Sustainable Development of
Algal Biofuels
in the United States
Committee on the Sustainable Development of Algal Biofuels
Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources
Division on Earth and Life Studies
Board on Energy and Environmental Systems
Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by Contract/Grant No. DE-DT0001899 between the National Academy of Sciences and the Department of Energy. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
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Cover: Design by Anne Rogers. Photo courtesy of Sammy Boussiba, J. Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Sde-Boker.
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
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COMMITTEE ON THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ALGAL BIOFUELS
JENNIE C. HUNTER-CEVERA, Chair, Hunter and Associates, Ellicott City, Maryland
SAMMY BOUSSIBA, J. Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Sde-Boker
JOEL L. CUELLO, The University of Arizona, Tucson
CLIFFORD S. DUKE, Ecological Society of America, Washington, DC
REBECCA A. EFROYMSON, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee
SUSAN S. GOLDEN, University of California, San Diego
JENNIFER HOLMGREN, Lanzatech, Roselle, Illinois
DONALD L. JOHNSON, Grain-Processing Corporation (retired), Muscatine, Iowa
MARK E. JONES, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan
VAL H. SMITH, The University of Kansas, Lawrence
CAI STEGER, Natural Resources Defense Council, New York
GREGORY N. STEPHANAPOULOS, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts
LARRY P. WALKER, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
ERIC WILLIAMS, Rochester Institute of Technology, New York
PAUL V. ZIMBA, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi
Staff
EVONNE P.Y. TANG, Study Codirector
K. JOHN HOLMES, Study Codirector
RUTH S. ARIETI, Research Associate
KATHLEEN REIMER, Senior Program Assistant
ROBIN A. SCHOEN, Director
JAMES ZUCCHETTO, Director
BOARD ON AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
NORMAN R. SCOTT, Chair, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York (Emeritus)
PEGGY F. BARLETT, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
HAROLD L. BERGMAN, University of Wyoming, Laramie
RICHARD A. DIXON, Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation, Ardmore, Oklahoma
DANIEL M. DOOLEY, University of California, Oakland
JOAN H. EISEMANN, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
GARY F. HARTNELL, Monsanto Company, St. Louis, Missouri
GENE HUGOSON, Global Initiatives for Food Systems Leadership, St. Paul, Minnesota
MOLLY M. JAHN, University of Wisconsin-Madison
ROBBIN S. JOHNSON, Cargill Foundation, Wayzata, Minnesota
A.G. KAWAMURA, Solutions from the Land, Washington, DC
JULIA L. KORNEGAY, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
KIRK C. KLASING, University of California, Davis
VICTOR L. LECHTENBERG, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
PHILIP E. NELSON, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
KEITH PITTS, Marrone Bio Innovations, Davis, California
CHARLES W. RICE, Kansas State University, Manhattan
HAL SALWASSER, Oregon State University, Corvallis
ROGER A. SEDJO, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC
KATHLEEN SEGERSON, University of Connecticut, Storrs
MERCEDES VAZQUEZ-AÑON, Novus International, Inc., St. Charles, Missouri
Staff
ROBIN A. SCHOEN, Director
CAMILLA YANDOC ABLES, Program Officer
RUTH S. ARIETI, Research Associate
KAREN L. IMHOF, Administrative Coordinator
KARA N. LANEY, Program Officer
JANET M. MULLIGAN, Senior Program Associate for Research
KATHLEEN REIMER, Senior Program Assistant
EVONNE P.Y. TANG, Senior Program Officer
PEGGY TSAI, Program Officer
BOARD ON ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
ANDREW BROWN, JR., Chair, Delphi Corporation, Troy, Michigan
WILLIAM F. BANHOLZER, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan
MARILYN BROWN, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
WILLIAM CAVANAUGH III, Progress Energy (retired), Raleigh, North Carolina
PAUL DeCOTIS, Long Island Power Authority, Albany, New York
CHRISTINE EHLIG-ECONOMIDES, Texas A&M University, College Station
SHERRI GOODMAN, CNA, Alexandria, Virginia
NARAIN HINGORANI, Independent Consultant, Los Altos Hills, California
ROBERT HUGGETT, Independent Consultant, Seaford, Virginia
DEBBIE NIEMEIER, University of California, Davis
DANIEL NOCERA, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
MICHAEL OPPENHEIMER, Princeton University, New Jersey
DAN REICHER, Stanford University, California
BERNARD ROBERTSON, Daimler-Chrysler (retired), Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
GARY ROGERS, FEV, Inc, Auburn Hills, Michigan
ALISON SILVERSTEIN, Consultant, Pflugerville, Texas
MARK THIEMENS, University of California, San Diego
RICHARD WHITE, Oppenheimer & Company, New York City
Staff
JAMES ZUCCHETTO, Director
DANA CAINES, Financial Associate
ALAN CRANE, Senior Program Officer
K. JOHN HOLMES, Senior Program Officer
LANITA JONES, Administrative Coordinator
ALICE WILLIAMS, Senior Program Assistant
JONATHAN YANGER, Senior Project Assistant
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Preface
The desire to develop energy sources that can provide greater environmental and security benefits has spurred research and investments in the development of alternatives to petroleum, the dominant source of liquid transportation fuels. Because of its high biomass (and oil productivity in some cases), algae and cyanobacteria (commonly referred to as blue-green algae) frequently have been considered a promising renewable feedstock for fuel production. We all were taught that petroleum and other fossil fuels formed on this planet from plant remains that were compressed for millions of years at high temperatures. It seems fitting that scientists would choose to study some of the most primitive life forms to develop large-scale biofuel replacements for such fossil fuels. Algae have been grown under a variety of conditions for the production of lipids and high-value products for several decades. Two factors that influenced the consideration of algal biofuel production in the past were the cost of a barrel of oil and the ability to cultivate algae and process them into transportation fuel at a reasonable cost. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) had a robust program to develop biofuels from algae from 1978 to 1996, when it was concluded that algal biofuel would not be cost competitive with petroleum soon. Fast forward to 2012, and with advances in genetics and engineering, we are back to the future in considering whether algae can be an economic and sustainable alternative source of liquid transportation fuels. Could it be that use of algae to produce biofuels is the answer to becoming less dependent on foreign oil?
At the request of DOE, the National Research Council (NRC) appointed a committee of 15 experts with diverse backgrounds and experience to examine the sustainability of algal biofuels. The committee reviewed many scientific papers and government and industry reports, and listened first hand to company representatives, academic experts, and government agency program managers who deal with production of algal biofuels. The committee also met three times and held regularly scheduled conference calls to deliberate and reach agreement as to how to best address the charge from DOE to identify potential sustainability concerns, mitigate environmental concerns, and identify indicators of sustainability and metrics that could be used to monitor progress as the technology advances on several fronts.
In its consideration of the task, the committee examined the algal biofuel supply chain from the characteristics of the species to the methods for cultivation and processing into fuels. It separated the potential pathways for deployment into four basic scenarios and used those scenarios to help assess the resource needs and environmental concerns resulting from the location and design of large-scale production. The outcome of the current knowledge available through literature and discussion by the committee is this report on sustainable development of algal biofuels. This report does not address economic analyses or comparative life-cycle analyses. However, it provides a framework for assessing sustainability as the DOE continues to invest in algal biofuel research and development.
I thank the committee members and NRC staff for the very stimulating and thoughtprovoking dialogue and for their many contributions to the writing of this report.
Jennie C. Hunter-Cevera
Chair, Committee on Sustainable
Development of Algal Biofuels
Acknowledgments
This report has been reviewed in draft form by persons chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards of objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following for their review of this report:
Brenda Little, Naval Research Laboratory
James R. Katzer, Exxon Mobil Research and Engineering Company (retired)
Qiang Hu, Arizona State University
Paul DeCotis, Long Island Power Authority
Andres Clarens, University of Virginia
Paul Roessler, Algenol, LLC
Amha Belay, Earthrise Nutritional, LLC
LaReesa Wolfenbarger, University of Nebraska, Omaha
Jason Hill, University of Minnesota
Tryg Lundquist, California Polytechnic State Institute
Christopher R. Somerville, University of California, Berkeley, and Energy Biosciences Institute
Robert Haselkorn, University of Chicago
Barry Solomon, Michigan Technology University
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen
by coordinator, George M. Hornberger, appointed by the Division of Earth and Life Studies, and monitor, Mark R. Cullen, appointed by the NRC’s Report Review Committee. The coordinator and monitor were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the author committee and the institution.
Contents
Sustainable Development of Biofuels
Tools and Methodologies for Assessing Sustainable Development of Algal Biofuels
2 OVERVIEW OF ALGAL BIOFUEL SUPPLY CHAIN
Processing Algal Biomass into Fuels
3 PATHWAYS FOR ALGAL BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
Reference Pathway–Raceway Pond Producing Drop-in Hydrocarbon
Alternative Pathway #1–Raceway Pond Producing Drop-in Hydrocarbon and Coproducts
Alternative Pathway #2–Raceway Pond Producing FAME
Alternative Pathway #3–Photobioreactors with Direct Synthesis of Ethanol
Species Invasiveness and Aquatic Biodiversity
Environmental Effects of Genetically Engineered Organisms
6 A FRAMEWORK TO ASSESS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ALGAL BIOFUELS
Summary of Resource Use and Environmental Effects of Different
Algal Biofuel Production Pathways
Tools for Assessing Overall Sustainability
Framework for Integrated Assessment
Opportunities for Algal Biofuels to Improve Sustainability
A Biographical Sketches of Committee Members
C Presentations to the Committee
E Select Acronyms and Abbreviations
G Economics of Coproduct Production from Large-Scale Algal Biofuel Systems