown that dredging is effective at removing contaminant mass. Where sedi- ments are subject to scour by storm or other high-flow events, buried contaminated sediment may be the source of future exposure and risk. In such cases, mass removal may result in risk reduction because the future

96 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites exposure and transport of sediment have been thwarted (see Chapter 2 for additional discussion). For example, a demonstration dredging project was conducted to remove a deposit (Deposit N) contaminated with polychlorinated bi- phenyls (PCBs) in a high-velocity reach of the Lower Fox River, WI, in 1998 and 1999. PCB contamination in sediments of the river is the result of historical wastewater discharge from the manufacture and recycling of carbonless copy paper incorporating Aroclor 1242. The objective of the Deposit N demonstration was to remove contaminated sediment and leave no more than 3-6 in. of residual material in place while minimizing resuspension and offsite loss of sediment. Dredging to target elevations in 1998 and 1999 resulted in the removal of 112 kg of PCBs, or 78% of the pre-dredging inventory (Foth and Van Dyke 2000). Mass removal may have been an appropriate cleanup objective if there was the potential for future mobilization and transport of the PCBs. Simple mass removal, however, may not reduce risk. For example, the non-time-critical removal action conducted in 1995 in the Grasse River in Massena, NY, had the objective of removing much of the PCB mass that was in the vicinity of an outfall. PCBs had been in use at the adjacent Alcoa facility and were introduced into the river through the outfall and from other sources. It was estimated that this localized re- moval of about 2,500 cy removed 27% of the PCB mass from the entire study area, consisting of several miles of river (BBL 1995). Despite re- moval of as much as 98% of the targeted contaminant mass (Thibodeaux and Duckworth 1999), no measurable reduction in water-column or fish concentrations of PCBs was noted. Site characterization and assessment efforts have led to the conclusion that water-column PCB concentrations are related, at least during low-flow periods, to surficial sediment con- centrations of PCBs throughout the river and that removal of buried mass does not have a major influence on water-column concentrations (Ortiz et al. 2004). The removal may still have been warranted to avoid potential scouring during high-flow conditions, but risk reduction was not achieved during base flow conditions. Dredging to Reduce Risk A more complete assessment of dredging effectiveness would in- clude evaluation of long-term risk reduction in addition to mass removal

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 97 or performance relative to cleanup levels. Although few sites have suffi- ciently complete datasets, dredging has apparently resulted in risk re- duction in some cases, including at some sites with long-term datasets. Lake Jarnsjon, Sweden The Lake Jarnsjon site was remediated in 1993 and 1994. The pre- dredging surface sediment (0-40 cm) PCB concentrations had a geometric mean of 5.0 mg/kg (n=12; range 0.4 to 30.7 mg/kg) in 1990. Following remediation, the surface sediment (0-20 cm) concentrations in 1994 were significantly reduced and had a geometric mean of 0.060 mg/kg (n=54; range 0.01 to 0.85 mg/kg) (Bremle et al 1998a). Out of 54 defined subareas, one exceeded 0.5 mg/kg dry weight (set as the highest acceptable level to be left in the sediment); 20% of the sediment areas had PCB levels higher than 0.2 mg/kg dry weight, the remediation objective was set at 25% (Bremle et al 1998b). Fish-tissue PCB concentrations declined after remediation although post-dredging monitoring did not take place until 2 years after dredging. Concentrations did not, however, decrease to those upstream of the con- taminated area. In their report, Bremle and Larsson (1998) compare fish concentrations in the remediated lake to fish in upstream areas and con- clude that “fish from all the locations in 1996 had lower PCB concentra- tion than in 1991 [dredging occurred in the summers of 1993 and 1994]. The most pronounced decrease was observed in the remediated lake, where levels in fish were halved. The main reason for the reduced levels was the remediation.” However, the authors also state that “the reason for the decline of PCB in fish could be decreased atmospheric deposition and thus lowered loadings of PCB to the freshwater.” The comparisons in the study benefited from the use of a reference site that indicated background declines in fish-tissue concentrations; these declines have been seen elsewhere as well (Stow et al. 1995). In that regard, Bremle and Larsson (1998) state that …the results show that if a remedial action is to be evaluated and the process is extended over several years, changes in background contamination must be taken into account. After a remedial action, the results need to be followed over several years to show if it has

98 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites been successful, which has not yet been the case in the present study. It also stresses the importance of using reference sites, to compare the results from the remedial area. A decrease in overall background contamination could otherwise well be interpreted as a result of the remedial action only. Black River, Ohio At the Black River, in Lorain, OH, sediment was contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as a result of effluent from a steel-plant coking facility. In 1983, the coking facility closed. Dredging occurred from late 1989 to early 1990 below the Kobe Steel outfalls at river miles 2.83-3.55 (EPA 2007a). In the early 1980s, PAH compounds were detected in sediments at high concentrations, and the brown bull- head population had high rates of liver cancer and pre-cancerous lesions. Since closure of the facility and dredging, PAH concentrations in surface sediments, fish PAH residues, and neoplasm frequencies in fish have declined (Baumann 2000). As shown in Figure 4-1, a decrease in cancer at the site was noted immediately after the plant closure. An increase in cancer was also noted immediately after dredging and was probably due to the exposure of fish and their prey to higher concentrations of PAHs in sediment and water during dredging. Later sampling, however, showed decreases in cancer, suggesting that the increase during dredg- ing was a short-term phenomena. Within 5 years after remediation, the cancer incidence was lower than the pre-dredging data, presumably as a result of the dredging. However, it is unclear to what extent continued natural attenuation, as evidenced by the reduction in observed cancer after plant closure but before dredging, could have reduced cancer inci- dence in the same time frame. Marathon Battery, New York The ability to achieve remedial action objectives and long-term risk reduction with dredging was demonstrated at Foundry Cove of the Marathon Battery, NY, site. Foundry Cove is a small body of water adja- cent to the Hudson River about 85 km north of New York City. The

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 99 60% Cancer Pre-cancerous Lesions 50% 48% 46% 40% 38% % of Fish 30% 22% 23% 20% 18% 10% 11% 10% 7% 0% 0% 1982 1987 1992 1993 1998 Year FIGURE 4-1 Prevalence of cancer and pre-cancerous lesions in Black River bull- heads before and after dredging. The primary source of contamination was shut down in 1983, and dredging occurred in 1989-1990. Source: Adapted from Baumann 2000. Marathon Battery Company discharged cadmium, nickel, and cobalt during the manufacture of batteries through the plant’s outfalls, located beneath the Cold Spring pier and in the East Foundry Cove Marsh. About 50 metric tons of nickel-cadmium waste is estimated to have been discharged from 1953 to 1971 (Levinton et al. 2006). The site comprises six separate regions. West Foundry Cove bor- ders the eastern shore of the Hudson River and is connected to East Foundry Cove via an opening in a railroad trestle. The most contami- nated sites are East Foundry Cove Marsh (13 acres), East Foundry Cove (36 acres), East Foundry Pond (3 ac), and the Cold Spring Pier area (~5 acres) that borders the Hudson River to the north. Constitution Marsh (281 acres) is to the south and is less contaminated (see Figure 4-2). As summarized in the record of decision and summary to the committee, core sediment samples collected from East Foundry Cove during the re- medial investigation ranged from 0.29 to 2700 mg/kg cadmium and had

100 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites FIGURE 4-2 Map showing the Marathon Battery Superfund site on the Hudson River, NY adjacent to Cold Spring, NY. Dredging was conducted in the Cold Spring Pier area, East Foundry Cove, and East Foundry Pond. East Foundry Cove Marsh was excavated and capped; Constitution Marsh was not remediated. Source: EPA 2006a (Marathon Battery Superfund Site, May 10, 2006). a mean of 179.3 mg/kg (median = 5.6 mg/kg).4 Samples collected in the Pier area (a much larger area than what was actually dredged) ranged from 1.2 to 1,030 mg/kg for cadmium and had a mean of 12.6 mg/kg 4 These data are for all depths. The mean for each sampled depth is 439.4 mg/kg (0-10 cm), 50.5 mg/kg (10-25 cm), and 2.1 mg/kg (25-50 cm). This sampling was apparently conducted in 1984 by Acres in support of the remedial investiga- tion (EPA 1989b). These summary statistics from EPA do not include other sam- pling data collected in 1989 (USACE 1992).

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 101 (median = 3.9 mg/kg)5 (EPA 1989a; 2006a [Marathon Battery Superfund Site, May 10, 2006]). A human health risk assessment that considered fish and crab consumption and exposure to suspended sediment in water concluded that achievement of a sediment cadmium concentration of 220 mg/kg would be protective. Sediment bioassays indicated that 10-255 mg/kg would be protective of aquatic life. A cleanup level of 10 mg/kg was set and believed to be achievable by removing the top 1 ft of sedi- ment (EPA 1989a). About 80,000 cy of sediment was dredged from the contaminated areas of East Foundry Cove, East Foundry Cove Pond, and the Cold Spring Pier area from 1993 to 1995. In contrast, East Foundry Cove Marsh was dry excavated to a 100 mg/kg limit and then capped with a bentonite and geotextile blanket followed by 1 ft of sandy marsh planting material. No active remediation was implemented in the Consti- tution Marsh6 or the West Foundry Cove (EPA 1995; 2006a [Marathon Battery Superfund Site, May 10, 2006]). Post-dredging verification sampling was conducted to establish whether cleanup levels had been met. EPA states “In the Hudson River and East Foundry Cove, an average of 10 mg/kg cadmium remained, which was consistent with the ROD requirement that at least one foot of sediment and 95% of the contamination be removed” (EPA 1998a). The record of decision also required long-term monitoring at the site for thirty years after completion of the remedial action (AGC 2001). Figure 4- 3 presents median cadmium concentrations7 at the East Foundry Cove portion of the site before and after remediation from this monitoring program. These data indicate that surficial sediment concentrations were reduced as a result of dredging, and the concentrations have not re- 5 These data are for all depths. The ROD describes these data as being from 85 locations covering 465 acres with cores down to a depth of 137 cm. This is a greater area than the approximate 5 acres that was dredged. 6 “Although cadmium-contaminated sediment hot spots were identified in Constitution Marsh, to remediate these sediments would have had a significant adverse impact on the marsh’s sensitive ecosystem. In addition, the cadmium- contaminated sediments would eventually be covered with clean sediments fol- lowing the remediation of the cadmium contaminated sediments in East Foun- dry Cove marsh. Therefore, long-term monitoring was selected for Constitution Marsh” (EPA 1995). 7For information on the distribution of data, see Figure 4-4.

102 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites Cd Concentration (mg/kg) EFC - Median Sediment Cd Concentrations 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Nov-95 Oct-02 Nov-03 Nov-04 Jun-96 Apr-97 Apr-98 Apr-99 Apr-00 Apr-01 Mar-96 Post-Remed. Pre-Remed. FIGURE 4-3 Median sediment cadmium concentrations, East Foundry Cove, Marathon Battery Site. Dredging occurred in the fall of 1993 and between April 1994 and February 1995. Data are the median of cadmium concentrations from five locations within the dredged area of East Foundry Cove. Pre-remediation data are from “samples obtained by Malcolm Pirnie and others prior to the re- medial action. These are the reported data closest to the present LTM [long-term monitoring] sampling locations.”8 Post-remediation data (presumably confirma- tion sampling immediately following dredging) are the “average value of either the two closest post-remediation sample node locations or the analytical results of the various testing agencies for the same node location.” The remaining data (with dates specified) are from the long-term monitoring (EPA 2006a [Marathon Battery Superfund Site, May 10, 2006]; the origin of the data table from which this figure was constructed was not noted in the summary from EPA). turned to pre-dredging levels. Note that although cleanup levels were achieved immediately after dredging, median concentrations have since fluctuated above and below the 10 mg/kg cleanup level. Figure 4-4 pre- sents the frequency of occurrence of sediment cadmium concentrations in the period 1995-2000. The figure shows a reduction in surficial concen- tration and also shows that many individual sediment samples show concentrations greater than 100 mg/kg (log10 = 2). Concentrations in some sediment samples are indistinguishable from the original sediment con- centration distribution. Independent sampling and analysis by Mackie et 8 It is unclear exactly when these data were collected and to what sediment depth. According to the ROD, East Foundry Cove sediment samples were col- lected by Acres in 1985, Ebasco in 1988, and Malcolm Pirnie in 1989.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 103 al. (2007) had similar results. Their 2005 sampling of the dredged area of East Foundry Cove showed a median cadmium concentration of 39.2 mg/kg in the top 5 cm of sediment (16 samples ranging from 2.4 to 230.4 mg/kg, mean 59.7, SE 16.8). The significance of occasional high residual concentrations after dredging can be evaluated by examination of ecologic exposure before and after dredging. Figure 4-5 is a summary of long-term monitoring data collected for 5 years post-dredging (AGC 2001) and shows the ratio of pre-remediation to post-remediation tissue concentrations in various plants and animals. The data most relevant to the dredging (which oc- curred only in East Foundry Cove, East Foundry Pond, and the Cold Spring Pier area) are the water chestnut in East Foundry Cove, which show improvement and the benthic invertebrates in East Foundry Cove, which show an increase after remediation and then a decrease to pre- remediation levels after 5 years.9 Bioaccumulation studies (using in-situ Pre-Remed. East Foundry Cove Post-Remed. 4 Nov-95 Log10 Cd Concentration, mg/kg Mar-96 3 Jun-96 2 Apr-97 Apr-98 1 Apr-99 0 Apr-00 Apr-01 -1 Oct-02 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 z score Nov-03 Nov-04 FIGURE 4-4 Log probability plot of sediment cadmium concentrations, East Foundry Cove, Marathon Battery. The z score indicates the distance from the mean in standard deviations; z scores greater than 0 exceed the mean. The source of these data is described in Figure 4-3. 9Because birds are highly mobile, contaminant exposures to wood ducks, swallows, and marsh wrens cannot be directly linked to the dredged areas. Also, Constitution Marsh did not undergo active remediation; East Foundry Cove Marsh was excavated and capped.

104 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites enclosures) were also conducted at the site. Data from East Foundry Cove and the Cold Spring Pier area generally indicate declines in accu- mulated cadmium body burdens compared with pre-remediation values (AGC 2001; EPA 2003b). The data suggest that in at least some cases dredging can achieve and maintain reductions in sediment concentrations and body burdens of contaminants although occasional measurements of elevated concen- trations complicate the interpretation of the results. In addition, there may be short-term increases in body burdens in species directly affected by the remediation (such as the benthic organism data). The fact that in- dividual sediment samples exhibited elevated concentrations empha- sizes that evaluation of the performance of any remedy requires ade- quate monitoring of key indicators before and after remediation to fully characterize the distribution of concentrations so decisions are not driven by low probability events. 100.00 1996 Ratio to Historical Concentrations 1997 10.00 1998 1999 2000 1.00 0.10 0.01 CATTAILS (CM) CHESTNUT (EFC) CATTAILS (EFCM) CHESTNUT (CM) INVERTEBRATES (whole body) WOOD DUCK WOOD DUCK MARSH WREN SWALLOWS (whole body) (kidney) (liver) BENTHIC WATER WATER (EFC) FIGURE 4-5 Ratio of cadmium body burdens in various animals and plants after dredging to pre-dredging levels for the period 1996-2000, Marathon Battery Site, NY. The data are the mean value except for the benthic invertebrates for which only one sample was collected. (The benthic invertebrate samples were “a com- bination of oligochaete worms and chironomid midge larvae, with a minimum aggregate weight of one gram.”) The number of samples in each mean varies. CM = Constitution Marsh; EFCM = East Foundry Cove Marsh; EFC = East Foun- dry Cove. Note that only the water chestnuts (EFC) and the benthic invertebrates (EFC) were from locations where dredging alone was conducted. Source: Data from AGC 2001.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 105 Summary Dredging remains one of the few options available for the remedia- tion of contaminated sediments and should be considered, along with other options, for managing the risks that they pose. The need to remove contaminated sediments can be particularly acute at sites where naviga- tional channels need to be maintained or where buried contaminated sediment deposits are likely to be subjected to erosion and transport from high flows or changes in hydrologic conditions. As shown at the Grasse River and other sites, dredging can achieve removal of sediments and much of the contaminants they contain. Mass removal alone, how- ever, may not achieve risk-based goals, which should be the basis for remedy selection. The results at the Marathon Battery and other sites outlined above show that under some conditions dredging can achieve cleanup levels and aid recovery of biota at contaminated sediment sites. As indicated previously, it is often difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of dredging alone as a result of reductions in ongoing sources of contamination (for example, outfalls and atmospheric deposition), the use of combination remedies, and natural burial of existing contamination. As illustrated in the examples above, measurement of time trends in sediment and water contaminant concentrations prior to and after dredging can help identify changes due to dredging as well as evaluate the risks of not dredging. Reference sites are also useful in contrasting the contaminant dynamics and risk reduction due to dredging with that caused by these other proc- esses. To assist in evaluating the performance of dredging, it is important to monitor a range of dredging performance metrics linked to risk reduc- tion, as was done at Marathon Battery. FACTORS AFFECTING DREDGING EFFECTIVENESS A variety of factors and site characteristics influence dredging ef- fectiveness and can limit the ability to achieve cleanup levels and reme- dial action objectives. However, it is generally not possible to definitively identify the specific conditions or factors that determined success or fail- ure in a particular project. The committee strived to identify the condi-

106 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites tion or conditions that appeared to significantly contribute to the pro- ject’s outcome and summarized those herein. Foremost among the factors that influence dredging effectiveness are whether a site has been adequately characterized and whether ongo- ing sources of contamination have been controlled. Site characterization and source control require a firm understanding of the nature and distri- bution of the contamination, any potential sources that contribute to the contamination burden in the watershed, and the processes influencing site risks and their attenuation. A strong understanding of the extent of contaminants in place and the contribution of outside sources is essential to developing an effective conceptual site model and remedial plan to eliminate or lessen contaminant exposures and risk. The influence of source control and site characterization on remedy effectiveness will be illustrated through experience at particular sites in later sections. These factors, however, influence the success of all sediment remediation ef- forts, not just dredging. Destruction of the benthic community and removal of habitat is unavoidable with all dredging projects and represents an immediate negative effect to the existing benthic community. This effect also occurs with other active remedial efforts such as capping. As such, the ecologic benefit of the current habitat needs to be an important part of the deci- sions in determining whether or not to dredge. In a net risk reduction framework, the habitat destruction will be compared to the benefits of removing contaminated sediment, bearing in mind the post-dredging substrate’s desirability as a habitat (or the substrate created following backfilling). 10 Recovery after disturbance is typically relatively rapid with estimates of benthic recovery rates ranging from several months to several years (Qian et al. 2003; USACE 2005). Immediately after destruc- tion of the habitat, hardy, opportunistic organisms such as polychaetes (oligochaetes in freshwater) and small bivalves colonize surficial sedi- ments. Subsequently the population increases in diversity and abun- As described by EPA (2005a): “While a project may be designed to minimize 10 habitat loss, or even enhance habitat, sediment removal and disposal do alter the environment. It is important to determine whether the loss of a contaminated habitat is a greater impact than the benefit of providing a new, modified but less contaminated habitat.”

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 107 dance. Recovery occurs when the site returns to pre-disturbance condi- tions or does not differ significantly from a reference area. In contrast to the above factors which affect many or all remedial approaches, dredging projects are specifically influenced by two addi- tional processes that weigh heavily on the effectiveness of dredging: • Resuspension of sediments and release of contamination during dredging. • Generation of residual contamination giving rise to potential long term exposure after dredging. As described in Chapter 2, resuspension, release, and residuals oc- cur to some extent with all dredging projects. Resuspension refers to sediment that is disturbed during dredging and transported out of the dredging area. Exposure to resuspended sediments is generally transi- tory and ends soon after the completion of dredging. Residuals are the contaminated sediments exposed after conclusion of the dredging and can lead to longer term exposure and risks to organisms. Release of con- taminants to the liquid phase (for example, solubilized PCBs) can occur from both resuspended and residual sediments. In the case of strongly sorbing contaminants, it is often assumed that the fraction of sediment resuspended corresponds to the fraction of contamination released and transported down current. Sediment resuspension and contaminant re- lease, however, may not be closely related if there are large dissolved or separate phase releases or if release from residuals is substantial. Figure 4-6 summarizes the amounts of resuspension and residual contamination that have been observed in a variety of dredging projects (Patmont 2006). The sediment resuspension data points are the fraction of sediment resuspended during dredging. (The fraction is the mass of suspended solids measured at some distance downstream of the dredge [typically less than 100 ft] divided by the mass dredged on a dry weight basis.) These data are from a variety of sources including consultant re- ports and the open literature. As such, sampling methods and ap- proaches used to estimate these fractions can vary depending on the ob- jectives of the study, the nature of the project, and site conditions. The residual data in the figure are the fraction of contaminant mass (not sediment mass) remaining post-dredging compared to the estimated

108 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites FIGURE 4-6 Sediment or contaminant mass resuspended or left as a residual. Resuspension data (squares, left) are from a variety of projects gleaned from the literature. Residuals data (diamonds, right) are from dredging at 12 projects (av- erage refers to the median in the figures). Source: Patmont 2006. Reprinted with permission; copyright 2006, Anchor Environmental LLC. contaminant mass removed in the last production dredging cut at 11 sites (residual fractions are determined based on a chemical mass- balance approach [see Patmont and Palermo 2007]). The projects span a range of physical settings, operating conditions, and data collection methods. Despite variations among sources of the resuspension and re- siduals data, the distribution shown is a useful compendium of existing data and likely to indicate at least the magnitude of expected residuals and resuspension rates. The figure suggests that about half the dredging projects have re- sulted in resuspension that amounts to 1% or less of the mass of sedi- ments dredged.11 About half the dredging projects have resulted in a re- sidual contaminant mass that amounts to 5% or less. Although the resuspension losses and residuals are small relative to the total mass 11It should be noted that the resuspended solids fraction measured down- stream likely underestimates the total contaminants in the water column because some dissolved releases are likely to occur from solids that remain within the dredge footprint, that is, freshly exposed and redeposited sediments.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 109 dredged, the availability of the contaminants to organisms may be higher than prior to dredging because of exposure to contaminants in the water column (resuspension) or at the sediment surface (residual). The residuals may be especially problematic in that the concentration in the residual is similar to the average concentration in the dredged sediment (Reible et al. 2003; Patmont 2006) and directly accessible to organisms that live at or interact with the sediment-water interface. Because of the presence of the residuals, surface concentrations may not change or may even increase when compared with pre-dredging conditions. Patmont and Palermo (2007) used a similar (though not identical) dataset to investigate the influence of site-specific factors on residual contamination after dredging. In this analysis, they concluded that Similar generated residual percentages were observed for both me- chanical and hydraulic dredges. The available data suggest that multiple sources contribute to generated residuals, including re- suspension, sloughing, and other factors. However, on a mass ba- sis, sediment resuspension from the dredgehead appears to explain only a portion of the observed generated residuals, suggesting that other sources such as cut slope failure/sloughing are likely quanti- tatively more important. The available mass balance data also indi- cate that the presence of hardpan/bedrock, debris, and relatively low dry density sediment results in higher generated residuals. Figure 4-7, from Patmont and Palermo, shows the influence of de- bris and/or hardpan and sediment bulk density on the estimated residual at 11 dredging project sites. (Figure 4-7 has one less case study than Fig- ure 4-6.) Higher amounts of debris, the presence of hardpan, and low sediment bulk density all contribute to higher generated residuals. An examination of dredging at the various sites included in Ap- pendix C indicated that resuspension, release, and residuals can all be influenced by site conditions such as those discussed by Patmont and Palermo (2007) and by the manner in which dredging is implemented. The next section discusses the role that each of those may play in limiting dredging effectiveness on the basis of experience at specific sites where dredging was used; taken together, the experience illustrates site-specific conditions or activities that contribute to or limit dredging effectiveness.

110 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites FIGURE 4-7 Estimated generated residuals for 11 projects with data broken down on whether debris, rock, or hardpan was prevalent at the site. Source: Patmont and Palermo 2007. Reprinted with permission from the authors; copy- right 2007, Battelle Press. The objective is to identify conditions under which dredging might be effectively implemented and conditions that could discourage the use of dredging because of its inability to meet desired cleanup levels or reme- dial action objectives. Resuspension and Release of Dredged Contaminants During Removal Resuspension and release of contaminants during dredging are among the most important adverse effects of dredging. As shown in Fig- ure 4-6, up to 10% of the mass of sediment dredged can be resuspended during dredging. Early illustrations of the potential for dredging to give rise to at least short-term increases in adverse effects on organisms can be found in the previously discussed Black River, OH, and Marathon Battery, NY, sites. Those increases were probably due to exposure to more highly contaminated sediment or resuspension of sediment and contaminants during dredging. In the next two sections, the effect of sediment resuspension during dredging and the duration of those effects will be illustrated by experiences at other sites.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 111 Effects of Resuspension and Release Grasse River, New York Monitoring of dissolved PCB concentrations in the water column during the 1995 non-time-critical removal in the Grasse River, Massena, NY indicated water concentrations above the 2 μg/L PCB action level at several time points and as high as 13.3 μg/L PCBs (BBL 1995).12 These concentrations were detected along the perimeter of the project, beyond three lines of silt curtains that were used in an effort to contain sus- pended sediment. The interior curtain was extended to the bottom, and, as stated in the documentation report (BBL 1995), “the lowering of both the boulder and the inner, secondary curtains to the River bottom greatly enhanced TSS [total suspended solids] containment.” This site also used caged fish before, during, and after dredging to monitor bioaccumula- tion of PCBs (BBL 1995). The study concluded that the increases in caged fish exposed for six weeks during dredging had increases in PCB concen- trations 20 to 50 times higher than those observed in the pre-dredging time frame and increases of that magnitude suggest that uptake of PCBs was affected by the release of PCBs to the water column during dredging. However, the report also states that some of the increases in caged fish may be attributable to higher water temperatures during the dredging exposures.13 12 In contrast, site-wide sampling the year prior to the dredging generally showed no quantifiable PCB concentrations throughout the river (that is, concen- trations were less than 0.5 or 0.7 μg/L depending on the Arochlor) (BBL 1995). 13The analysis is further complicated because the increases in fish upstream of the removal were proportionally greater than those downstream. For the 6-week exposures during dredging, lipid-normalized PCB concentrations at the two up- stream cages were on average 59 times higher than pre-dredging exposures, while downstream cage locations were on average 35 times higher. However, on an absolute basis, the increases were less pronounced upstream (average increase of 658 ppm PCBs on a lipid basis) relative to the increases observed at the down- stream locations (average increase of 2,394 ppm PCBs on a lipid basis). It is sus- pected that the greater proportional increases in the upstream cages (150 ft up- stream of the removal area) resulted because the pre-dredging concentrations in the upstream cages were lower and, thus, increases in PCBs at both locations will result in a greater proportional increase at the upstream cage locations and be-

112 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites A second dredging project took place in the Grasse River in 2005. This demonstration project was intended to remove approximately 64,000 cy of PCB-contaminated sediment from 3 work zones, but ulti- mately removed about 24,600 cy of sediments from approximately 40% of the targeted area. Water column sampling during this demonstration project showed about one-fourth of the 100-odd measurements taken over the course of the project exceeded the 2 μg/L PCB action level in the most downstream sampling site adjacent to the silt curtain (EPA, unpub- lished data, 4/18/2006). All measured water column concentrations throughout the river prior to the demonstration dredging project were less than 0.065 μg/L total PCBs. As shown in Figure 4-8, increases in water-column PCB concentra- tion were noted downstream of the dredging operation. TSS increased in concert with PCBs at the sampling locations adjacent to the site, but downstream PCB concentrations remain high when TSS decreased back to upstream values. The presence of dissolved PCBs that would not settle may account for the different behavior downstream. Because dredging is a technology designed to remove solids, dissolved contaminants are con- tained much less effectively. Similar behavior would be expected for re- medial dredging of sediments containing fluid contaminants, such as nonaqueous-phase liquids. In addition, operational controls on resus- pension of sediment particles are expected to have less effect on dis- solved-phase or fluid-phase contaminants. Silt curtains, for example, are designed to provide additional residence time to encourage particle set- tling and would have less influence on non-settleable contaminants. The increase in suspended solids and their flux down river was not associated with high-flow events and therefore was likely due to dredg- ing-related resuspension processes. A horizontal auger dredge was used at this site for most of the demonstration dredging. A horizontal auger of the size used is limited in its ability to dredge effectively in the presence of stone or debris 4 in. or larger. A separate debris-removal operation was implemented to eliminate larger stones and debris. As is typical, an open bucket was used to allow sediment captured with the debris and stone to redeposit on the bottom. Such operations can increase the entry cause low flows during the removal created conditions favorable for the up- stream movement of water (J. Quadrini, written commun., March 23, 2007).

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 113 FIGURE 4-8 Average water-column PCBs and TSS during debris and sediment removal activities (conducted simultaneously) in the Grasse River during 2005 demonstration dredging program. ROPS-WCT5 is a sampling site upstream of dredging area; sampling locations D1 through D4 are adjacent to the dredging site in an upstream (D1) to downstream (D4) direction; ROPS-WCT14 and ROPS- WC131 sites are about 0.5 and 1.0 miles downstream of the dredging activity, respectively. Error bars represent ±2 standard errors of the mean. Source: Con- nolly et al. 2006. Reprinted with permission from the authors; copyright 2006, Quantitative Environmental Analysis. of suspended solids into the water column and thus increase the con- taminant burden in the water column. Similar problems occur in the use of clamshell-bucket dredging of sites laden with debris. The occasional inability to close the bucket completely because of debris interference can increase resuspended solids and thus resuspension of contaminants. A more detailed depiction of the PCB concentrations in water seen approximately 0.5 miles downstream of the dredge site is presented in Figure 4-9. The pre-dredging baseline PCB concentrations are low; dur- ing dredging activities, these concentrations generally increase and occa-

114 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites sionally exceed the 2 μg/L PCB action level; after dredging, concentra- tions decrease back to baseline concentrations (see Figure 4-9). It is esti- mated that during dredging activities about 3% of the PCBs removed from the river bottom were released downriver, largely as PCBs that had desorbed from resuspended sediments (Connolly et al. 2007). The overall effect of resuspension and release during the dredging operation can be seen more clearly by examining PCB concentrations in fish at the Grasse River site. Figure 4-10 shows PCB concentrations in spottail shiner measured every fall from 1998 to 2006. Spottail shiners are useful indicators because they forage only over a limited area (Becker 1983) and, being small, respond quickly to in- creases in PCB concentrations (Connolly et al. 2006). During 2005, the fish sampling coincided with dredging activities and PCB concentrations in the spottail shiner increased dramatically. The following year, PCB concentrations in shiners decreased to levels seen prior to dredging. There was a statistically significant increase in the downstream locations, but there is insufficient information to evaluate trends associated with dredging, because only a single post-dredging monitoring period was ROPS-WCT14 Characteristic Baseline FIGURE 4-9 PCB concentrations in water samples collected approximately 0.5 miles downstream of the dredging operations in the Grasse River (NY). Dredg- ing began approximately June 8, 2005 and ended October 21, 2005. Source: Con- nolly et al. 2006. Reprinted with permission from the authors; copyright 2006, Quantitative Environmental Analysis.

2005 2005 2005 1999 1999 1998 2001 2001 1998 2002 2002 2006 2002 2000 2003 2000 2003 2006 2001 1998 2003 2004 1999 2006 2004 2004 2000 2003 1998 1999 2000 2002 2001 2005 2006 2004 FIGURE 4-10 Lipid-normalized PCB concentration in resident spottail shiners in Grasse River, Massena, NY. Locations are from upstream (Background and Near Outfall 001) to downstream (Near Unnamed Tributary [about 2 miles downstream] and Mouth of River [about 6 miles downstream]). Error bars represent ±2 standard errors of the mean. Dredging at the site took place June to October, 2005; the 2005 fish tissue sampling was in September, 2005. Source: L. McShea, Alcoa Inc., unpublished material, Febru- ary 27, 2007. 115

116 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites available for PCB body-burden analysis (see Box 4-1). Additional data collection and detailed analyses of the Grasse River data are ongoing by EPA and Alcoa. Duwamish Diagonal, Washington In the Duwamish/Diagonal CSO, WA, early-action sediment dredg- ing project, high PCB concentrations (above the pre-dredging surface concentrations) were found in sediments in and outside the dredge prism during a pre- and post-dredging sampling program (EcoChem Inc. 2005). During dredging, several complaints were logged about poor dredging practices that may have contributed to resuspension and re- lease of contaminants. The dredged areas were capped, and to address the unexpected contamination created outside the dredge prism, 6-9 in. of sand was added to areas adjacent to the dredging area. Water quality monitoring during dredging indicated that turbidity standards were ex- ceeded on several occasions (particularly in the first 2 weeks). Total PCBs and dissolved mercury (measured only during the first 8 days of dredg- ing) were below water quality standards even at the highest turbidity values (EcoChem Inc. 2005). As part of the overall RI/FS of the Lower Duwamish River Super- fund site and other studies, fish tissue samples were collected both be- fore and after the Duwamish/Diagonal dredging project. These data sug- gest that fish-tissue PCB concentrations were greater after dredging activities (Figure 4-11). While there is only one data point for the targeted species collected several years prior to dredging, other fish data collected in the project area in the years prior to the early action (that is, between 1992 and 2000) indicate that tissue levels remained steady during this period (J. Stern, King County Department of Natural Resources and Parks, personal commun., April 20, 2007). The exposure dynamics of resident fish are complex, so monitoring data alone are unable to directly implicate dredging as the cause of the apparent “spike” in tissue PCB concentrations. However, the timing of the increased fish concentrations, the rapid decrease after dredging, and corroborating fish bioaccumula- tion modeling (Patmont 2006; Stern and Patmont 2006; Stern et al. 2007) are suggestive of a dredging-related release.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 117 BOX 4-1 Statistical Analysis of Fish PCB Body Burdens, Grasse River, New York Data The data analyzed for this report (EPA, unpublished data, 4/18/2005) included percent lipid and total PCB concentrations in fish tissue for smallmouth bass (fillets), brown bullhead (fillets), and spottail shiner (whole body) sampled from the years 1993-2004 (pre-dredging), 2005 (during dredging) and 2006 (post-dredging). Brown bullheads and smallmouth bass were sampled from 4 areas: Background (upstream of dredging) and the Upper, Middle, and Lower stretch of the river (increasing dis- tance downstream from dredging). Spottail shiners were sampled from the Back- ground, Near Outfall 001, Near Unnamed Tributary, River Mouth areas (see Figure 4- 10 legend for spottail shiner location details). Methods Temporal trends in fish tissue PCB concentrations and region specific effects were established based on linear regression models using monitoring year, percent lipid content, and sampling region as independent variables. PCB concentrations were centered upon their sampling region mean. The Box-Cox transformation (Box and Cox 1964) was parameterized in the regression model likelihoods to allow the data to optimally choose possible transformations. Analyses were stratified by fish species. Nonlinear trends in time were considered (Stow et al. 1995), the results of which led to interpretations that were qualitatively similar. Different detection limits were reported for these data. Regression model infer- ence was based on maximum likelihood treating the below detection limit data as left censored (Helsel 2005). (Data are left censored if their numeric value only indicates they are less than some given threshold such as the detection limit.) This method has been suggested as an alternative to substitution based techniques such as replacing non-detects with half their detection limit. Results Fish tissue PCB concentrations were transformed using natural logarithm for all analyses. Lipid adjusted fish tissue PCBs sampled in the Background region were significantly lower than those sampled in other regions, smallmouth bass (p<0.01), brown bullhead (p<0.01), spottail shiner (p<0.01). Region specific significant decreas- ing temporal trends based on pre-dredging data (1993-2004) were established for all species. (Continued on next page)

118 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites BOX 4-1 Continued We explored whether PCB concentrations during dredging (2005) were signifi- cantly greater than that expected from the temporal trend established on the pre- dredging data (1993-2004). The post-dredging (2006) data were also compared to the established pre-dredging temporal trend. For the brown bullhead, the during dredging lipid adjusted average PCB con- centrations were larger than the upper 95% limit of the time trend prediction interval for all regions. Results for the Background stretch region is interpreted with caution due to small sample size. For the smallmouth bass, the during dredging lipid ad- justed average PCB concentrations were larger than the upper 95% limit of the time trend prediction interval for all regions, except for the Background stretch. For the spottail shiner, the during dredging lipid adjusted average PCB concentrations were larger than the upper 95% limit of the time trend prediction interval for “Mouth of river” and “Near unnamed tributary” areas. Concentrations during dredging in the background and “Near outfall” stretches were within these time trend based predic- tion limits. Due to small sample sizes results for spottail shiners are interpreted with caution. The post-dredging (2006) lipid adjusted average PCB concentrations decreased significantly compared to those measured during dredging (2005) for all fish species and all sites, except the background regions for smallmouth bass and brown bull- head. The lipid adjusted fish tissue PCB concentrations post dredging (2006) were within the range (95% prediction intervals) predicted by the temporal trend estab- lished on the pre-dredging data (1993-2004) for all species and regions except for smallmouth bass in the lower and middle regions which remained above the 95% prediction intervals. Remarks Additional post-dredging sampling points will be needed to evaluate long- term dredging effectiveness. Longitudinal monitoring (encompassing pre- and post- dredging time frames) can be used to statistically compare trends in contaminant concentrations before and after dredging and better associate changes with dredging. Fox River, Wisconsin A further illustration of the influence of sediment resuspension on dredging effectiveness can be found in various demonstration projects conducted at the Fox River, WI. At Deposit N, silt curtains were used in 1998 to contain any resuspended sediment, and downstream turbidity

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 119 5000 EnglishSole English Sole ug/kg ww) 4500 Shiner ShinerSurfperch Surfperch PCBs in Fish (whole body µg/kg 4000 Dredging and Backfilling 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 Jul-96 Jul-97 Jul-98 Jul-99 Jul-00 Jul-01 Jul-02 Jul-03 Jul-04 Jul-05 Jul-06 Time FIGURE 4-11 PCB concentrations in fish collected at the Duwamish Diagonal site pre- and post-dredging. Two trophic levels of fish (English sole and shiner surf- perch) of consistent size range were collected within 1 km of the site at the time points indicated on the figure. Error bars represent the minimum and maximum values. Dredging was conducted at the site between November 14, 2003 and January 20, 2004. Capping was completed by February 29, 2004. Sources: Adapted from Patmont 2006; Stern and Patmont 2006; Stern et al. 2007. Fish data from King County 1999; King County, unpublished data, 2007; Windward 2005, 2006. was found to be no greater than that at upstream sampling locations. Upstream and downstream turbidity levels were also very similar in 1999, when silt curtains were not used (Foth and Van Dyke, 2000). Nev- ertheless, during 1998 dredging, water-column PCB concentrations aver- aged 11 ng/L downstream of dredging and 3.2 ng/L upstream. Prior to dredging, the average PCB water column concentrations were similar upstream and downstream of the dredging area. Similar increases (24 ng/L downstream vs 14 ng/L upstream) were observed in 1999. Overall, about 4% of the PCB mass removed from the deposit was released to the water column by dredging (Malcom-Pirnie and TAMS, 2004). The dem- onstration conducted in Sediment Management Units 56 and 57 (SMU 56/57) in 1999 and 2000 targeted a deposit of about 80,000 cy near the outfall of a recycling mill in Operable Unit (OU) 4, a relatively low- energy estuarine reach of the river. During dredging in 1999, in which

120 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites 31,000 cy were removed, about 2.2% of the PCBs dredged were estimated to have been resuspended and transported downstream (Steuer 2000). Direct estimates of contaminant release can rarely be used to guide day to day dredging operations because water column samples may take several days to analyze. Suspended-solids measurements are sometimes used to provide real-time feedback for the dredging operation. As indi- cated in Box 4-2, however, the correlation between suspended solids and even strongly sorbing contaminants, such as PCBs, may not be adequate to guide operations appropriately. BOX 4-2 Correlations between Suspended Solids and Contaminant Concentrations Although resuspension of sediment is largely viewed as the source of con- taminant losses, any contaminant that partitions rapidly from the sediment to the water column will quickly cease to be related to resuspended-sediment con- centrations. As shown by the Grasse River 2005 data (Figure 4-8), the water- column concentrations did not generally correlate with suspended-solids con- centrations. Turbidity is typically used as a rapid surrogate measure of sus- pended solids and can be useful to indicate suspended solids if a site-specific correlation between the two quantities can be found. As suggested in the text, however, turbidity and contaminant concentration might not correlate. In an effort to understand the nature of the PCB releases from the Grasse River site, samples were taken from adjacent areas in and outside the silt-containment de- vice surrounding the dredge area. Analysis indicated that although TSS concen- trations were about 2 times greater inside the curtain, the dissolved-PCB concen- trations were the same (Connolly et al. 2006). At the downstream sampling site, about 0.5 mile from the dredging area, about 75% of the PCBs was dissolved (this is operationally defined as passing a 0.45-μm filter). At the Fox River SMU 56/57 sites, dredging-related releases resulted in an increase in downstream dissolved-PCB concentrations of about 59%. However, little or no difference in turbidity or TSS concentrations between upstream and downstream locations was detected during dredging, and turbidity and TSS did not correlate with water-column PCB concentrations (Steuer 2000). Those results indicate that turbidity and TSS were of little value as indicators of water-column PCB release. Dissolved and fluid contaminants, such as nonaqueous-phase liq- uids, will not be well characterized by TSS or turbidity monitoring. A good cor- relation between suspended solids and contaminant resuspension would be ex- pected if the contaminant remained strongly associated with the solid phase.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 121 Duration of Effects from Resuspension and Release Increases in contaminant concentrations in the water column and fish during or immediately after dredging may be short-lived. As shown in the Black River, cancer prevalence at the site increased following remediation, but then declined dramatically shortly afterward (Figure 4- 1) (Baumann 2000). At Marathon Battery, cadmium concentrations in benthic invertebrates increased following dredging, before declining again (Figure 4-5). In addition, PCB concentrations in the fish in the Grasse River declined substantially a year after concentrations spiked during dredging in 2005 (Figure 4-10). There is also evidence that contaminant releases from dredging can be reduced. At the GM Massena project in the St. Lawrence River, a sheet-pile wall was erected around the dredging zone because silt cur- tains were unable to withstand the river currents. The interlocking steel sheet piling enclosed the area to reduce offsite migration of sediment (EPA 2005a). Sheet piling was possible, however, because isolation was required for only a small portion of the river bottom. During dredging, turbidity and PCB and PAH concentrations were measured downstream of the sheet piling to monitor for potential releases into the river. PAH results were consistently below detection limits, and sampling ceased after 19 days. PCBs were monitored over about 3 months. All samples at the monitoring stations were well below the action level of 2 μg/L; the maximum was 0.32 μg/L, and most of the samples were below the detec- tion limit (BBL 1996).14 The examples cited indicate that resuspension and contaminant re- lease during dredging can limit at least short-term dredging effective- ness. Large dredging projects that may continue for years or decades are more likely to exhibit more serious problems associated with resuspen- sion and contaminant release than the projects of shorter duration that were examined. For example, dredging could continue for over 25 years 14The sheet piling may have increased potential concerns about residual con- tamination while decreasing resuspension losses. In the sheet piled area with the most heavily contaminated sediment, PCB concentrations in water were greater than 20 μg/L a week after dredging stopped. A week later, the concentrations had declined to below 2 μg/L, and the sheet piling was removed. When the sheet pile had been removed, water concentrations dropped to near the detection limit.

122 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites at New Bedford Harbor (Dickerson and Brown 2006) and thus any ef- fects of resuspension would be at least of similar duration. There is no experience with such large projects, although some have been initiated (for example, New Bedford Harbor, MA, and Fox River, WI) or planned (for example, Hudson River, NY). The rate of recovery and time to achieve remedial goals after long-term exposure to remedial dredging are not known. Careful design of a monitoring program is needed to separate short-term from longer-term performance of a remedy. Generation and Exposure of Residual Contamination Potentially the most serious limitation to dredging effectiveness is residual contamination that is left after dredging. As described in Chap- ter 2, there are two general types of residuals: generated residuals, con- taminated sediment that is resuspended during dredging and later rede- posited; and undisturbed residuals, contaminated sediments found at the post-dredge sediment surface that have been uncovered but not fully removed as a result of the dredging operation (Bridges et al. in press). A portion of the generated residual may be unconsolidated and potentially more susceptible to transport. As such, this portion may not be ac- counted for by confirmation sampling conducted to define post- dredging residuals, depending upon the timing of that sampling. The presence of such residuals directly limits the ability to meet cleanup lev- els and may also reduce or eliminate opportunities to achieve long-term remedial action objectives. Findings from several of the studied sites on the extent of residual contamination after dredging are provided below. Lavaca Bay, Texas A dredging demonstration project was conducted in August 1998 to evaluate the use of a full-size hydraulic dredge to remove mercury- contaminated sediment near the outfall of a chloro-alkali manufacturing facility on the northwest shore of Lavaca Bay, TX.15 This hot-spot area This description refers to “Phase 1” dredging of the treatability study (Alcoa 15 2000). The second phase of the study targeted a smaller, less-contaminated shal- low water area.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 123 had the highest sediment mercury concentrations in Lavaca Bay, which has widespread mercury contamination. Six acres of very soft plastic clay sediment was dredged in 20 days; 2,300 lbs of mercury was removed with 60,000 to 80,000 cy of sediment, and placed in a confined disposal facility (Alcoa 2000). Extensive data on sediment contaminant concentra- tions (including post-dredging residual sediment in the dredge area), water quality (including TSS, turbidity and mercury concentrations), and mercury accumulation in caged oysters were collected at the site. Low TSS and insignificant mercury were mobilized beyond the curtained-off zone surrounding the dredge unit. Elevated mercury concentrations in oysters were within the range of those observed in oysters native to Lavaca Bay (Alcoa 2000). The demonstration project is informative because of the efforts to control sediment residuals. Multiple passes of the dredging operation were conducted with sampling between passes to define the residual present after each pass. There was a notable increase in residual concen- tration between passes 2 and 3, as shown in Figure 4-12, apparently re- flecting exposure of more highly contaminated sediment. Overall, the pass-to-pass concentration changes were not statistically significant, al- though analyses stratified by subarea did reveal some pass-to-pass con- centration changes that were statistically significant (see Box 4-3 and Fig- ure 4-12). Grasse River, Massena, New York At the previously discussed 1995 non-time-critical removal action in the Grasse River, Massena, NY, the average PCB concentrations in surficial sediments (upper 8 in.) were reduced by only 53% despite re- moval of as much as 98% of the PCB mass from the sediment column (Thibodeaux and Duckworth 1999). The site contains numerous rocks and boulders that contributed to residual contamination and contained high concentrations of PCBs near the bottom of the sediment column that could not feasibly be dredged, because of underlying bedrock and glacial till (hardpan) (see Box 4-4).

124 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites BOX 4-3 Statistical Analysis of Mercury Concentrations in Surficial Sediment, Lavaca Bay, Texas Data Surficial sediment mercury concentrations in Lavaca Bay (Alcoa 2000) before any dredging and after four sequential dredging passes were analyzed. Sample loca- tions were identified in four subareas: Capa, North Capa, AA, and the Trench Wall. Methods Statistical comparisons of surficial mercury concentrations were based on a lin- ear regression model with indicators of dredge pass (before and after dredging passes 1, 2, 3, and 4) as the independent variables. The Box-Cox transformation (Box and Cox 1964) was parameterized in the regression-model likelihoods to allow possible transformations to be chosen optimally. Regression-model inference was based on maximum likelihood. Stratified analyses were performed for different subareas on the basis of the Kruskal-Wallis rank sum test (Hollander and Wolfe 1973) because the samples were small. Results Figure 4-12 (left) displays mean surficial mercury concentrations prior to dredging and after each dredging pass and their corresponding 95% confidence in- tervals on the log base 10 scale. Mean surficial concentrations after each dredging pass were not significantly different from the means sampled before dredging. Figure 4-12 (right) displays the distribution of surficial mercury concentrations and corre- sponding sample sizes stratified by subarea and dredge pass. For Capa, mean surfi- cial mercury concentrations before dredging after dredging passes 1 and 2 did not differ significantly (p = 0.28). For the Trench Wall, mean surficial mercury concentra- tions increased sequentially after dredging passes 1, 2, and 3, however these changes were not statistically significant. The mean concentration after dredging pass 4 was significantly lower than after dredging pass 3 for the Trench Wall (p = 0.04). Before dredging, mean surficial mercury concentrations differed significantly among the four subareas (p = 0.06). Remarks Exploratory and followup stratified analysis suggested the geographic subar- eas of Capa, North Capa, AA, and the Trench Wall as a potential source of surficial mercury variation. However, sample sizes were insufficient to include this spatial effect in the regression model while considering variation across dredging times.

Lavaca Bay Surficial Mercury Data N Pre - 13 1 - 13 CA 2 - 8 3 - 0 4 - 0 | | | | | | Pre - 6 1 - 10 NC 2 - 0 3 - 0 4 - 0 | | | | | | Pre - 5 1 - 17 AA' 2 - 15 3 - 2 4 - 0 | | | | | | Pre - 2 1 - 13 TW 2 - 8 3 - 8 4 - 12 0 10 25 50 100 140 Mercury mg/kg FIGURE 4-12 Left, mean and 95% confidence intervals of surficial mercury concentrations (mg/kg) (log base 10 scale) before dredging and after each of four dredging passes. Right, concentration distribution and sample sizes (N) of surficial mercury strati- fied by geographic region—Capa (CA), North Capa (NC), AA, and the Trench Wall (TW)—and dredging pass (Pre, 1, 2, 3, 4; pre = pre-dredging). 125

126 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites BOX 4-4 Description of the Substrate Topography of the Grasse River During Dredging “The river bottom, we believe, contains boulders and rock outcrops that account for these features [seen in the side scan sonar images]. Soft sediment is intermixed with these features. The river was dredged in early 1900s using equipment and techniques that may have included blasting, which left a bottom littered with rocks and boulders, perhaps some outcrops and glacial till. Soft sediment began to settle on top of this bottom beginning in 1958 when the power canal ceased contributing flow to the river. All the accumulating soft sediment contains PCBs because PCBs were discharged from the late 1950s on, and this contaminated sediment fell in and amongst the rocks and boulders and finally covered them. So what we encountered is a bottom littered with rock debris in- termixed with soft sediment below which is glacial till. The [horizontal auger dredge] captured some material but the productivity was very low because the auger couldn’t get down in between the rock debris, so I think that was part of the problem.” Source: Connolly et al. 2006. Immediately following dredging at the 2005 demonstration project at the Grasse River, residual surficial sediment PCB concentrations (0-3 in.) averaged 150 mg/kg (dry weight), compared to a pre-dredging aver- age of 4.1 mg/kg (Connolly et al. 2006). The increase occurred despite the fact that more than 80% of the PCB mass in the dredging footprint was estimated to have been removed by the dredging operation. Residuals (generated and undisturbed) were measured at this site and an average of about 16 in. of contaminated sediments remained after dredging (range from 3 to 32 in.) (Connolly et al. 2006). Following dredging, the dredged area was capped with an average of 1.5 ft of a sand and topsoil mix. At this site, surficial sediment concentrations increased due to dredging, although there was a large removal of PCB mass from the river. The analysis illustrates that dredging can achieve substantial mass removal but may not reduce surficial sediment concentrations. The data were also analyzed for spatial correlation to identify and account for any form of spatial variation in surficial PCB concentrations or mass (see Box 4-5).

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 127 BOX 4-5 Statistical Analysis of Surficial Sediment PCB Concentrations, Grasse River, New York Data PCB concentrations in sediment (mg/kg dry weight) from samples taken at three times—before dredging, after dredging, and after capping—and from two ar- eas—Main Channel and Northern Near Shore—were analyzed (EPA, unpublished data, April 18, 2006). Longitude and latitude spatial coordinates for samples were also available. Methods Linear regression models with an indicator of monitoring time (pre-dredging, post-dredging, and post-capping) were used to statistically compare the sediment PCB concentrations before and after dredging and after capping. The spatial sample design (data coordinates) was not sufficiently consistent between times to consider a repeated-measures-based approach. The Box-Cox transformation (Box and Cox 1964) was parameterized in the regression-model likelihoods to allow possible transforma- tions to be chosen optimally. Regression-model inference was based on maximum likelihood. Analyses were stratified by geographic region and considered PCB con- centrations. The nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis Rank Sum Test (Hollander and Wolfe 1973) was used to compare surficial PCB concentrations from the Northern Near Shore because the sample sizes were small. Results Figure 4-13 displays the region-specific distribution and sample sizes for log10 surficial PCB concentrations. For sediment in the Main Channel, there was a signifi- cant increase in average PCB concentrations after dredging (p <0.01) and post-capping concentrations were not significantly different from averaged pre-dredge concentra- tions. In the Northern Near Shore, the decline in average PCB concentrations between pre-dredging and post-dredging was not statistically significant. After capping the Northern Near Shore area, the average PCB concentration in surficial sediments was significantly lower than before dredging (p <0.01). Regression analyses were on the natural-logarithm-transformed data. Remarks The geographic layout of sample locations was not sufficient to allow statistical models to identify and account for any form of spatial variation (either as a regression (Continued on next page)

128 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites BOX 4-5 Continued trend or residual dependence) in PCB concentration. Residual spatial dependence is known as potentially biasing tests of significance (Cressie 1991). As described in this report, the entire main channel area was not able to be dredged. For the Main Chan- nel analysis, pre-dredging, post-dredging, and post-capping data were compiled for the dredged area only (referred to as “extended work zone 1”). Pre-dredging data were compiled from three pre-dredging sampling periods for the dredged area (termed “Phase II,” “January 2004,” and “Pre-ROPS,” generally top 3 in.). The post- dredging (collected 10/22/2005; generally top 3 in.) and post-capping data (collected 11/28-29/2005; top 2 in.) from that area were also compiled. Northern Near Shore samples were compiled from pre-dredging (9/9/2004, top 3 in.), post-dredging (8/19/2005, top 3 in.), and post-capping (11/29/2005, generally top 2 in.) sampling ef- forts. FIGURE 4-13 Distribution and sample sizes for Grasse River surficial sediment PCB concentrations (mg/kg dry weight) stratified by geographic region—Main Channel (MC) and Northern Near Shore (NNS)—and whether collected before dredging (Pre), after dredging (Post), or after capping (Pcap). N = sample num- ber. Further details are provided in Box 4-5.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 129 General Motors Central Foundry, Massena, New York In 1995, General Motors dredged an area of about 10 acres in the St. Lawrence River near Massena, NY, that was contaminated with PCBs as a result of the release of hydraulic fluids. The action removed over 13,000 cy of sediment and over 99% of the PCB mass in the sediment (EPA 2005a). However, it did not meet the cleanup level of 1 mg/kg in all loca- tions, because there was residual contamination after dredging. As de- scribed in the remedial action completion report (BBL 1996), boulders and debris were excavated mechanically, and sediment was removed later with a horizontal auger dredge. The contaminated sediment was underlain with dense glacial till that made it impossible to use over- dredging to increase sediment-removal efficiency. In areas in which ini- tial concentrations exceeded 500 mg/kg, 15-18 dredge passes were re- quired to reduce sediment concentrations to below 500 mg/kg. In one area that initially exceeded 500 mg/kg, eight additional attempts, includ- ing multiple dredge passes, were conducted to reduce sediment concen- trations. Ultimately, the contractor concluded, with EPA concurrence, that attainment of target cleanup levels in this quadrant was not possible with dredging alone, and capping was instituted (BBL 1996). Without capping, high residual PCB concentrations would have remained at the sediment surface and limited the effectiveness of the remediation. Manistique Harbor, Michigan The presence of debris and bedrock limited the effectiveness of the 1995 to 2000 dredging operations to remove PCB contaminated sediment at Manistique Harbor, MI (Nadeau 2006; Weston 2002). The primary remediation goal of the project was the long-term protection of Lake Michigan by removal of the potential PCB source in Manistique Harbor. A secondary goal was reducing risks to people and wildlife that con- sume fish from the harbor (EPA 1994). As described in Weston (2002), “Initially, the goal of the removal action was to remove sediments within the dredge area with total PCB mass concentrations of more than 10 ppm PCBs …The objectives of the removal action were further clarified and restated …that the “objective of 95% removal of the total PCB mass from within the AOC [Area of Concern] and an average concentration of not

130 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites more than 10 ppm throughout the sediment column within the AOC shall be verified.” Remediation of PCB contaminated sediments began in the fall of 1995 and was originally expected to continue through the fall of 1997 and remove a total of 104,000 cy of sediment (MIDEQ 1996). Ul- timately, the project required 6 seasons of dredging from 1995-2000 and removed approximately 190,000 cy of contaminated sediment (EPA 2006a [Manistique River and Harbor Site, May 10, 2006]). The estimated mass of PCBs removed by the end of the project was 82-97% of the initial mass (Weston 2002). Information on pre-remediation surface sediment concentrations varies. 16 Post-dredging average concentrations through- out the river and harbor (including dredged and non-dredged areas) re- ported for the top 1 ft were 9.0 mg/kg (sampled in 2000) and 7.3 mg/kg (sampled in 2001) (Weston 2002). Nadeau (2006) summarized the pre- 16EPA describes the results from two sampling events prior to dredging as June 1993: “0-3 in.: Min: 0.15 ppm, Max: 124 ppm, Median: 3.4 ppm” and Decem- ber 1993: “Min.: Below Detection, Max: 450 ppm” (EPA 2006a [Manistique River and Harbor Site, May 10, 2006]). However, the area being referred to (for exam- ple, the whole harbor or just the dredged areas) is not specified. Post-dredging evaluations of site conditions prepared for EPA also do not summarize pre- dredging surface sediment concentrations in the dredged area (Weston 2002; Weston 2005a). A summary by Malcolm Pirnie, Inc. and TAMS Consultants, Inc. (2004) stated that predredging sediment sampling and characterization activities indicated that the average PCB concentration in the top 3 in of sediment was 16.5 ppm. The 1996 Remedial Action Plan for the Manistique Harbor Area of Concern (MIDEQ 1996) states “Sampling conducted in June and December 1993, April 1994 and May, June and July 1995, included most of the navigation channel, along with other harbor and upstream locations…Sampling in the navigation channel showed surface (0" to 3") concentrations of PCBs with a peak value of 120 ppm and an average of 16 ppm.” A feasibility study containing a review of experiences at sediment dredging projects (BBL 2000) states “Pre-removal surfi- cial sediment (0-3 in.) PCB concentrations in the Harbor ranged from non-detect to 90 ppm (average of 14 ppm) using data collected during the Engineering Evaluation/Cost Analysis (EE/CA) (BBL, 1994[a]). A consulting report for the responsible party (BBL 1994b) that describes the predredging condition states “The current surficial concentration for the 56 acre area used in the RA is 5.2 ppm not the 8 ppm cited by [EPA]”. Several of the above averages are probably de- rived from the same data source (BBL 1994a), but the areas being considered in that derivation likely differ (for example, the estimated dredged area vs. the 56 acre area of concern).

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 131 and post-dredging surface PCB concentrations as increasing slightly over initial surface concentrations (concentrations increased from 5.2 to 7.3 mg/kg in the whole area17 and 15.1 to 18.8 mg/kg in the dredged area18). Since completion of remediation, sediment from upstream has deposited in the harbor area, burying sediments with elevated PCB concentrations. A bathymetric analysis by EPA shows that in a five year period after dredging (between fall 2000 and fall 2005), approximately 83,000 cy of sediment deposited in the harbor from upstream sources, in some places between 10-16 ft deep (EPA 2006a [Manistique River and Harbor Site, May 10, 2006]). Surface sediment samples collected in 2004 (using a po- nar dredge) had a mean concentration of 0.88 mg/kg PCBs in the area of interest (Weston 2005a). This example illustrates both the difficulty of eliminating residual sediment concentrations in the presence of debris and bedrock and the inability to achieve long-term risk reduction be- cause of the residual unless other processes, such as sedimentation, in- tervene to reduce surficial sediment concentrations. Cumberland Bay, Lake Champlain, Plattsburgh, New York Debris and a heterogeneous substrate caused dredging problems at the PCB-contaminated Cumberland Bay, NY, site, where logs, wood chips, and large rocks were encountered. Dredging began in July 1999 and ended in December 2000. After the initial dredging of the 34-acre site, divers found many areas where PCB removal was incomplete, appar- ently because of the presence of debris. As described by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC 2001), one area originally thought to have been dredged to a hard bottom was found by divers to be a hard crust that covered 4 ft of sludge containing PCBs at 54 ppm. Hand-held hydraulic dredge lines were used by divers to remove contaminated sediment from areas where dredging with only the large hydraulic dredge was difficult. Another difficulty encountered near a dock area was the bubbling up of gas during dredging that floated sludge to the surface. On the completion of dredging, residual PCB con- 175.2 mg/kg: top 3 in., 1993 data, 56 acres; 7.3 mg/kg: top 12 in., 2001 data; 56 acres. 1815.1 mg/kg: top 3 in., 1993 data, 15 acre dredged area; 18.8 mg/kg: top 12 in., 2001 data, 15 acre dredged area.

132 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites centrations averaged 6.8 mg/kg on the basis of analyses of 51 samples taken from 42 cores. That is lower than pre-remediation PCB concentra- tions. A dock area had previously averaged 430 mg/kg, with maximum of 13,000 mg/kg, and other dredged areas had averaged 33 mg/kg. How- ever, the reduction in risk cannot be quantified, because no risk-based numeric remediation goals were selected for the site. Fox River, Wisconsin Residuals were noted at three dredging projects on the Fox River. At the 1998-1999 removal at Deposit N, sediment rested on a fractured bedrock surface, so it was not possible for a dredge to cut into a clean underlying layer. Sediment PCB concentrations after dredging averaged 14 mg/kg, similar to the average pre-dredging concentration of 16 mg/kg. It is estimated that of the pre-project 142 lb of PCBs measured at Deposit N, 111 lb was removed, and about 31 lb remained in the residual sedi- ment on the completion of the project (Foth and Van Dyke 2000). At the 1999 Fox River SMU 56/57 demonstration dredging project, steep side slopes, debris, and underlying clay made it difficult to remove contaminated residuals. Final cleanup dredging passes were performed in four subareas before termination of the 1999 dredging, and post- dredging surface concentrations in three of the four areas were less than pre-dredging concentrations, although the 1-mg/kg target was not gen- erally achieved even with cleanup passes. The overall post-dredging av- erage surficial sediment PCB concentration at the end of 1999 dredging was 73 mg/kg, compared with 4.4 mg/kg before dredging (Montgomery Watson 2001). The surficial sediment concentration in the areas not sub- ject to overdredging exhibited an average concentration of 116 mg/kg and a median of 45 mg/kg, very close to the initial 53 mg/kg average concentration in the deposit (Reible et al. 2003). Dredging of the remain- ing volume was completed by the responsible party as a removal action in 2000 and achieved an average surficial sediment PCB concentration of 2.6 mg/kg; this was followed by backfilling with a minimum of 6 in. of clean sand. 19 The outcome exceeded closure requirements for the re- According to Fort James Corporation et al. (2001): “The vertical extent of the 19 dredging, as determined by the cleanup objectives, resulted in 28 of the subunits being dredged to cleanup objectives, and two of the subunits dredged to develop

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 133 moval action, and surficial concentrations after the incorporation of backfill were not measured (Fort James Corporation et al. 2001). Early reports of the 2005 full-scale dredging of the upper reaches of the Fox River have indicated problems in achieving cleanup targets (Fox et al. 2006). The reports indicate that dredging did not remove all sediment with PCB exceeding 1 mg/kg and that sand backfilling will be necessary to meet the 0.25-mg/kg surface-area-weighted average concentration end point. High-concentration deposits in thin soft sedi- ment layers overlying stiff clay have made residual contamination difficult to remove. A pilot test conducted in a portion of the dredged area indicated strongly diminishing returns for redredging: doubling the volume removed with the goal of removing all soft sediment above native clay was not sufficient to meet the remedial goal of PCB at 1 mg/kg. Dredging results available at the time of the study were from three subunits of OU 1 (Subunit A, C/D2S, and POG1). The preliminary pre-remediation and post-remediation results—PCB mass removal and surficial (upper 4 in.) PCB concentration—from verification sampling are presented in Table 4-1. More recently, a specialized dredge (a cutter-less head suction dredge) developed by the remedial contractor was used during the 2006 dredging at the site. The dredge was designed for very thin deposits of sediments over a clay or hard till bottom (including generated residuals). Preliminary results for three dredge management units (about 2 acres combined) show that concentrations well under the 1 mg/kg remedial action level were attained even when initial concentrations ranged from 20 mg/kg to above 50 mg/kg (Green et al. 2007). The conditions (thin de- posits over clay or hard till bottom) are considered to be among the most difficult for attaining target cleanup levels. Commencement Bay, Washington The combination of the ability to overdredge into clean sediment and the presence of sediment that has minimal debris or other obstacles stable sideslopes for the dredge area. All 28 subunits met the cleanup objective of 10 ppm PCBs or less. Eleven of the subunits have PCB concentrations less than 1 ppm.”

134 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites TABLE 4-1 Summary of Pre-dredging and Post-dredging Verification Sampling Results (2005) from Three Subunits of Operable Unit 1 in the Lower Fox River Sub-area Measure Post-dredging Pre-dredging % reduction A PCB mass (kg) 205.5 26.6 87 Avg. surficial PCB conc. 13.3 2.8 79 (ppm) C/D2S PCB mass (kg) 24.1 1.1 95 Avg. surficial PCB conc. 7.6 1.0 87 (ppm) POG1 PCB mass (kg) 36.2 1.3 96 Avg. surficial PCB conc. 13.7 1.8 87 (ppm) Note: PCB concentrations and mass for dredged area only, not entire subarea. Source: Fox et al. 2006. Reprinted with permission; copyright 2006, Natural Resource Technology, Inc. and CH2M Hill. to dredging has led to more manageable residual concentrations during the cleanup of several waterways in Commencement Bay, Tacoma, WA. The 1993-1994 Sitcum Waterway cleanup in Commencement Bay was combined with a redevelopment project by the Port of Tacoma designed to create a capacity to handle deep-draft vessels in its facility. As a result of the desire to increase navigable depth, the dredging plan included removal of sediment to a bottom elevation that exceeded the depth of contamination in open-water areas by at least 2 ft. The ability to over- dredge facilitated removal of contamination in those areas and helped to reduce the impact of contaminated residuals on final sediment quality. Immediately after dredging in 1994, sediment quality objectives (SQOs) had not been achieved in all areas. An additional 2 ft of sediment was dredged from one of the areas, and sampling indicated that concentra- tions in the area were below the SQOs. In the other areas above the SQOs, natural recovery was determined to be sufficient to meet the remedial action objectives; these areas achieved SQOs in 2003. In 2004, EPA ap- proved the Port of Tacoma's request to end further sediment monitoring (EPA 2006a [Commencement Bay–Sitcum Waterway, April 26, 2006]).

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 135 The 2004-2006 Head of Hylebos dredging project also indicated the effectiveness of overdredging to reduce residual contamination. The Hylebos Waterway was originally cut into a broad river delta consisting of native sediments composed of clean and fairly compact silts and sands. After the waterway was established, industry developed along the wa- terway, and this resulted in industrial-chemical discharges into it. No river was feeding the waterway, so it slowly shoaled in with very fine- grained sediment in the form of “soft black muck” over the natural or native sediment. Characterization of subsurface sediment with core samples showed that the contaminants from the industrial discharges were restricted to the fine-grained surface sediment, whereas the imme- diately underlying native sediment was not contaminated (Dalton, Olm- sted & Fuglevand, Inc. 2006). There was a clear visual difference between the contaminated sediment and the underlying native sediment (com- pact silts and sands). During dredging, each bucket of material was ex- amined visually by onboard inspectors to ensure that all fine-grained sediment had been removed before moving on to the next area. In that manner, overdredging into clean sediment could indicate that residual contamination was minimal. The ability to differentiate clearly between contaminated and uncontaminated sediment, dredging into the uncon- taminated sediment, and the relative lack of debris combined to mini- mize the residuals. Pre-dredging (dates unspecified) and post-dredging (August 2004- January 2006) surficial-sediment (top 10 cm) total PCB concentrations from the Head of Hylebos and a few samples identified as post-capping (January 2006) samples were available for analysis (unpublished data; Paul Fuglevand; Dalton, Olmsted & Fuglevand, Inc.; August 22, 2006). Linear regression with an indicator of monitoring time (pre-dredging or post-dredging) was used to statistically compare the sediment PCB con- centrations before and after dredging. There was a significant decrease in PCB concentrations in surficial sediment after dredging (p <0.01); the pre-dredging mean was 685.9 μg/kg dry weight (n = 135), and the post- dredging mean was 74.7 μg/kg dry weight (n = 400). Only six samples were identified as post-capping samples, and they ranged in concentra- tion from 36.4 to 847.0 μg/kg dry weight. This site remains one of the few where cleanup levels were obtained by dredging alone (except in a few areas). As stated by EPA, “dredging to expose clean native sediment was successfully completed throughout the entire project area, with the ex-

136 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites ception of an under-dock cap (completed in 1998) and a shoreline sub- tidal cap completed early this year at a location of groundwater dis- charge with elevated arsenic concentrations. The sediment remediation project successfully achieved the project SQOs with no residual sedi- ments exceeding the SQOs (except at the two noted capping areas which were not driven by generated residuals from dredging)” (EPA 2006a [Commencement Bay - Head of Hylebos, May 17, 2006]). The compara- tively low initial concentrations in the Hylebos Waterway (and many of the Puget Sound sites) and the smaller magnitude of difference between contaminated sediment concentrations and cleanup levels decrease the potential effect of dredging residuals on achieving cleanup levels. How- ever, generated residuals are derived at least partly from the contami- nated material being removed so residuals management remains a criti- cal issue at Pacific Northwest sediment sites. Harbor Island, Duwamish River, Washington Harbor Island is another site in the Puget Sound area whose strati- graphy is conducive to dredging (a clear separation between contami- nated and native, largely uncontaminated sediment). Residual contami- nation after dredging may be more important than observed at the Head of Hylebos or Sitcum waterways, because of extensive debris. The Lock- heed Shipyard is on the eastern bank of the West Waterway in the lower Duwamish River in the Harbor Island Superfund site. The site was the location of a bridge-building company and then a ship-building and maintenance facility. At the time of remediation, the site comprised a failing bulkheaded shoreline; almost the entire nearshore area was cov- ered by docks or marine railways, and an open-water area was immedi- ately adjacent to the federal shipping channel. Extensive debris was pre- sent in the underpier and open-water area immediately adjacent to the pier face. Surface debris included consolidated machine turnings and other metal debris, cable, concrete blocks, and wood. Much of the site was covered with thousands of deeply embedded creosote piles that were slated for removal as part of the remedy. The remedy selected for the site included dredging and capping of the nearshore area (not all contaminated sediment would be removed) and removal of the contami- nated sediment layer in the open-water area including debris that might

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 137 limit dredging effectiveness. Habitat restoration was a major component of the remedy (EPA 2006a [Lockheed Shipyard Sediment OU, May 12, 2006]). Additional subsurface debris was encountered once dredging began, including large concrete pier blocks, broken piles, and the original willow cribbing that was used to contain dredged material during the construction of the West Waterway and Harbor Island around 1900. De- bris removal had an important effect on the duration, timing, and cost of the project, and the remedy had to be implemented in two phases over two seasons (because of restricted in-water work periods for the protec- tion of endangered species in the Duwamish River). Phase 1 consisted of pier and railway demolition, bulkhead replacement, and initial debris removal (by dredging). Dredging to complete the debris removal and achieve cleanup levels was conducted as phase 2 from November 2003 to March 2004 and from October 2004 to November 2004 (EPA 2006a [Lockheed Shipyard Sediment OU, May 12, 2006]). Because cleanup lev- els were not achieved after the first phase of dredging, a thin layer of sediment (6-12 in.) was placed over the dredged area to stabilize the re- siduals until the next season of dredging, when it was removed as part of the dredged inventory. Summary The available project data indicates that sediment resuspension and the generation of residuals represent a nearly universal problem in con- nection with dredging of contaminated sites. Resuspension can be more of a problem in the presence of debris or other site conditions that inter- fere with normal dredging operations. In addition, readily desorbable contaminants and fluid contaminants, such as nonaqueous-phase liquids, are unlikely to be effectively captured by the dredge or by common op- erational controls on resuspension. Nor will such contaminants be ade- quately characterized by measuring the suspended solids, such as TSS or turbidity. Low sediment bulk density and the presence of debris and hardpan or bedrock all tend to increase resuspension and residuals. Available data indicate that dredging is most likely to be successful when dredges penetrate into clean sediment layers reducing the amount of generated residuals. At sites where structures, debris, hardpan, or bedrock limit

138 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites dredging effectiveness, the desired cleanup levels, if based on the at- tainment of specified chemical concentrations, are unlikely to be met by dredging alone. The inability to attain cleanup levels would presumably translate into an inability to meet both short-term and long-term reme- dial goals and objectives. Resuspension appears to result in at least short-term negative im- pacts on water quality and organisms. Residuals may give rise to longer term negative impacts, but at most sites, there has been insufficient monitoring to evaluate the long-term impact of residuals or capping has been used to manage residuals. MANAGEMENT OF DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION TO MAXIMIZE DREDGING EFFECTIVENESS Although the factors affecting dredging effectiveness outlined in the preceding section are operative at all sites, their influence can be minimized, although not eliminated, by active management of the dredging process, that is, managing design and implementation to maximize effectiveness. Through experience gained at dredging sites, a number of actions have been identified that can help to maximize the effectiveness of dredging in particular situations. However, that experi- ence also suggests that successfully overcoming the limitations of dredg- ing requires both site conditions conducive to dredging and the imple- mentation of some or all of those actions. Sites that exhibit extensive debris, hardpan or bedrock immediately below contamination, or other factors that limit the ability to control residuals or resuspension will con- tinue to be problematic for dredging even if all the actions discussed be- low are implemented. Ensure Adequate Site Characterization Central to the successful implementation of any remedial action is site characterization sufficient to define a conceptual site model. A com- prehensive conceptual site model should define the contaminants of con- cern at a site, the spatial distribution of contamination, the processes that describe the change in contamination over time, the human and ecologic exposure routes, and the significance of exposure and risk. Only when

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 139 these aspects of the model are developed can a remedial effort be de- signed to respond to risk appropriately and achieve remedial goals. Adequate site characterization can identify potential sources of contami- nation and provide the data necessary to design an effective remedial program. At the Reynolds Metals Superfund site on the St. Lawrence River near Massena, NY, pre-dredging site characterization was not adequate to delineate the distribution of the chemicals of concern at the site. Dredge design was based on the assumption that the PCBs were collo- cated with the other chemicals of concern, PAHs, and total dibenzofu- rans. However, post-dredging sampling indicated that this was not the case (EPA 2006c). Following dredging, which included redredging sev- eral of the areas, it was determined that PCBs were not collocated with PAHs and that about one-third of the 22 acre dredged area contained PAH concentrations above the cleanup level (EPA 2006c).20 Future reme- dial activities at this site are currently being decided. The Head of the Hylebos Waterway was adequately characterized prior to dredging. Historical surface and core samples were used in con- junction with planned studies to determine the horizontal and vertical distribution of contaminants. As described in the remedial action con- struction report (Dalton, Olmsted & Fuglevand, Inc. 2006), the historical U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) post-dredging surveys were used to map the interface between the soft black muck and the native bed sediments and to refine the dredge plan. However, core samples were used to confirm the interfaces, and care was taken not to composite core samples across the muck-native interface. Over 100 cores and over 500 surface samples were used to delineate the area and depth for reme- diation in this approximately 45 acre site. The coring studies were also used to establish that the recent and native sediments were physically, visually, and chemically different from each other and that chemical ex- Dredging to remove PCBs was more successful although one area required 20 post-dredging capping. As described by EPA (2006c): “Despite extensive dredg- ing of the St. Lawrence River, the cleanup goals of 1 mg/kg PCBs…were not achievable in all areas. As a result, a 0.75-acre, 15 cell area, containing a range of PCB concentrations from 11.1 mg/kg PCBs to 120.457 mg/kg, was capped with the first layer of a three-layer cap to achieve the cleanup goal. The remaining exposed sediments average 0.8 mg/kg PCBs within the remaining 255 cells (21 acres), which is below the cleanup goal.”

140 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites ceedances of the SQOs were only found in the recent sediments (EPA 2006a [Head of Hylebos Waterway, Commencement Bay, May 17, 2006]). During implementation, the designers viewed the deepest historical dredging as a general guide but relied on observations during dredging to establish successful removal of the impacted sediment. The design of a dredging plan requires interpolation of depth-of- contamination data from sediment core samples. The upstream portions of the Fox River (OU 1), where dredging is currently being conducted, is a challenging site in that regard because it consists of multiple discrete contaminated sediment deposits arising out of local differences in flow regime and relationship to contaminant sources. The method applied by the remedial design team in OU 1 was to develop deterministic interpo- lations of sediment PCB concentrations for each deposit and then to con- nect the interpolations at deposit boundaries (CH2M Hill 2005). When that method is applied, the result is a surface of predicted depth of con- tamination, which can be expected to be most accurate in the neighbor- hoods of samples used in the interpolation and most uncertain in un- sampled locations and at boundaries of deposits.21 The spatial density of cores is a key component of adequately characterizing sediment distribu- tion (particularly cores that penetrate through the entire deposit). How- ever, there is no single optimum spacing between core samples because the necessary density depends on the heterogeneity of the site deposit and is site specific. Accurate characterization is particularly challenging in areas where contaminated sediments are underlain by uneven sub-bottom (for exam- ple, furrows, gulleys, or depressions). In these areas, deposition of con- taminated sediment over time will often fill in low spots to create a rela- tively flat sediment-water interface, but with marked differences in the underlying depth of contamination (for example, see description in Box 4-5). At the afore-mentioned Cumberland Bay site, variations in the un- contaminated sub-bottom characteristics and topography proved diffi- cult to characterize prior to dredging. According to the NYSDEC, “site characterization and pre-design studies included bathymetric surveys 21Alternative interpolation methods exist, such as the geostatistical technique of kriging, providing the probability of contamination at various depths at every location, and interpolating continuously across deposits while allowing for de- posit-specific effects (Cressie 1991; Goovaerts 1997; Diggle and Ribeiro 2007).

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 141 and sludge probing to define the top of the sludge bed, its thickness, and horizontal extent. In addition to sludge coring, divers confirmed the outer extent of the sludge bed in areas where it was too thin to measure by coring.” However, following dredging in 1999, it was determined that in one area “originally believed to have been dredged to a hard bottom since the sampling device encountered refusal” the sediment “consisted of a hard crust underlain by up to four feet of [contaminated] sludge.” In another area, PCB-contaminated sludge was found in 1-6 ft deep depres- sions scattered along the bottom of the lake following dredging. Further dredging targeted both of these contaminated areas (NYSDEC 2001). In the previously described 2005 pilot study in the Grasse River, it also proved difficult to accurately define the thickness of contaminated sediments using available sampling techniques and protocols. Prior to dredging, multibeam bathymetry, sediment probing, sediment coring, and acoustic sub-bottom profiling were used to characterize the site. Depth to hard bottom was estimated using sediment probing on a 25-ft by 25-ft grid with PCBs expected to be present in sediments above the hard bottom (Connolly et al. 2007). Following dredging, vibracore sam- pling indicated that in some areas the estimated thickness of contami- nated sediments was wrong and significant contaminated sediment re- mained (see Figure 4-14). These results indicated that at this site “sediment probing is not a reliable indicator of the depth of sediment and manual pushcore sample collection is not a reliable indicator of the full depth of PCBs contaminated material and below the deepest con- taminated layer” (EPA 2006a [Grasse River Site, April 18, 2006]). Acous- tic subsurface sampling at this site was also not successful for detailing sub-bottom characteristics.22 A similar situation existed at the Manistique River and Harbor site. During site characterization, the samples taken before the dredging were According to EPA: “Sub-bottom profiling attempted in conjunction with 22 multibeam bathymetry survey on October 22, 2005. Used dual frequency Odom depth sounder to obtain sounding information along several transects situated parallel to direction of river flow. 200 kHz signal reflects off sediment surface and 24 kHz signal penetrates into sediments and bounces off sediment reflectors. No penetration beyond reflections from sediment surface achieved” (EPA 2006a [Grasse River Site, April 18, 2006]).

142 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites FIGURE 4-14 Upstream to downstream transects of the Grasse River remediation area showing: elevations of the dredging cut line (dotted lines) based on pre- dredging (Spring 2005) depth of contamination estimates; post-dredging (Fall 2005) extent of contamination (diamonds) determined by vibracore sampling; and the post-dredging (Fall 2005) bottom elevation determined by bathymetry (solid lines). Source: Connolly et al. 2007. Reprinted with permission from the authors; copyright 2006, Quantitative Environmental Analysis. thought to be taken to bedrock, but were not. This is apparently because wood debris under the sediments was thought to be the bedrock harbor bottom (EPA 2006a [Manistique River and Harbor Site, May 10, 2006]). At this a site, a subbottom profiling device was used to estimate sedi- ment thickness. However, the wood pulp and debris in the sediments contained large amounts of gases that rendered the subbottom profiling device useless. As a result, EPA indicated that the dredging depth could not be predetermined in each area (EPA 2006a [Manistique River and Harbor Site, May 10, 2006]). The influence that incomplete characterization has on the success of dredging points to the importance of accurate site characterization. However, characterization activities are resource intensive and can con- sume time and funds otherwise available for remedial activities. As a result, decisions on whether to proceed with further characterization should seek to ascertain whether additional characterization will benefit remedial effectiveness and the point at which the additional efforts pro- vide diminishing returns. These considerations will be site-specific. Ob- viously, areas with complex and heterogenous sub-bottom (such as the

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 143 Grasse River) will benefit from greater characterization than those with less heterogeneity. The variety of subsurface characteristics at these sites also indicates that the most useful characterization technologies will be site specific. Sediment sampling coupled with an understanding of the fluvial and geologic nature of an area will shed light on the attributes of the sediment deposit, but not all site conditions can be completely un- derstood prior to beginning work. As a result, verification samples and progress cores taken during dredging are useful for indicating whether operations are succeeding or modifications need to be made (see Chapter 5 for further discussion). Defining ongoing sources of contaminants to the waterway through site characterization is of critical importance for determining appropriate cleanup responses and for eliminating recontamination of remediated areas. This issue is addressed further in the next section. Implement Source Control As pointed out by the National Research Council Committee on Remediation of PCB-Contaminated Sediments, “the identification and adequate control of sources of PCB releases should be an essential early step in the site risk management” (NRC 2001). If contaminant sources are not controlled, dredging cannot be effective in managing risk. In the Hylebos Waterway, the combined efforts of EPA and the Washington State Department of Ecology to achieve source control before dredging contributed to the ability to implement successful remedies. Dredging of the Hylebos Waterway was also at least partially successful because of the efforts to directly address inaccessible areas that could not be dredged. Much of the shoreline of the waterway is modified with over- water structures, such as docks, piers, and wharves. The remedy selected for the head of the waterway included dredging accessible areas, excava- tion or capping in isolated intertidal and under-pier areas, and natural recovery. Without control of the contaminated sediments under piers and along the shoreline, the project would likely not have been consid- ered successful. Dredging beneath the Arkema dock during 2005 used a long-reach excavator to remove most of the impacted sediment followed by a diver-deployed hydraulic dredge to remove the loose residual ma- terial that accumulated during mechanical dredging. The 2005 dredging

144 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites activities achieved the SQO cleanup objectives beneath both the Ace Tank and Arkema docks. Some areas along the shore were inaccessible to dredging and were either capped or determined to be suitable for moni- tored natural recovery. In contrast, both potentially important source areas and exposed sediment contributing to risk were missed, or not appropriately evalu- ated, in the characterization of the Lauritzen Channel at the United Heckathorn site. Dredging did not achieve remedial action objectives at this site despite achieving cleanup goals immediately after dredging for DDT, the contaminant of concern—apparently because of a failure to address contaminant sources or mass contributing to exposure and risk at the site. Confirmation sampling after dredging seemed to confirm the cleanup goal of 0.59 mg/kg in the Lauritzen Channel of the site, but an investigation a year later, in 1998, found DDT concentrations as high as 30.1 mg/kg. Year 1 biomonitoring showed that pesticide concentrations in the tissues of mussels exposed at the site were higher than those ob- served before remediation; these values decreased slightly in later years. Anderson et al. (2000) noted remaining toxicity in amphipods after dredging. In 2002, a buried outfall visible during low tide was identified as a persistent source of DDT in the channel; it was plugged by EPA in 2003. Investigations in 2002 and 2003 found sediment concentrations greater than 1,000 mg/kg in the vicinity of a dock on the eastern side of the channel. Remedial objectives were not met in the Lauritzen Channel for a number of reasons, including the decision not to dredge side slopes completely or to remove material from under piers. Some of those areas were intended to be capped with sand, but because of the steepness of slopes or inaccessibility, this was not done (Chemical Waste Manage- ment 1997). A recent analysis of recontamination of completed sediment reme- dies based on publicly available reports, such as 5 Year Reviews, indi- cated that 20 areas where dredging or capping remedies had been com- pleted were recontaminated from outside sources, primarily by combined sewer outfalls (CSOs), unremediated upland areas, and adja- cent and upstream unremediated areas (Nadeau and Skaggs 2007). The potential for recontamination at a site underscores the importance of identifying and controlling sources before undertaking a sediment rem- edy.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 145 Monitor Appropriate Indicators of Effectiveness Adequate site characterization should provide an understanding of the key sources of exposure and risk at a site and of how to intervene effectively to control risk. It should allow the definition of appropriate remedial action objectives and of cleanup levels that will lead to their achievement. It should also therefore identify appropriate indicators of successful implementation and, ultimately, effectiveness. A baseline of appropriate indicators of effectiveness must be established before dredg- ing to make possible a comparison with post-dredging data. Monitoring should continue until effectiveness can be evaluated. At the Outboard Marine Corporation—Waukegan Harbor site, suc- cess of the dredging remedy was monitored by using, among other indi- cators, fish-tissue data. The site is in Lake County, IL, 50 miles north of Chicago, and consists of industrial, commercial, municipal, and open or vacant lands at the mouth of the Waukegan River and North Ditch drainage basins. It is estimated that 300,000 lb of PCBs (Aroclors 1242 and 1248) were released into the harbor and that sediment concentra- tions were up to 25,000 ppm (EPA 2000a). The harbor was dredged in 1992 and contaminated sediments were placed in an abandoned boat slip. Only areas exceeding 50 ppm were remediated; as a result, some areas in the harbor are expected to have relatively high residual concentrations, and further remediation is being considered (EPA 2002; EPA 2007b). Fish-tissue data from Waukegan Harbor were analyzed to evaluate the hypothesis that PCB contamination has decreased (see Box 4-6). To evaluate dredging effectiveness accurately on the basis of pre- remediation and post-remediation fish body burdens, data sufficient to estimate both a pre-dredging time trend and a post-dredging time trend are needed from representative samples of fish collected from exposure areas that are the subject of cleanup levels and remedial action objectives. Effectiveness can then be shown if the post-dredging trend is lower than would be expected from simple extrapolation of the pre-dredging natu- ral-recovery trend. For Waukegan Harbor, sampling was conducted at only two times before dredging. That pre-dredging time trend was in- adequate for comparing to the post-dredging time trend. A pre-dredging sediment toxicity test found relationships between toxicity and sediment-contaminant concentrations, with toxicity ranging

146 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites BOX 4-6 Statistical Analysis of PCB Concentrations in Fish, Waukegan Harbor, Illinois Data Analyzed data (T. Hornshaw, Illinois EPA, written commun., August 3, 2006) included percent lipid and total PCB concentrations in carp tissue (fillets) that were caught before dredging (1981 and 1983) and after dredging (1996-2001 and 2005). Dredging activity was conducted during 1991-1992. Methods Temporal analysis of fish trends was based on linear-regression models of PCB concentrations in fish samples with monitoring year and percent lipid content as in- dependent variables. The Box-Cox transformation (Box and Cox 1964) was param- eterized in the regression-model likelihoods to allow possible transformations to be chosen optimally. Nonlinear trends in time were considered (Stow et al. 1995), and their results led to interpretations that were qualitatively similar. The two-sample Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test (Hollander and Wolfe 1973) was used to compare percent lipid-normalized PCB body burdens before and after dredging. Results Figure 4-15 displays the log base 10 lipid-adjusted total PCB in carp fillets for the available monitoring years. There was no significant difference between mean pre-dredging (1981 and 1983) lipid-normalized PCB and mean post-dredging (1996- 2001 and 2005) lipid-normalized PCB (p = 0.34). Despite the scatter of the data points, there is a statistically significant 12% decline in lipid-adjusted PCB per year for 1996- 2005 (p = 0.03). Remarks The temporal trend shown in Figure 4-15 was established only on the post- dredging data. Comparisons with the pre-dredging monitored fish (total sample size, 7) were insufficient to establish any conclusions on dredging effectiveness. Improved longitudinal monitoring (before and after dredging) could provide data sufficient to establish a time trend that could be used to associate changes with dredging. Moni- toring during dredging would provide insight into the effects of sediment release and resuspension and inform statistical models as to when to postulate post-dredging effects. The comparison of pre- and post-remediation data is further complicated by likely improvements in analytical procedures between 1985 and 2005. Other issues, for example, the failure to segregate fish by age or size, are also likely to affect this analysis.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 147 FIGURE 4-15 Lipid-normalized PCB concentrations in carp in Waukegan Harbor, IL. Dredging was completed in 1992. See Box 4-6 for details of the regression analysis. from 0 to 100% survival for Ceriodaphnia dubia and Daphnia magna in whole-sediment laboratory assays. Hyalella azteca survival was much bet- ter in 48-hr exposures with survivals of 73.3 to 100 % (Burton et al. 1989). A post-dredging study by Kemble et al. in 2000 suggested that the PCB concentrations were lower (less than 10 mg/kg) and that sediments were generally not lethal to amphipods, but there were sublethal effects. The Kemble et al. (2000) and EPA (1999) studies suggested that because post- dredging PAH concentrations in sediments exceeded sediment quality guidelines based on probable effect concentrations, they may be contrib- uting to the observed toxicity. The presence of PAH-related toxicity at a site with cleanup levels based on PCBs points to the need to focus on the full range of chemicals that may be causing toxicity at a site. At the PCB-contaminated Cumberland Bay NPL, NY, site where 34 acres was dredged, quantitative remedial goals were not set. Rather, ac- cording to the site’s ROD (NYSDEC 1997), “The goals selected for this site are: mitigate the immediate threat to the environment posed by the PCB contaminated sludge bed; rapidly and significantly reduce human health and environmental risks; [and] prevent further environmental

148 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites degradation resulting from this known source of PCB contamination.” Without the guidance of risk-based quantitative criteria, it is difficult to judge whether the remedy achieved the goals that were set. As men- tioned previously, PCBs averaging 6.8 mg/kg were still present on com- pletion of dredging. At the Fox River, a baseline monitoring plan is under development and is expected to establish the framework for long-term monitoring. However, the plan is being developed after remedial dredging has be- gun. A wealth of data is available from the remedial investigation and from scientific studies of the Lower Fox River and Green Bay that have been conducted over the decades. Nevertheless, the initiation of the dredging remedy before the establishment of a baseline—which ideally would use media, methods, and locations consistent with the long-term monitoring to follow—will probably complicate the evaluation of rem- edy effectiveness. In particular, it will be especially difficult to infer the initial 5-year effects of dredging on contaminant exposures by compar- ing years 0 and 5, because the apparent baseline will also be affected by dredging rather than reflect true pre-dredging conditions. Whether dredging causes an immediate drop in exposures by removing contami- nation or causes an increase in exposures to contaminated residuals or water-column releases, the collection of baseline data after the beginning of dredging will confound the comparison of long-term monitoring data with the true baseline. That will be true not only of the upstream portion of the Fox River, where dredging is being implemented, but also of downstream locations because upstream PCB releases to the water col- umn can affect downstream conditions. A common problem in monitoring for effectiveness is focusing on the meeting of cleanup levels, especially if operationally defined, and not on the long-term remedial action objectives. For example, cleanup for the Christina River was based on sediment removal. Sediment contaminant concentrations or biologic responses were not reported immediately fol- lowing dredging or after backfilling (URS 1999). 5 years after dredging, data on the status of the benthic community was collected (EPA 2005b); however, this information is unable to indicate whether the remediation was effective.23 Although the cleanup requirements based on dredging to 23In the second 5-year review for the site (EPA 2005b), EPA states that “the benthic community is dominated by pollution tolerant species that can be found

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 149 a specified elevation may have been met, attainment of short-term and long-term risk-reduction goals has not been demonstrated. Similarly, cleanup requirements were met at the Naval Shipyard in Newport, RI, by removal of sediment to bedrock in many locations (TetraTech 2004). However, dredging to the specified depth (bedrock) is not an appropri- ate indicator of risk reduction. There was no verification sampling in these locations prior to capping (backfilling), so residual contamination may remain. As a result, contaminants may also be available for trans- port through the sand cap to surface sediments. The observation of con- tinued toxicity to sea urchins during long-term monitoring suggests that risk-reduction goals were not achieved (TetraTech NUS 2006). Evidence from other sites shows how meeting of cleanup levels, even if based on post-dredging concentrations, might not achieve de- sired risk-reduction goals. The 1995 remediation at GM Massena, NY, was designed to ultimately reduce exposure of fish and other wildlife to PCBs in the sediment. As indicated previously, cleanup levels were achieved only after capping of a portion of the site where reduction in residual concentrations below the cleanup level was not achievable solely through dredging. Examination of monitoring designed to evalu- ate performance relative to long-term remedial action objectives, how- ever, has not shown expected reductions in fish concentrations. As shown in Table 4-2, spottail shiner, a fish with a limited foraging range, showed no obvious increasing or decreasing trends in PCB concentra- tions at the site even 5 years after the end of remediation (EPA 2005a). Use Cleanup Levels Appropriately in Determining Remedy Effectiveness When comparing post-remediation concentration data to cleanup levels, risk managers sometimes treat the cleanup levels as concentra- tions that should never be exceeded. However, this approach is not nec- in naturally stressed freshwater systems. One of the lines of evidence used to determine that the river needed cleanup was the abundance of pollution tolerant species. Since these areas have been dredged and backfilled with clean sedi- ments, the prevalence of pollution tolerant species would not be attributable to site related contaminant toxicity (there is still zinc in the surface water from other sources).”

150 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites essarily appropriate or consistent with the evaluation of human and eco- logic exposure conducted in the baseline risk assessments and, more im- portantly, with the derivation of cleanup levels. EPA guidance (EPA 1989b) recommends use of arithmetic mean concentrations within each exposure area to quantify exposures to chemicals of concern over time. While concentrations can vary significantly within an exposure area, the arithmetic mean is the appropriate statistic based on the assumption that a receptor integrates its exposure by moving about within the exposure area. Surface area weighted average concentrations, for example, at the Fox River, have also been used as appropriate indicators of exposure to surficial sediments (WI DNR/EPA 2002). The Marathon Battery site illus- trates the importance of comparing cleanup levels to the appropriate sta- tistic. At this site, occasional sediment samples had concentrations that were indistinguishable from the pre-remediation concentration distribu- tion, yet these samples apparently are not reflected in the cadmium body burden in the benthic community, which has decreased. Because a sampling program provides an imperfect measure of the arithmetic mean, EPA recommends use of the 95% upper confidence limit (UCL) of the mean. Therefore, cleanup levels ideally should be compared to the 95% UCL for monitoring data representative of the exposure area of concern that incited establishment of the cleanup level. EPA used 95% UCLs calculated from surface-sediment samples collected after completion of dredging to determine whether cleanup levels had been achieved at the Sitcum Waterway in Puget Sound (EPA 2006a [Commencement Bay–Sitcum Waterway, April 26, 2006]). For the Sitcum TABLE 4-2 Spottail Shiner PCB Concentrations After Remediation of the GM Massena, NY, Site in 1995 Total PCBs-Whole Lipid- Number of Body Concentration Normalized PCB Date Samples Lipids (%) (mg/kg) (mg/kg-lipid) 10/97 7 5.58 1.20 22 10/98 7 4.24 3.59 79 10/99 7 9.22 2.43 27 10/00 7 11.4 1.5 13 10/01 7 5.00 3.7 75 Source: EPA 2005a.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 151 Waterway site, EPA reported that the “general approach [was to] re- dredge if [concentrations] exceed SQOs, but [EPA] also looked at surrounding data, historical data, and 95th percentile UCL of the mean sediment concentration for a chemical in a subarea to recommend whether additional sampling should be done, re-dredging, natural recovery, and/or nothing.” In cases in which monitoring data are biased such that they are not representative of exposure areas of concern, one can perform spatial weighting of the data before calculating 95% UCLs. For example, EPA used an interpolation method called inverse distance weighting to spatially weight floodplain soil data affected by contaminated sediment in the Housatonic River before calculating 95% UCLs for use in the human health risk assessment (Weston 2005b, Attachments 3 and 4). Consider Using Pilot Tests As described above, adverse site conditions may significantly limit the ability of dredging to achieve cleanup levels and remedial action ob- jectives. Pilot testing can assist in identifying and characterizing potential limitations to dredging effectiveness, planning and responding to unex- pected factors that may arise, and in defining the degree of effectiveness that might be obtainable through dredging. At the Lockheed Shipyard in Puget Sound, delays, additional costs, and limitations of dredging effec- tiveness were encountered owing to the unexpected quantity of debris. In retrospect, the construction manager for the remediation project stated that a pilot dredging program would have been able to inform him of the extent of the debris and the implications for dredging production rates and rehandling issues (G. Gunderson, TRC Solutions, personal commun., July 7, 2006). Similarly, the dredging remedy at Manistique Harbor, MI, was much more expensive, took twice as long, and required the dredg- ing of nearly twice the expected sediment volume because of the unex- pected problems associated with the presence of debris and thin sedi- ment layers over bedrock. A pilot dredging program would have been advantageous in efficiently characterizing the scale and costs of the dredging remedy before full-scale implementation. Pilot testing has been successfully used at a number of sites in iden- tifying potential limitations to remedial effectiveness and allowing the

152 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites development of appropriate responses. For example, pilot testing has been used at the Grasse River in Massena, NY, in which the effectiveness of different dredges and different remedial technologies was explored. The previously described demonstration dredging project at Lavaca Bay, TX, was designed to evaluate the ability of dredging to effectively and economically address mercury-contaminated bed sediment at the outfall of a former chloro-alkali manufacturing site (Alcoa 2000). Results of the study indicated that hydraulic dredging could be readily implemented at this site, offsite transport of mercury on tidal flows moving through and around the curtained-off dredging unit were minimal, a large mass of mercury (2,300 lbs) was extracted from the hot spot, and increased mer- cury concentrations in oysters above the historical observed background in the wider bay did not occur. Residual surface sediment (generally, 0-5 cm) mercury concentrations were reduced in areas with high surface concentrations and lower subsurface concentration, while areas with highly contaminated buried sediments and low pre-dredging surface sediment contaminant concentrations typically showed increased surface sediment concentrations post-dredging (Alcoa 2000). The pilot study was judged to be a successful undertaking in that the data collected were key in the evaluation of the role of dredging in the remedial activities to be undertaken at this site. Several dredging demonstration projects were conducted during the remedial investigation and feasibility study at the Fox River. The previously-described demonstration projects conducted in Sediment Management Units 56 and 57 (SMU 56/57) in 1999 and 2000 provided valuable information on dredging and dewatering productivity and op- erations. The 1999 demonstration removed 31,000 cy which was much less than the 80,000 cy objective. During that project, hydraulic dredging equipment was upgraded three times in an effort to increase the solids content of the dredged slurry. Dewatering of solids proved to be a limit- ing constraint on production rate and required installation of additional filter presses. The average production rate was 294 cy/day, compared with a desired rate of 900 cy/day (Montgomery Watson 2001). Further adjustments in dredging and dewatering equipment, beyond those made by the 1999 project team, were needed in 2000 to remove the remaining 50,000 cy of targeted sediments. The resulting average production rates exceeded a project target of 833 cy/day and reached a peak production

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 153 rate of 1,599 cy/day on a single day near the completion of the removal action (Fort James Corporation et al. 2001). Pilot studies also assisted in the success of the Head of Hylebos dredging project. Two pilot studies were used to help to define the scope of such problems as debris, provide large samples for additional testing, and help with selection of equipment and development of the dredging operation plan. One study concentrated on how to remove the “soft black muck drainage water” from the mechanically dredged material at an upland storage facility. About 5 gal of water per cubic yard of sedi- ment, or about 40 lb per 2,200 lb, was associated as free water. The sec- ond study focused on rail transport and placement into the offsite land- fill and helped to refine the rail-transport program. During the pilot study, the contractor observed the dissociation of physical integrity (strength) of the soft fine-grained sediment after handling, both in the barge and on the bottom of the waterway. The loss of strength was seen as a contributor to formation of a flowable residual layer (fluidized soft mud) on the bottom during dredging that needed to be captured (P. Fuglevand; Dalton, Olmsted & Fuglevand, Inc.; personal commun., July 7, 2006). In some cases, pilot testing is not required, because of the scale of the dredging project or because of other conditions. For example, the relatively small scale of the U.S. Naval Shipyard site in Newport, RI, and the ability to dredge much of the contaminated material from land com- bined to make the implementation of dredging favorable. Of 30,000 cy dredged, the vast majority was from the nearshore area (TetraTech NUS 2006). The nearshore materials were removed by a long reach excavator, which was operated on a bay haul road constructed for the project, and were loaded directly into offroad dump trucks (Tetra Tech 2004). Dredg- ing of the remaining elevated offshore material was performed from a barge with a crane equipped with a clamshell bucket and loaded onto an adjacent haul barge. The excavator was much faster and less expensive than the barge-mounted crane, and direct loading into haul trucks mini- mized handling of material (EPA 2006a [Newport Naval, May 17, 2006]). In most contaminated sediment megasites, however, the scale and complexity of the sites suggest that pilot studies are appropriate and will assist in reducing limitations of dredging effectiveness. Adaptive man-

154 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites agement 24 and even pilot testing during implementation may still be necessary to respond to unforeseen problems during implementation. Pilot testing alone will not ensure success; to maximize the project’s use- fulness, the scope and objectives need to be clearly communicated and monitoring needs to be capable of establishing whether objectives were achieved and the factors that influenced the project’s performance. Implement Best Management Practices Although it is not a guarantee, the adoption of best management practices (BMPs) will help to ensure appropriate implementation of a remedial project. Best management practices are defined on an activity- specific basis and will depend upon the type of dredging and transport equipment used, the environment in which the dredging takes place, and the process “train” or sequencing of the remedial activities. There are no standardized BMPs for environmental dredging, although “lessons learned” from environmental dredging projects to date suggests that there are BMPs that will likely be applicable to many dredging projects. These BMPs are primarily designed to minimize the loss or transport of contaminated sediment or debris from the dredging footprint and mini- mizing the generation and runoff of leachate from dredged material to the receiving water during transport or rehandling of dredged sediment. BMPs that may be useful for minimizing loss or off-site transport of sediment and debris include (this list is not considered comprehensive): • Use of silt curtains to reduce the transport of suspended solids. • Use of floating and/or absorbent booms to capture floating de- bris or oil sheens. • Reduction of the impact speed of the dredge bucket with the bot- tom and/or reduction of the rate of ascent of a filled bucket; reduction of the swing rate of cutter-head dredge. • Prevention of overfilling buckets through accurate and con- trolled placement of bucket. 24In general, adaptive management is the testing of hypotheses and conclu- sions and re-evaluation of site assumptions and decisions as new information is gathered. See Chapter 6 for further detail.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 155 • Use of environmental or sealed buckets, where sediment charac- teristics will allow. • Protection of the overwater swing path of a filled bucket (by placing an empty barge or apron to catch lost material). • Eliminating bottom stockpiling of dredged material or sweeping with the dredge bucket/head. BMPs that may be useful for controlling production or runoff of leachate include: • Maximization of the “bite” of a dredge bucket (that is, avoiding thin lifts). • Allowance for draining a sediment-filled bucket before breaking the water’s surface. • Use of filtration cloth, hay bales, curbing, or other physical baf- fles (similar to stormwater BMPs) to control runoff from barges or re- handling areas. Additional BMPs that may be used to minimize environmental im- pacts of dredging include (but are not limited to): • Scheduling dredging during periods when sensitive species or populations are not present at the site. • Daily construction oversight and progress surveys. • Water quality monitoring during dredging activities. BMPs for control or prevention of resuspension or loss of contami- nated material in the waterway were implemented during the remedia- tion of Todd and Lockheed Shipyards. BMPs were specified for over- water demolition, pile removal, dredging, barge dewatering, vessel management, sediment offloading, capping and fill placement, and overwater construction. During demolition, pile removal, and overwater construction, an absorbent boom with 4- to 6-ft silt curtains was de- ployed to contain floating debris or sheen caused by the removal of creo- soted piles. Entrainment of water during dredging was minimized by taking complete “bites” with the dredge bucket whenever possible. Each full bucket was held just at the water’s surface to allow water to drain before the bucket was swung to the barge. Dredged sediment was pas-

156 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites sively dewatered on an onsite flat-deck barge through straw bales and filter fabric before being discharged to the waterway. During offloading, the clamshell bucket was prevented from swinging over open water by placement of a spill-collection platform under its path. Asphalt curbing surrounded the transloading area to prevent sediment, sediment drain- age water, and contact stormwater from migrating offsite. Water col- lected from the transloading area was not allowed to enter the waterway but was collected and treated on site by a process of settling, multimedia filtration, and carbon filtration. Treated water was discharged to the sanitary sewer. Implementation of BMPs for control of produced water was also important in the success of the Head of Hylebos dredging project. All the water entrained with the dredged sediment was placed in the barge rather than being released back to the water. Overall, the enclosed me- chanical buckets placed more water than sediment in the barges. This water can contain an important load of sediments and contaminants. During the 2005 season, the water-management system captured about 4,000 cy of sediment. It is estimated that if that material had been re- leased back to the dredge area, it would have generated a layer of im- pacted sediment an average of 3-4 in. thick over the dredged area. Cap- ture of the solids contributed to the ability to meet the cleanup goals (Dalton, Olmsted & Fuglevand, Inc. 2006). Remediation contractors for the Todd Shipyard found benefit in working with dredging companies that were able to mobilize an array of equipment from their inventory to meet project needs and respond to changing site conditions and schedules. The project engineer for Todd Shipyard included the dredging contractor as a consultant during the design stages of the remediation—an important step that ensured a smooth transition from design to implementation (EPA 2006a [Todd Shipyards Sediment OU, May 12, 2006]). Experienced environmental dredgers also have the capabilities to operate within the typical regula- tory restrictions and an understanding of the difficulties associated with environmental dredging. The importance of using contractors experi- enced in environmental dredging was emphasized by the remediation contractors at the Fox River SMU 56/57 dredging project: Most large dredging contractors in the United States have little or no experience with contaminated sediment projects, working pre-

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 157 dominantly on navigational dredging projects. Navigational dredg- ing projects typically have no environmental controls, resulting in higher production rates and lower unit costs. Larger-scale projects may also limit the available temporary water treatment and dewa- tering equipment unless planned well in advance, as well as on- shore land space, that are necessary to complete the work in a timely fashion (Montgomery Watson 2001).25 Since 1999, the first year of the SMU 56/57 dredging project, the numbers and experience of firms experienced with environmental dredging has increased. However, the need for contractors familiar with the challenges of environmental dredging remains, particularly at large, multi-year megasite projects. Use Appropriate Contracting Arrangements The nature of the contracting vehicle used to conduct the work can drive behavior of the contractor and ultimately impact project results. The contracting terms and approaches provide incentives for contractor performance so the contracting approach needs to be aligned with the project’s risk reduction goals. For example, the implementation of BMPs can be encouraged or discouraged by the contracting mechanisms used in a remedial project. EPA described the importance of the contracting mechanism at the Lockheed Shipyard cleanup (EPA 2006a [Lockheed Shipyard Sediment OU, May 11, 2006]): The primary keys to success for a complex project such as the LSSOU cleanup include (1) a contract where the dredging contrac- tor was not taking the risk and 2) the dredger was guaranteed a daily rate for each activity. Frequently, in the past, environmental dredging contractors have followed the “navigational dredging It is true that navigation projects often have less environmental controls than 25 environmental dredging projects, but navigation dredging projects typically have to comply with water quality certification and disposal requirements of the Clean Water Act or, in the case of ocean disposal, the Marine Protection, Re- search, and Sanctuaries Act.

158 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites model” in terms of contract style and dredging methods. Under a Unit Rate contract the dredger is in a "production dredging mode, which does not work for environmental dredging. Under the Time and Material [contract] the dredger is not penalized for taking the appropriate time to accomplish the task at hand. Because of this the dredger is more likely to comply with BMPs and to take care to minimize loose of material back into the waterway or to cause re- suspension. Phase 1 dredging at the site resulted in incomplete debris removal, the presence of undredged inventory, and a large amount of residuals at the end of the in-water work window. On review of the approach, the remediation project manager revised the contract mechanism for phase 2 dredging (second season) to use a time-and-materials approach and re- quested new bids for the work (EPA 2006a [Lockheed Shipyard Sedi- ment OU, May 11, 2006]). The Todd Shipyard project engineer found that a cost-plus- incentive-fee form of contract worked well by motivating contractors to complete every aspect of the construction in accordance with defined quality objectives at the lowest overall cost. The contract reimbursed the contractor for all direct costs of the work. That removed the financial risk to the contractor and thereby reduced bid costs to cover unknown or un- quantifiable risks (EPA 2006a [Harbor Island Todd Shipyards Sediment OU, May 12, 2006]). In the Head of Hylebos dredging project, a cost-plus-fee contract assisted in the reduction of residual contamination. The engineers and contractors determined that it was in their best interest to minimize the extent of the residual layer by slowing down the production to match “good housekeeping” on the bottom. That contracting mechanism pro- vided the opportunity for the owner to work with the contractor to ad- just construction and operations to achieve the project objectives. Con- tractor oversight was provided by onsite dredge inspectors during each shift. That oversight was used to make decisions regarding whether the target elevations were met (that is, finding the underlying native mate- rial) before dredging moved to the next cut. The cab on each dredge was actually expanded to provide a place for the dredge observer to sit side by side with the operator day and night throughout the dredging opera- tion (Dalton, Olmsted & Fuglevand, Inc. 2006).

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 159 Overall, there is no single best contract type. These decisions will depend on site conditions and necessary equipment and materials. However, contracting terms and approaches that encourage contractors to focus on achieving cleanup goals and remedial action objectives are best suited for environmental dredging. These arrangements should cre- ate incentives for reducing resuspension and residual production, using best management practices, and adjusting the dredging approach to im- prove chances of meeting cleanup levels and result in cost savings. Use Operational Controls to Improve Dredging Accuracy In addition to appropriate design, implementation, and monitoring, technologic approaches can improve dredging efficiency and effective- ness. Some of them have been used successfully at contaminated sedi- ment sites. A one-of-a-kind specially designed high-technology dredge outfit- ted with innovative sensors and controls to achieve a 6-in. excavation-cut tolerance was used to extract creosote-contaminated sediment at Bayou Bonfouca, LA. A cutline to the depth associated with a total PAH concen- tration of 1,300 ppm was established and programmed as an absolute elevation along a 4,000-ft length by using borehole concentration profiles. Maximum contamination depth was 17 ft (average, 10 ft). Logs, concrete, metal objects, and so on were removed with grapple hooks before exca- vation (EPA 2006a [Bayou Bonfouca Superfund site, May 12, 2006]). The pre-dredging operation and low tidal fluctuations and low stream flow rate (13 ft3/sec) provided a stable dredging platform (spud barge) in the loose, high-organic-matter layer over “harder” unconsolidated inorganic substrate, which all aided in the implementation of the new precision dredging technology. No post-dredging measurements (such as bottom elevations) were taken to evaluate achievement of the bottom cut-line target programmed into the excavator, nor were any sediment analyses performed to verify achievement of a total PAH concentration of less than 1,300 ppm. Targets for volume of dredged material were achieved, however, and that was the primary goal of controlling the excavation depth. The dredge used at Todd Shipyards was equipped with a position- ing system with 20-cm (GPS-controlled) horizontal accuracy. It provided

160 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites real-time display and tracking of the horizontal and vertical position of the dredge bucket. Digital GPS receivers and a gyrocompass were used to determine real-time horizontal (X and Y) positioning of the derrick barge and the dredge bucket. An electronic tide gauge was used to allow the operator to determine the proper dredge elevation below the water surface accurately. The vertical position of the bucket was combined with the electronic tide-gauge data to determine the bucket elevation (Z). In addition, the dredge-bucket wires were painted in 1-ft increments to provide for a check on the electronically calculated vertical position. The information generated by the positioning system was electronically stored and used to create maps that showed dredging progress, includ- ing the degree of overlap between bucket deployments (EPA 2006a [Harbor Island Todd Shipyards Sediment OU, May 12, 2006]). That ap- proach to navigation and positioning of the dredge bucket has been used at a number of sites in Puget Sound. Precision positioning systems are seeing increasing use. Although the basic technology of dredging has changed little in recent decades, the ability to position the dredge accurately has improved dramatically; in principle, this can improve our ability to remove contaminated sediment accurately and efficiently if sufficient site-characterization data are avail- able. Regardless of the improvements in dredging methods and equip- ment, the reliability of the equipment and the availability of skilled op- erators capable of processing and interpreting the data remain challenges. Consider Backfilling and Capping to Control Residuals As indicated previously, the factor limiting dredging effectiveness that is the most difficult to manage is high residual contaminant concen- trations. Residuals are always detected after dredging and can be rela- tively high in concentration and typically of the same order as the aver- age concentration in the dredged material (Reible et al. 2003). The magnitude of residuals can be higher in the presence of debris or when site conditions make it infeasible to overdredge into clean material. Even in favorable dredging conditions, however, some degree of residual con- trol is usually necessary to achieve site cleanup standards and to address site remedial action objectives. Generally, control of residuals is achieved by adding backfill or thin-layer capping; this has clear advantages in

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 161 achieving bulk sediment contaminant concentration targets even if the backfill layer is intermixed with the residual sediments. Although back- fill can effectively manage bulk sediment concentrations, the effective- ness of backfill for aiding long-term risk reduction is less well under- stood. In addition, the advantages of dredging with backfill for residual control relative to a complete capping remedy need to be assessed dur- ing remedy evaluation. At Bayou Bonfouca in Slidell, LA, backfilling was a necessary phase of the overall remedial operation. Excavation to up to 3 m compromised the stability of the unconsolidated material forming the banks along the bayou. Gravel (about 1 ft) over sand (about 1 ft) and additional fill gave support to the sheet-piling-reinforced banks (5,000 ft long) and served to cap the residual PAH contamination of 1,300 ppm (target concentration). Backfilling to the original bottom grade maintained the historical water flow rates and levels needed for recreational and other boating traffic and allowed the bayou to begin natural recovery. The remediation of the former Ketchikan Pulp Company facility, in Ward Cove in Ketchikan, AK, also involved some backfilling of dredged areas. The facility operated as a dissolving sulfite pulp mill from 1954 until 1997 and discharged untreated sulfite waste liquor (magnesium bisulfite), pulping solids, and bleaching waste (chlorine caustic) into Ward Cove until 1971, with increasing wastewater treatment after that. Mill operations affected sediment by releasing large quantities of organic material (up to 10 ft thick) as byproducts of wood pulping. The organic material altered the physical structure and chemistry of the sediments and thus the type and abundance of benthic organisms. Degradation of the organic-rich pulping byproduct led to anaerobic conditions in the sediment and production of ammonia, sulfide, and 4-methylphenol in quantities that were potentially toxic to benthic organisms (EPA 2006a, Ketchikan Pulp Company; April 26, 2006). Remedial action objectives included reducing toxicity of surface sediments to benthic life and en- hancing benthic recolonization. The selected remedy included thin-layer (6-12 in.) placement of clean sand over dredged areas (to less than the full depth of contamination) and undredged areas and monitoring of natural recovery where thin-layer placement was not practicable. Sand backfilling was expected to achieve the remedial objectives by diluting contaminants and organic matter, both of which are associated with ben- thic toxicity on this site (EPA 2000b).

162 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites Remediation was completed in 2001. The long-term monitoring program includes sediment chemical analysis, toxicity testing, and as- sessment of the benthic macroinvertebrate community. The first round of long-term monitoring in 2004 found that the remedy appeared to have met its objectives in backfilled areas; chemical concentrations were gen- erally below sediment cleanup levels as determined from pre- remediation toxicity testing, survival of benthic test organisms was high, and benthic species diversity and abundance increased relative to the pre-remediation baseline and are similar to reference areas (Exponent 2005). Additional monitoring is planned for 2007, and equally favorable or improved results may lead to a reduction in required monitoring of backfilled areas. In contrast, 2004 monitoring results showed that only one of four natural recovery areas had improvements comparable to those found in the backfilled areas (Exponent 2005; Herrenkohl et al. 2006). Backfilling has been used at a variety of sites, including the Fox River and several sites in the Puget Sound area. It has been proposed for many sites that have not met or are unlikely to meet cleanup levels after dredging alone. Backfill that is at least about 6-12 in. thick probably forms an effective separation between much of the benthic community that might colonize the top of the backfill layer and the underlying sedi- ment. Thin sand backfill layers (less than 6 in.), however, are of uncertain effectiveness because the low sorptivity of sand means that the benthic community may be exposed to pore water contaminant concentrations similar to that of uncapped sediment. Exposure and risk are often more closely related to pore water concentration than to bulk sediment con- centration, and further research or field monitoring is needed to confirm the appropriateness of thin-layer backfilling. CONCLUSIONS On the basis of its review of data and experiences at dredging pro- jects, the committee has reached the following conclusions: • The committee was generally unable to establish whether dredg- ing alone is capable of achieving long-term risk reduction, because

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 163 o Monitoring at most sites does not include the full array of measures necessary to evaluate risk. o Dredging may have occurred in conjunction with other remedies or natural processes, or insufficient time may have passed to evaluate long-term risk reduction. o A systematic compilation of site data necessary to track remedial effectiveness nationally is lacking. • Dredging remains one of the few options available for the reme- diation of contaminated sediments and should be considered, with other options, for managing the risks that they pose. • Dredging is effective for removal of mass, but mass removal alone may not achieve risk-based goals. • Dredging will likely have at least short-term adverse effects on the water column and biota. • Dredging effectiveness is limited by resuspension and release of contaminants during dredging and the generation or exposure of resid- ual contamination by dredging. Those limitations are minimized if site conditions are favorable and the remedy is designed and implemented appropriately. o Favorable site conditions include − Little or no debris − A visual or physical texture difference or other rapid mechanism for differentiating clean and con- taminated sediments. − Potential for overdredging into clean material. − Low-gradient bottom and side slopes. − Lack of piers and other obstacles. − Site conditions that promote rapid natural at- tenuation after dredging (for example, through natural deposition). − Absence of non-aqueous-phase liquid or readily desorbable contaminants. o Effective design and implementation factors include − Site characterization sufficient to develop a comprehensive conceptual site model and identify adverse site conditions. − Identification and control of sources on a water- shed-wide basis.

164 Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites − Use of pilot studies, where appropriate, to iden- tify adverse site conditions and appropriate man- agement responses. − Application of best management practices to control residuals and resuspension (for example, operational controls at the dredge and on produced streams, appropriate equipment selection, and re- sidual control measures). − Contracting and procurement mechanisms to encourage a focus on cleanup levels and remedial action objectives. − Engagement of experienced and innovative en- vironmental-dredging contractors throughout the design and implementation phases of remediation. • Dredging alone is unlikely to be effective in reaching short-term or long-term goals where sites exhibit one or more unfavorable condi- tions. Where unfavorable conditions exist, increased contaminant resus- pension, release, and residual will tend to limit ability to meet cleanup levels and delay the achievement of remedial action objectives unless managed through a combination of remedies or alternative remedies. RECOMMENDATIONS • A remedy should be designed to meet long-term risk-reduction goals. The design should be tested by modeling and monitoring the achievement of long-term remedial action objectives. • Site conditions that influence dredging effectiveness should be recognized during selection, development, and implementation of the remedy. When conditions unfavorable for dredging exist: o Implementation of one or more pilot tests should be consid- ered to identify optimal remedial approaches and assess their effectiveness. o Adverse effects of resuspension, release, and residuals should be forecast and explicitly considered in expectations of risk. o The ability of combination remedies to lessen the adverse ef- fects of residuals should be considered when evaluating the potential effectiveness of dredging.

Evaluation of Dredging Effectiveness 165 o Best management practices should be implemented to minimize effects of adverse dredging conditions. o The possibility of adverse dredging conditions that are not anticipated should be recognized and planned for. • A good baseline assessment coupled with a well-designed long- term monitoring plan should be implemented to permit evaluation of dredging effectiveness. o Well-designed pre-dredging and post-dredging moni- toring is necessary to establish effectiveness and indicate achievement of remedial action objectives. o Monitoring should be conducted to demonstrate achievement of cleanup levels and to confirm that the cleanup levels achieve remedial action objectives. o Data from monitoring should be managed and stored in electronic databases accessible for further analysis. • Further research, including during dredging pilots and full-scale operations, should be conducted to define mechanisms, rates, causes, and effects of dredging residuals and contaminant resuspension. REFERENCES AGC (Advanced Geoservices Corporation). 2001. 2000 Annual Report Long- Term Monitoring Program: Marathon Remediation Site. Advanced Geoservices Corporation, Chaddsford, PA. April 2, 2001. Alcoa Inc. 1995. The Grasse River: Non-Time Critical Removal Action Documen- tation Report, December 1995. Alcoa [online]. Available: http://www.the grasseriver.com/ppt/Nov20CAP/NTCRA.htm [accessed October 11, 2006]. Alcoa Inc. 2000. Treatability Study for the ALCOA (Point Comfort)/Lavaca Bay Superfund Site, Draft. January 2000. 84pp. Alcoa Inc. 2005. Remedial Options Pilot Study Work Plan: Grasse River Study Area Massena, New York. Alcoa Inc., Massena, New York. February 11, 2005. Anderson, B.S., J.W. Hunt, B.M. Phillips, M. Stoelting, J. Becker, R. Fairey, H.M. Puckett, M. Stephenson, R.S. Tjeerdema and M. Martin. 2000. Ecotoxicologic change at a remediated Superfund Site in San Francisco Bay, California, USA. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 19(4): 879-887. Baumann, P.C. 2000. Health of Bullhead in an Urban Fishery after Remedial Dredging Final Report - January 31, 2000. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes National Program Office, Chicago IL, by

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Some of the nation's estuaries, lakes and other water bodies contain contaminated sediments that can adversely affect fish and wildlife and may then find their way into people's diets. Dredging is one of the few options available for attempting to clean up contaminated sediments, but it can uncover and re-suspend buried contaminants, creating additional exposures for wildlife and people. At the request of Congress, EPA asked the National Research Council (NRC) to evaluate dredging as a cleanup technique. The book finds that, based on a review of available evidence, dredging's ability to decrease environmental and health risks is still an open question. Analysis of pre-dredging and post-dredging at about 20 sites found a wide range of outcomes in terms of surface sediment concentrations of contaminants: some sites showed increases, some no change, and some decreases in concentrations. Evaluating the potential long-term benefits of dredging will require that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency step up monitoring activities before, during and after individual cleanups to determine whether it is working there and what combinations of techniques are most effective.

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