More and Better Food: An Egyptian Demonstration Project (1986)

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CHAPTER III THE NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTRE AND THE MORE AND BETTER FOOD PROGRAM The continuing development of a society depends largely on the abilities of its scientific and tech- nological community. Resource availability, people's awareness of the problems, the society's commitment to growth and development, and the nature and extent of external influences are also important. But without the scientific and technical capability to transform phys- ica1, biologica1, and organizational phenomena and resources into activities that affect the overall popu- lation, the potential for change generally remains unrealized. Egypt is committed to development. Over the past 30 years, the country has developed a sizable and well-trained scientific community of more than 24,000 M.Sc.s and Ph.D.s in pure and applied sciences who work in more than 200 research institutes. While excellence in institutional and individual research has been achieved in many branches of science, the lack of organ- ized and systematic application of knowledge to develop- ment problems has kept the scientific community on the periphery of the development process. Historically, the agricultural sector has been a major contributor to the Egyptian economy and has constituted one of the most significant sources of government revenue and foreign exchange. In the early 1960s, Egypt was self-sufficient in all crops except wheat. By the early 1970s, however, the relative con- tribution of agriculture to government revenue and foreign exchange earnings had begun to decline. At that time, Egypt imported food worth about LE 700 million. Since then, Egypt's economic situation has changed dra- matically. Petroleum, remittances from workers abroad, and tourism have become major sources of foreign exchange. The dimensions of the problem can be illustrated by these 1980 facts: Egypt's total food import reached LE 2.1 billion, self-sufficiency in strategic food - 41 -

- 42 - produces dropped drastically (see Table 20), and agri- cultural growth was 2 percent, compared to 8 percent for services and 30 percent for petroleum. It is apparent that, unless dramatically new but realistic strategies are followed, the current gap between production and con- sumption will double in less than 15 years. Moreover, there must be an increase of approximately 60 percent over the current production level to stop the expansion. A 1982 report on "Strategies for Accelerating Agricul- tural Development in Egypt" shows that increases of this magnitude have been attained elsewhere in even shorter periods. Nonetheless, massive efforts and strong national commitment are essential to achieving such growth. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO IMPROVE AGRICULTURE The Egyptian scientific community has begun to assume a leadership role in resolving the problems of food and agriculture. Measures have been taken to bridge the gap between academic research on the one hand, and the prac- tical needs of agriculture and the other sectors of the economy on the other. Research and development programs closely linked to national goals.can be successful only when they provide results useful to the targeted community. To realize such results, the different specialties must mesh in well-coordinated multidisciplinary programs, under the guidance of an effective research and development manage- ment system. In 1977, a cooperative program known as the "Applied Science and Technology Research Program" was begun by the Academy for Scientific Research and Technology (ASRT) and TABLE 20 Percent of Self-Sufficiency in Major Food Products Wheat Maize Lentils Sugar Red Poultry Dairy Fish Meat 1960 1980 70 25 94 77 92 9 114 57 95 75 100 65 93 62 95 54 SOURCE: "Strategies for Accelerating Agricultural Development in Egypt," A Concluding Field Report, ARCE Newsletter No. 119, Fall 1982.

- 43 - the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). It had the following objectives: o To demonstrate how scientific and technical man- power resources and research institutions can solve pressing problems relating to economic and social development in Egypt o To reorient Egyptian research and development management systems to address problems requiring a multidisciplinary and muIti-institutional approach o To strengthen the ASRT, the National Research Centre (NRC), and other Egyptian research and development sectors by providing technical assistance, instrumentation, and access to scientific and technical information resources. The program seeks to achieve these objectives largely through a set of research, development, and demonstration projects, each of which is a learning vehicle with spe- cific goals and objectives. Overlying these projects is a management structure that views both the broad program purpose and the components that comprise the program. More and Better Food (MBF), one of the demonstration projects, was set up to explore ways to increase food production to meet the ever-growing demand. It was designed as a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional pro- ject covering food, agriculture, and nutrition. It operates under the auspices of the NRC, which also plays a major role in implementing the project. The ultimate goal of the MBF is to demonstrate the role that science and technology should play in food, agriculture, and nutrition. The project has four major objectives: 1. To increase the productivity of farm crops by using appropriate practices and simple technolo- gies 2. To develop an effective interaction mechanism between Egyptian scientists and farmers that will provide a better understanding of the problems of the rural areas of Egypt 3. To develop NRC's managerial ability to direct resources in a multidisciplinary and multi-institutional activity 4. To assess the impact of increased productivity on the nutritional and socioeconomic status of the target population. The first two chapters of this report described the extent of the problem and the manpower and institutional

- 44 - resources available to cope with it. This chapter docu- ments how a research institute (the NRC) mobilized its scientific and technical manpower and utilized its system to develop, implement, and institutionalize a multi- disciplinary R&D program that serves the national development priorities in food, agriculture, and nutri- tion. (The chapter does not include technical details of the implemented projects; that information is avail- able in individual reports on those projects.) THE NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTRE The NRC is the largest diversified R&D institute in Egypt. It is located on a large campus in Dokki, across the Nile and two kilometers west of downtown Cairo. The main building contains a central management complex that includes the library and the National Information and Documentation Centre (NIDOC), which are affiliated with the ASRT, conference and meeting rooms, and four labora- tories. In addition to the main building, the NRC campus also includes the Biology Building, the Chemistry Build- ing, the Pilot Plant, and workshops; all are NRC affili- ated. The Scientific Instrumentation Centre (SIC) and the National Institute of Standards (NIS), both affili- ated with the ASRT, have separate buildings on the NRC main campus. The physics department of NRC is located in the NIS building. There are two off-campus sections: one includes administrative offices (finance and personnel), and the other conducts demonstration research in such areas as solar energy, biogas, and protein from algae; there are also textile, and food technology buildings. History and Development of the NRC The NRC as it exists today is the result of five evolutionary stages begun in 1939 when certain far-sighted Egyptian leaders, exposed to international scientific development, adopted the idea of having a National Research Council affiliated with the Cabinet. In 1940, the first group of researchers was sent to developed countries to study various research areas. The second stage began in 1953 when the Permanent Council for Development of National Production was inte- grated into the National Research Council and became the National Research Institute. Its main function was the preparation of studies on such pressing problems as schistosomiasis, combat against animal diseases, develop- ment of agricultural machinery, and exploration of under- ground water in the western desert.

- 45 - The third stage came in 1956, when a presidential decree gave the Institute independence and immunity from government regulation. The Institute's name was then changed to the National Research Centre, which became affiliated with the President's Office. In 1956, some campus buildings were completed and the first group of scientists trained abroad joined the NRC, thus inaugur- ating Egypt's first attempt to develop a generation of scientists and specialists in all scientific areas. The effort included the participation of university profes- sors and an expanded program to send students abroad for graduate education and training. While initial emphasis was on the basic sciences, the increasing need to trans- form scientific work into practical activities dictated that the NRC direct part of its efforts toward problems of production and services. Successful individual efforts were reported, but they lacked sufficient insti- tutional support to have an ongoing impact. The fourth stage began in 1968, when the NRC was reorganized to direct its efforts toward problems of national economic development. The NRC was divided into seven research departments: Applied Organic Chemistry, Applied Inorganic Chemistry, Agriculture and Biology, Engineering, Petroleum and Metallurgy, Physics, and Medicine and Pharmacology. Each department had several laboratories specializing in specific aspects of the sub- ject. To encourage staff to address the problems of pro- duction and services, the NRC developed a Project Con- tracting System and Technical Training Programs. In 1973, the NRC administration established consultative councils with the basic objective of fostering inter- action among scientists and the production and services sectors. Membership for the councils was drawn from among NRC researchers, university professors, and tech- nologists in the sectors. The councils covered such aspects as plant production, food industry, textiles, and chemical industries. The fifth stage, which started in 1975 and continues today, is marked by a basic redirection of NRC activities from "self-oriented" research to "customer-oriented" or "user-oriented" research. The goal is to address national needs more effectively through scientific and technical research. In 1976, the NRC organized its development-related activities into seven major multi- disciplinary programs: Food and Agriculture, Technology Transfer, Health and Environment, Energy, Natural Resources, Rural Development, and Basic Research. R&D management offices (including a Programming Office, an Office of Internal Contracts, an Office of External Con- tracts, and a Marketing Office) were established to sup- port and facilitate activities. In August 1985, the NRC

- 46 - management system was again reorganized to delegate authority to NRC staff who received specialized training in R&D management. Figure 9 illustrates the current organization of the NRC. At present, the NRC consists of 12 departments and 41 laboratories. The research staff includes 160 pro- fessors, 225 associate professors, 318 researchers, 321 research assistants, and 369 research fellows. There are 634 special assistants, and 347 technical assistants. A total of 2,374 persons are involved in research activi- ties; the administrative staff totals 1,396. Research in Food, Agriculture, and Nutrition In 1954, the first group of seven scientists returned to the NRC after receiving degrees and specialized train- ing in England, Germany, and the United States. The first fellowships for B.Sc. holders were granted in 1955. In June 1956, a law was passed specifying that the func- tion of the NRC was to undertake basic and applied research in agriculture, industry, and general health. In 1957, the NRC was organized into four divisions: Agriculture, Physical Sciences, Chemistry, and Medicine. The Agriculture Department was composed of three labora- tories: Plant Protection, Soil and Fertilizers, and Agricultural Technology. Other laboratories—Nutrition, Fats and Oils, Dairy, and Biochemistry—were established to deal with food problems. The following list of grad- uate study requirements for Egyptian universities shows the areas of research interest in food, agriculture, and nutrition in 1957. 1. Plant Production and Protection Studies on broomrape parasite of fava beans* — Nitrogenous requirements of banana* — Wheat resistance to stem rust* 2. Animal Production and Protection — Development of vaccines for chicken* 3. Soil and Fertilizers Laboratory Use of gypsum to treat alkaline soil Micronutrient depletion from soil — Physical and chemical properties of the soil in Egyptian oases 4. Soil Microbiology — Nematode classes in Egyptian soil *These projects were supported by the NRC but conducted elsewhere.

- 47 - 2 o ft <S3» oc u ec u 3 > £2 to CO e Z _J U I U _J (0 .1 OC O _. < * O *« X * " 0 u v> o ac 2 ™ P — ' a. Mi s K M ° LU a 5 £ i i S z DC z > 3 £ LU 9 LU K 1 < "£ = t _. 1 z 0 < u si ?! X u to ^f 5 = *g a: a s! i £ U o z b lils o IT UJ s £ 3 _ < oc 0 = z Sg | m t— — i ^ \ V) z -1 < < u 1 OC (_> U. UJ 2 ee z LU • z _. oc — to OC o < z o CO LU 3 o a E e gg I- O ill : z 2 I X V) I« < O UJ IK 1» 2?s ill u C uj 81 5 3 BBS H UJ s J g z Q. LU ts —I 5 S = * z (3 w ° ^ z < 5 o? p x o IsRls I I I t- O £S a a o gF3 £ K u. c 5 Vi OJ 41 09 0) O 1 0 O M .r-4 C o o^

- 48 - 5. Nutrition Laboratory — Screening of the nutritive value of common food in Egyptian diet — Protein-rich foods — Requirement from animal protein — Calcium sources in Egyptian diets and their constitution of phosphorus and iron 6. Fats and Oil — Microbiological production of fats and oils — New sources of fats and oils — Rice bran oil extraction and refining 7. Dairy — Carotene and Vitamin A content of buffalo and cow's milk — Microbiological determination of Vitamin B in milk and dairy products — Fatty acid and constitution of cow and buffalo milk 8. Food Technology — Nutritional constituents in artichoke* — Salting of local fish* In 1957, the NRC began to establish permanent and ad hoc committees composed of consultative groups of scien- tists and technologists. There was a permanent committee on biological and agricultural sciences, as well as ad hoc committees for vegetable oils, organic fertilizers, and glucose preparation. Services extended to outside sectors included assessment of vegetable oil quality, analysis of well water, and examination of nozzles of pesticide sprayers. In April 1957, researchers assigned to food, agri- culture, and nutrition included: 1 foreign consultant, 15 supervisors from universities, 7 NRC staff members with Ph.D.s, and 30 research fellows holding B.S. degrees. The year 1968 witnessed the beginning of expanded NRC efforts in food, agriculture, and nutrition research, and the successful resolution of certain problems regarding production and services for some types of contracts. Between 1968 and 1972, the NRC deepened its commitment to use its resources to serve national development priorities. During the period, activities in food, agriculture, and nutrition proceeded in three directions: *These projects were supported by the NRC but conducted elsewhere.

- 49 - 1. Research carried out in the NRC, basically for graduate work 2. Research contracts 3. Establishment of the Scientific Council for Food Industries, and the Specialized Committee for Research and Development of the El-Fayum Govern- orate. Agriculture, food, and nutrition research activities conducted during the 1968-1972 period included both pure. and applied research. Most of the work was carried out to fulfill M.Sc. and Ph.D. thesis requirements. Five sectors in the NRC, each totally independent of the others, oversaw research in five major areas. The period marked the beginning of research contracts between the NRC and the five production sectors. Table 21 illus- trates the research activities of those sectors. TABLE 21 Research Activities in Agriculture, Food, and Nutrition (1968 - 1970) Research Research Sector Completed Ongoing Contracts Patents Plant pro- duction and protection 55 39 10 2 Soil and water use 10 61 2 — — Animal production 10 7 1 •»• Food industries Fats & oils 9 10 4 — Food products 14 9 3 — Dairy products 9 17 " 1 Nutrition 7 15 2 — TOTAL 114 158 22 3 SOURCE: "National Research Centre," Annual Report, Al-Amiria Publishing, Cairo, 1972.

- 50 - Twenty-two research contracts for services were signed and performed by the five sectors. Five of the contracts were with the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and the rest with companies belonging to the public sector. The value of contracts ranged from LE 800 to LE 30,500; the average was LE 4,432, and the tota1, LE 97,500. Two councils were established within the NRC to deal with these contracts and other aspects of food, agricul- ture, and nutrition. The Scientific Council for Food Industries was headed by the President of the Supreme Council for Administration of Food Industries; it was composed of directors of production in 12 major indus- tries, the El-Fayum governor, a former university pro- fessor, 5 NRC staff members, and 1 university represen- tative. The Specialized Committee for Research and Development of the El-Fayum Governorate dealt with food problems as well as other areas of development. The com- mittee was headed by the El-Fayum governor and had 5 members from ministries, 7 from the production and ser- vices sectors, and 15 from NRC, 5 of whom dealt with food, agriculture, and nutrition. The period beginning in 1975 is characterized by the institutionalization of user-oriented research in all sectors. NRC policy has been to encourage activities undertaken through research contracts. In 1977, four types of contracts were in use: 1. Contracts with NRC administration, financed from its budget 2. Contracts with the ASRT 3. Contracts with the production and services sec- tors 4. Contracts with foreign agencies. Table 22 shows the number of NRC contracts from 1977 to 1980. TABLE 22 Research Contracts with the NRC in Food, Agriculture, and Nutrition (1977-1980) 1977 1978 1979 1980 Total Contracts 96 93 102 103 Food, Agri- culture and Nutrition 23 28 34 33 Contracts (24%) (30%) (33%) (32%) SOURCE: "National Research Centre, 25th Anniversary," Al-Ahram Publishing, Cairo, 1983.

- 51 - Contracts with the ASRT totaled 32, of which 8 were in food, agriculture, and nutrition (25 percent). Con- tracts with production and services totaled 62, of which only 3 were in food industries, 2 in agriculture, and 1 in animal nutrition. Increased contracting with industry was evident, with private sector contracts totaling 16, or 26 percent; that figure reflects the willingness of the private sector to request research and development services. The 1977-1980 period was also characterized by the initiation and development of research contracts with foreign agencies. Thirty-eight contracts were signed with the NRC administration. In the area of food, agri- culture, and nutrition, contracts with the United States totaled 7 (the Food and Drug Administration, the United States Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Pro- tection Agency, and the USAID); with West Germany, 2; United Kingdom, 1; and Saudi Arabia, 1. The Applied Science and Technology Program, begun in cooperation with the USAID, and more specifically, the program's More and Better Food Demonstration Project were by far the largest assignments the NRC had ever attempted. The overall program involved the collabora- tion of more than 700—or 30 percent—of the NRC research staff. The following breakdown illustrates the scope of the More and Better Food Project. o Number of qualified staff at any given time in MBF: 160-221 Average 183 o Total qualified staff involved in MBF: 400 o Percentage by sector: NRC 78% Ministries 162 Industry 4% Universities 2% o Training: 17 person/months o Consultancy: 50 person/days o Equipment purchased abroad: $600,000 Local materials: LE78.000 o Number of projects: Agriculture 17 Anima1 Production 6 Food Technology 4 Nutrition 4 TOTAL 31

- 52 - THE MORE AND BETTER FOOD PROJECT Increasing agricultural productivity in Egypt is vita1, as has been shown by earlier discussions. To summarize, however, it bears repeating that both the per capita consumption rates and the demand for higher qual- ity food are on the rise, as is the absolute number of people who must be fed from a smal1, and relatively unchangeable, amount of arable land. Although some additional improvements in food production are possible, clearly there are limits to the amount of food the Nile Valley can produce. Currently, food deficits are run- ning 30 to 40 percent of annual consumption. Moreover, food subsidies have become a large item in the Egyptian national budget. Every effort must be made in all sectors of the economy to use science, technology, and optimal manage- ment practices to alleviate Egypt's food production, distribution, and industrialization problems. Project Definition The MBF project is an attempt to apply the talents, resources, and experience from modern science and tech- nology to a well-defined area of food-related problems both in Egyptian villages and the Egyptian food industry. The project is a major effort by the NRC to implement a practical program of multidisciplinary and multi-institu- tional research and development for the benefit of end-users and for the country as a whole. Because the project has been included in the Applied Science and Technology Research Program, it benefits from technical cooperation and inputs of material resources provided by USAID. The project is a cooperative effort between the ASRT and the NRC in Egypt, and federal agen- cies, private institutions, and universities in the United States. In addition, within Egypt, other groups participating in the MBF come from the ministries, the governorates, the universities, and the food industry. Goals, Objectives, and Basic Assumptions The MBF project is designed to demonstrate that the application of science and technology increases the land productivity of food (plants and animals) and hence improves the socioeconomic status of a target population. The nutritional status of that population is also ex- pected to improve because of the increased productivity. As a result of improvements in both socioeconomic and

- 53 - nutritional status, the physical characteristics of life in general could be expected to change, thus creating still further increases in productivity, which in turn equal development. To achieve these goals, the project developed the following objectives: o To apply NRC food, agriculture, and nutrition resources in selected villages in order to teach farmers, through simple practices and appropriate technologies, ways to improve land productivity and thus increase income and welfare of the over- all community o To study the impact of increases in productivity and quality on the socioeconomic and nutritional status of the village community o To help institutionalize rural development research in the NRC o To develop NRC managerial capacity to respond to multi-disciplinary and multi-institutional pro- grams o To provide opportunities for NRC staff to parti- cipate in applied research and to receive recog- nition for their achievements. The following basic assumptions underlie the design and implementation of the project. o The ordinary farmer is the intended client of the project. He is also a partner in the execution of the project, in decision making, and in the planning and choice of technology, and will be the consumer of the scientific information generated. o The technology used should be simple, appro- priate, inexpensive, and acceptable to the farmer. Preference should be given to technolo- gies tested in Egypt or similar environments. o Projects to be implemented must be carefully selected. Any failures will widen the confi- dence gap between the researcher and the farmer. The farmer should be guaranteed success. o The project must work toward continuity and ex- pansion of activities and increase public aware- ness and appreciation of the undertaking. o Activities that show repeated success will be expanded to become a national program for development.

- 54 - Justification The justification for the project can be summed up by the following statements: o The project deals with a national development problem. o The project, which requires a multidisciplinary approach, will demonstrate the ability of the NRC to manage and execute relatively large and com- plex programs in collaboration with other research institutes. o The NRC's technical capability will be developed by demonstrating the utility of applied research. o The field studies will initiate a feedback mech- anism that will orient the NRC laboratories to the real problems of development. Project Initiation In November 1975, the late Andre Colpitz, a USAID representative, was sent to Cairo to talk with the scientific and technical community about possible future cooperation between the two countries. Among the many institutes Mr. Colpitz visited was the NRC, where he held discussions with leading scientists. On his return to the United States, Mr. Colpitz recommended that USAID work with the NRC in the area of food. He even named the project "More and Better Food." Because of this visit, the NRC scientific staff began thinking about a coordinated effort among the labora- tories that work on food problems. Scientists involved in food problems met to frame proposed activities that would both meet project parameters and enhance the poten- tial for a coordinated effort on food production pro- blems. Discussions took place among individuals, between laboratories, and at department levels. Several docu- ments were drawn up for discussion purposes. Three departments, Agriculture, Food Industry and Dairy, and Nutrition, were involved in the discussions. The first document, 17 pages long, gave policy direc- tions for increased production and better utilization of available food resources. The document was oriented toward the production of protein-rich food from conven- tional and unconventional sources. It did not give cri- teria for priority selection. A second document of 61 pages pinpointed the utili- zation of available protein-rich sources in bread enrich- ment, baby food formulation, school lunch programs, and nutritious beverages.

- 55 - The 80-page third document described three major stages of action in the preparation phase: selection of village(s) typical to rural living patterns; collection of baseline data on selected village(s); and design of experiments to increase food production. It called for three major project components: animal production, plant production, and protein enrichment of bread. In December 1977, the president of the ASRT estab- lished a distinguished ad hoc Advisory Committee to review the documents and to guide the NRC staff as the project got under way. Members of the committee included Dr. Abdel Razak Sidky, former Minister of Agriculture; Dr. M. Bakr Ahmed, former Minister of Land Reclamation; Dr. Hady Al Magraby, former Minister of Supplies; Dr. Mahmoud Abdel-Akher, former Minister of Agriculture; Dr. Yousef Wally, present Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture; Dr. Khalid Al-Shazly, Professor of Animal Husbandry; and Dr. Rashid Barakat, Professor of Nutrition. The Advisory Committee defined the two elements that would make up the activity in the village: (1) agriculture, including plant production and animal production, and (2) food and nutrition. Since the food industry is by far the major indus- trial sector in Egypt, the committee recommended the selection of two or more projects that deal with major problems in the food industry sector. The NRC director established a committee drawn from the food industry to advise on the projects to be selected. Based on the ad hoc Advisory Committee's recommenda- tions, the NRC staff developed plans and requested the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to select a U.S. panel to review the NRC plans and to discuss the imple- mentation process with the NRC staff. That panel included Dr. Donald Plucknett, head of the Agronomy Department of Hawaii University; Dr. Harold Calbert, head of the Food Technology Department, Univer- sity of Wisconsin; and Dr. Kristin McNutt, nutrition consultant to the U.S. Congress. At the meeting, the panel recommended that three elements constitute the overall activity of the MBF: (1) agriculture and animal resources, (2) nutrition studies, and (3) food tech- nology. It also recommended that the project have these major goals: o Improve productivity both quantitatively and qualitatively o Improve the diet of a selected group of vil- lagers, and hence increase their nutritional status o Select two priority problems of food industries.

- 56 - Finally, the panel recommended that the demonstration project be conducted in two villages, one typical of the traditional rural villages of the Nile Valley, and one selected from the newer villages that have grown up on reclaimed land. The Steering Committee Once the elements constituting the MBF demonstration project were established, the NRC Director set up a steering committee of the MBF. Committee members include Dr. Bakr Ahmed (former Minister of Land Reclamation), Chairman; Dr. M. Abdel Akher, former Minister of Agri- culture; Dr. M. Abdel Kader, Professor of Nutrition; and from NRC, Dr. H. S. Salama, head of the Agriculture Department; Dr. Ibrahim Rifaat, head of the Food Tech- nology and Dairy Department; Dr. M. Nawito, head of Animal Husbandry; Dr. A. Gad, head of the Fats and Oils Laboratory; Dr. Osman Gala1, Professor of Nutrition (MBF Coordinator); and Dr. A.S. El Noctcrashy, Professor of Biochemistry (Director of Applied Science and Technology Program). Representatives from the governorates to which the villages belong and the Director of the Organization for Reconstruction and Development of the Egyptian Vil- lage (ORDEV) are also members of the steering committee, whose functions include: o Policy direction o Establishment of criteria for project selection, approval of team members, approval of budgets, decisions on extension or discontinuation of projects o Follow-up on project execution through evalu- ation, discussion, site visits, and meetings with the village community o Approval of reports, incentives, and honoraria o Enhanced utilization of project results for the establishment of national campaigns. A number of factors contributed to the success of the steering committee and, hence, the MBF project: o The steering committee had the full support of the NRC Director and complete delegation of authority. o The NRC departments are not involved in project selection, but respond to the MBF steering com- mittee. Proposals on areas identified by the steering committee are submitted by research teams directly to NRC representatives on the committee.

- 57 - The projects that were implemented in the vil- lages were carefully selected. The group meetings held with the village com- munity and participating farmers ensured that everyone involved had a clear understanding of the project's mechanisms and the outcomes it sought. Project Management In its early days, the steering committee laid down these criteria for the selection of projects to be imple- mented in the villages: o The project must be suitable to village condi- tions; that is, it must be simple, effective, and inexpensive. o The project must solve a problem that is well recognized by the village community, and the community must agree to support and participate in the activity. o The project must ensure increased productivity and better income to the farmers, and must pro- vide an opportunity for the researchers to demonstrate their ability to solve national development problems. o The project must add to the overall effort to institutionalize research in rural development in the NRC. The steering committee also set out sequential oper- ational steps for the MBF project: o Village selection: The establishment of cri- teria that would lead to a selection of a typical rural village in Egypt was assigned to a group of specialists from the ORDEV. o Baseline data collection: Because the MBF seeks an overall program of development in the village community, it was necessary to collect baseline data on demographic, socia1, economic, politica1, environmenta1, and technical charac- teristics of the village. Analysis of the base- line data was expected to lead to the selection of projects that would contribute to an inte- grated rural development program. Because the MBF activity was a new experience for the NRC, the steering committee moved carefully. An initial meeting to introduce the program was held; it was

- 58 - attended by Egyptian government representatives and governorate and markaz (county) representatives; by representatives from the agriculture, health, and social affairs sectors; and by the omda (mayor) of the village, leading village officials, the imam (Moslem prayer leader), as well as farmers in the village and from neighboring villages. The problems as seen by the vil- lage community and the role of the NRC and the support- ing American agencies were discussed. The process of collecting baseline data was a long and tedious pro- cedure. Almost daily visits by specialists in socio- economics, agriculture, nutrition and general health, and food production were made to the villages. In addition, intensive laboratory work was conducted on such technical aspects as soi1, pests, and food composition. As the collection process stretched out to more than six months, some villages began to doubt the seriousness of the program. The steering committee therefore decided to go ahead immediately with some carefully selected pro- jects. These activities were designed to renew the vil- lagers' confidence in MBF and to demonstrate that the program would in fact increase productivity of farm crops. At the same time, the steering committee kept its long-term plan to use the collected baseline data in an integrated manner. Management Mechanisms Figure 10 is a diagram representing the mechanism through which the MBF operates. Inputs for projects selected for implementation include available baseline data, demands from village councils, requests from groups of farmers, and new effective practices introduced by specialists in other villages or under similar environments. The projects are assigned by the steering committee, through the program coordinator, to a team of specialists who submit a proposal; the team itself may propose a pro- ject that would meet the criteria set by the steering committee and request approval. Proposals are evaluated by a special panel on the steering committee. The ASRT coordinator allocates a budget for an approved proposal and reports on achievements to the ASRT, the Ministry of Investment and Internal Cooperation, and the U.S. coun- terparts. The NRC coordinator reports to the director and coordinates the MBF with other related activities in the NRC. Steering committee members visit the project sites. The full committee holds periodic meetings in the vil- lages to review the overall activity.

- 59 - RESEARCH TEAM PRINCIPAL INVESTIGAT0R PR0P0SAL• GRANTED NRC C00RDINAT0R J 'STEERING C0MMITTEE C00RDINAT0R ASRT ASRT C00RDINAT0R REP0RTS T0: ASRT MINISTRY 0F INVESTMENT USAID NAS/NRC BUDGET ALL0CATI0N -*• FIGURE 10: Management mechanisms of the MBF. (A.S. El-Nockrashy. From a presentation to the March 1984 meeting of a Phase II Planning Committee of the MBF.)

- 60 - Continuity and expansion of a given activity are granted based on the importance of the project to MBF goals and objectives, its reception by the village com- munity, its possibilities for expansion outside the vil- lage, and its suitability for nationwide application. Village Selection It was determined that two villages would be selected—one would be a typical Nile Valley village, of the sort that has existed throughout Egypt's history. The second would be a new settlement located on reclaimed land. Nile Valley Village Egypt has more than 4,100 villages that share many characteristics, yet differ in many others. As of 1978, 50 percent of Egypt's 40 million citizens lived in the country's 4,142 rural villages. Thus, selection of an Egyptian village to represent a typical example of the country's rural area was a delicate process and had to be based on well-defined and acceptable criteria and guidelines. Paramount was the need to establish guide- lines and standards that could be replicated in similar projects. The first set of criteria for a typical village included these requirements: o The selected village should have about 5,000 people. o The geographical location of the village should represent the Egyptian rural environment; thus, villages near cities or towns, which could become suburbs one day, were to be excluded. o There should be ready access to communication and transportation channels to allow the transport of personne1, products, and equipment. o The selected village should contain at least minimal agricultura1, educationa1, health, and social services, as well as public utilities; water and electricity were necessities. o Agricultural production should be conventional and nonspecialized; work experience should be of high quality, nonspecialized, broad in applica- tion, and typical of much of the countryside. o The villagers must be aware of the experiment, accept it, and actively participate in its imple- mentation.

- 61 - o The physical and nutritional levels of the selected village should reflect the general levels in the rest of the rural area; there should be no exceptional cases of malnutrition or disease. Other considerations also governed the selection pro- cess. For example, it was thought that a broad base of agricultural knowledge would also facilitate the transfer and utilization of technology. Because arable land is so limited in Egypt, the size of the farms and the number of landowners in the selected village would affect the success of the experiment. Statistics show that 94.5 percent of landowners in Egypt possess 57.1 percent of the total arable area in the form of small farms of five feddans and less; hence, when selecting a site, the balance between the number of owners and the area held must be considered. The following governorates were excluded for con- sideration either because agriculture is not the prevail- ing. activity or because the area is more urban than rural: o Urban governorates: Cairo, Alexandria, Suez, and Port Said o Coastal desert governorates: Sinai, Red Sea, and Marsa Matrouh o Governorates with predominantly urban character- istics: Giza, because of its proximity to Cairo; Damietta, because of its closeness to the Mediterranean; and the three governorates that overlook the canal. The selection, therefore, was limited to the remain- ing 13 governorates. The three-stage selection process evolved: Stage I—selection based on population; Stage II—selection based on availability of services; Stage III—selection based on field visits to update information. Because the human element is the chief concern of the project, population was the major factor in selecting villages that would reflect typical village populations. Preliminary information provided by the ORDEV showed that the population of four governorates was homogenous with the standard population of Egyptian villages. Thus, the primary studies were limited to the villages of the governorates of Qalubia, Menufia, Sharkia, and El-Fayum. To determine the prevailing village population, the quartile range method was adopted because it gave a more homogenous society from which sample selections could be made. The first step in Stage I was to tabulate the

- 62 - villages of each governorate in ascending order of pop- ulation. A frequency table for the villages of each governorate was made based on population category, and the ascending cumulative frequency distribution was cal- culated. Next, the upper and lower quartiles of each governorate were arranged and their values were cal- culated. For the villages falling within the quartile range, homogenous in population size, a number was ran- domly selected. These steps were repeated for the four previously selected governorates as a group. Under this process, the MBF team found that the upper and lower quartiles of all governorates fell within the quartile range of the selected four governorates. More- over, the number of villages falling within the quartile range of each governorate was very close to its counter- part within the general quartile range for all governor- ates (Table 23); the latter range was used to select 25 percent of the sample, or 139 villages (Table 24). Studies found that the village population of all governorates ranges between 2,061 and 7,455, and the village population of the four governorates combined ranges between 2,255 and 6,309. For Stage II, information about services and their availability in the 139 sample villages was provided by the ORDEV. The services included agriculture (agricul- tural cooperative society, veterinary unit); health (family planning office, health office, rural health unit health complex, child care); utilities (water, electric- ity, communications); social services (youth center, social unit, nursing home/kindergarten, social develop- ment unit); and public services (post and telegraph offices). TABLE 23 Upper and Lower Quartiles of Number of Villages within Quartile Range Governorate Quartile Quartile Governorate Total Sharkia 2,061 5,994 232 224 Qalubia 2,493 7,104 87 90 Menuf ia 2,250 5,808 146 160 El-Fayum 2,571 7,455 79 80 Total 2,255 6,309 544 554 SOURCE: MBF-Village Demographic Survey. Applied Science and Technology Project, the Agricultural Economics Research Group Report, NRC, NIDOC, Cairo, 1980.

- 63 - TABLE 24 Villages within Quartile Range and Villages per Sample Number of Villages Total Number in Governorate in Sample Quartile Range Sharkia 52 224 Qalubia 23 90 Menuf ia 35 160 El-Fay urn 29 80 Total 139 554 SOURCE: MBF-Village Socio-Economic Baseline Data, Volumes I-III. Agricultural Economics Research Group Report, NRC, NIDOC, Cairo, 1980. The sample villages of each governorate were then arranged in descending order according to the avail- ability of services. Twenty-five percent of the villages of each governorate were selected to include, to the extent possible, the administrative districts. The sam- ple was limited to 35 villages. Additional information was needed for the 35 sample villages. In the area of agriculture, information was needed on type of soi1, irrigation and drainage, pre- dominant crops, and animal resources. The information was provided by the MOA. In the area of education, the number and type of schools as well as the number of classes in each school needed to be determined. After that information was studied, 10 sample vil- lages (about 25 percent) were selected representing the four governorates on the same bases of availability of services, irrigation, drainage, conventional agriculture, and highest number of live- stock. The village committee, a branch from the steering committee, updated the information and ensured its validity. Before final selection of a village in which the More and Better Food Project was to be implemented, more detailed information about the 10 sample villages was gathered based on the following questionnaire: — Is there a guest house? If not, what is the most suitable place to use? Is.there a road to the site?

- 64 - — Number of land holdings; locality area in fed- dans; number of livestock registered at cooper- ative society; quantity of feed (cattle-cake) used per year; soil (type and area); irrigation and drainage; pests (agricultural); animal resources; mechanization; irrigation pumps and tractors; labor conditions; method of storage; other agricultural activities (animal husbandry, poultry breeding, pigeon coops)? — Beehives; milk products; rural industries (mills, bakeries, slaughterhouses, grocery stores, but- chers, barbers)? — Are cold meals served in nurseries or schools? — The activities of social institutions and the participation of residents. — Research work ongoing or already carried out in the village. At Stage III, field visits were made by the village committee to the 10 villages to update statistical data so that the villages could be ranked before final selec- tion. During the site visits, meetings were held with the governors, governorate secretary genera1, village coun- ci1, and executive and administrative leaders to discuss village activities related to MBF goals and objectives. The questionnaire used to select the final villages was designed to give the following weights for the set of questions under the corresponding element: ELEMENT PERCENT Agriculture 55% Services 12% Road 20% Guest house 2% Participation of residents in social institutions' activities 10% School meals 1% The villages that showed the three highest scores were: Kafr Al-Khadra, 80.1 percent; Mobasher, 73.3 per- cent; and Demleeg, 60.1 percent. The steering committee and the village committee paid several visits to the three villages. This time the meetings were conducted directly with the farmers and the leaders in each village, as well as with those respons- ible for agriculture extension services, health, veter- inary care, and social affairs. The two committees selected the .village of Kafr Al-Khadra (Bagour, Menufia Governorate) as the represen- tative village of the old land.

- 65 - Village from New Settlements Land reclamation is vital to meeting the ever-increasing demand for food by Egypt's fast-growing population. El-Tahrir Province is by far the largest new settle- ment in Egypt. There are about 400 villages in the new societies that are 15 to 20 years old; one village, South Tahrir, is more than 25 years old. Information from the Ministry of Land Reclamation provided basic data on the villages. The same criteria for village selection used for the old settlements were used here, taking into consideration the proximity of the areas to Cairo. The following settlements were found to conform with the selection bases: Al Nahda sector, with 11 villages; South Tahrir, with 8; North Tahrir, with 4; and Mariout, with 7. Again, the statistical bases for selection were the same used for the village selection from old settlements, as were Stages I, II, and III. After application of the above principles, the vil- lages of Om Saber, Omar Makrani, Omar Shaheen, Saladin, Baghdad, Al-Nagah, and Al-Maaraka were selected as a sample. The population ranged between 2,500 and 7,485. With the random selection of 25 percent of the sample (accord- ing to the previous method) the villages of Omar Makram and Saladin were chosen for the study, and field visits were made to update and ensure accuracy of data before final selection. The village of Omar Makram was selected because the majority of its inhabitants are landowners; this is not the case in Saladin village. Baseline Data The baseline data are important inputs for planning comprehensive development programs. They also form the base against which program outcomes can be measured. Baseline data include data collected on the prevail- ing cropping systems, as well as data collected on the different technologies and practices used by various farmers in the villages. In addition, the data include analyses and assessment of the productivity of the dif- ferent cropping systems in relation to technologies used, and the preliminary testing of new technologies or im- proved practices through small-scale trials that serve as background information for implementation during the second phase of the project. A determination of the

- 66 - SUMMARY OF VILLAGE CHARACTERISTICS KAFR AL-KHADRA o Location; 55 km north of Cairo o Inhabitants; 5,421 o Land Area; 1,159 (F) Cultivated; 895 (F) o Total Holdings; 833 No. of Holders 471 336 22 3 1 o Cropping System Area (feddan) 724 504 287 10 5 31 0 68 o Animal Wealth Area of Holding (feddan) less than 1 1-3 3-5 5-10 more than 10 Crop corn clover wheat vegetables soybean potato cotton fruit trees 1,285 buffalo and cattle 62 sheep 1 poultry farm (60 families work in fishing) o Education; Two preparatory schools (14 classes) Kindergarten for 30 children Literacy: 36.2% o Annual Per Capita Income; LE 208 o Infant Mortality; 112.6/thousand; health ~~unit exists.

- 67 - SUMMARY OF VILLAGE CHARACTERISTICS OMAR MARRAM o Location; 120 km north of Cairo o Inhabitants; 4,860 Households; 749 o Land Area; 1,421 F (cultivated) o Land Tenures; 319 o Average Land Holding Size; 3-5 F o Crops; Summer; peanuts, maize, watermelon, and vegetables Winter; clover, wheat, barley, fava beans, and vegetables A limited area cultivated with fruit trees. o Animal Wealth; 1,077 plus a veterinary unit o Education; Three schools; literacy rate: 36.5%. o Annual Per Capita Income; LE 149 o Infant Mortality; 94/thousand; health unit exists major pest problems in the area and an assessment of the losses caused by those pests are also included in the baseline data. Finally, soil properties in the selected areas are explored to identify any defects that might affect plant production. A typical work plan, including detailed investiga- tions and analyses, was similar to the following: A. Collection of General Data: Total cultivated area, area of each crop, agricultural practices, agricultural wastes, yield losses, transportation and marketing, storage conditions, problems of agricul- tural labor, and economic evaluation of cropping system. B. Analysis of Soil Samples: Chemical and physical analysis. C. Collection of Data on Particular Practices and Technologies:

- 68 - o Crops, Cultivars and Cropping Systems: Pre- vailing cropping system, assessment of crops and cultivars, assessment of crop arrangement and practices, small-scale experiments to test possibilities of new crops and cultivars. o Terrestial and Aquatic Weeds (survey and con- trol): Periodic qualitative and quantitative identification in canals and drains, assess- ment of weed control measures. o Irrigation and Drainage Systems: Assessment of irrigation management of different crops including equipment and methods, small-scale trials for identification of better water regimes of major crops, periodic determination of water quality and analysis of drainage water, soil permeability. o Plant Nutrition and Fertilization: Kinds and quantity of fertilizers and manure used for different crops; deficiency symptoms of nutrients N2, P, K, Fe, Zn, Mn, and B in soil and availability; condition and role of bacteria nodules of leguminous plants; peri- odic leaf analysis for macro- and micro- nutrients; testing for possible modifications of prevailing systems of fertilization. D. Pests and Plant Protection: Survey of agricul- tural pests, changes in their population and rotation to surrounding environment; pests that cause signi- ficant losses to field crops and economics of losses; pests of stored products; pesticides used; pesticide residues; honeybee breeding conditions; possibility of breeding promising strains of silkworms on a large scale. E. Farm Animals:' Livestock as to species, type, sex, breed, products, market; specialized farms; insurance; housing; forage crops and waste; produc- tivity parameters; calf rearing; reproductive effi- ciency parameters; causes of fertility impairment; milk production and use; animal parasites and diseases; poultry as to type, source, feed, market; medical care. F. Food and Dairy Industry: Fruits and vegetables as to area cultivated, production and consumption, market, preservation, collecting centers or station; bread composition; baking techiques; energy sources; food processed locally or imported; by-products; milk sources, and use. G. Nutritional: Conditions relevant to nutritional status, for example, social conditions, housing, economics, expenditure pattern, cultural background,

- 69 - services, health care unit attendance, facilities in unit, vaccination; prevalence of deficiency diseases; groups at risk; infant mortality rate. Intervention Projects MBF consisted of three primary activities: improving agricultural productivity in the two villages of Omar Makram and Kafr Al-Khadra; monitoring the nutrition and health status of younger children (ages 0-12) in those villages and at the same time making appropriate short- term interventions to improve health and nutrition; and working with industrial clients in the area of food tech- nology to solve specific problems in the market prepar- ation of local food items. The primary goal was to fur- ther food self-sufficiency and at the same time enhance the nutritional status of the community. MBF interventions were broadly focused. NRC agri- cultura1, nutritiona1, medica1, and social scientists worked with the selected population on problems deemed important by the villagers themselves. A listing of those subprojects illustrates both the range of topics and the extent of cooperation between NRC and the vil- lage: A. Agricultural Projects: Plant Production 1. Improvement of peanut production 2. Improvement of corn production 3. Wheat production 4. Vegetable crop improvement — Onions Cucumbers 5. Fruit crop improvement 6. Soil fertility studies and interventions 7. Insect control studies 8. Weed control studies 9. Other Silkworm raising — Honeybeekeeping B. Agricultural Projects: Animal Production 1. Improvement of poultry production 2. Dairy production — Yogurt making — Cheese making 3. Animal health and reproductivity — Water buffalo 4. Raising of rabbits

- 70 - C. Health and Nutrition Projects 1. Baseline study of nutrition/health status of young children (ages l-12) 2. Determination of child growth patterns 3. Intervention to reduce child anemia 4. Intervention to improve nutritional status of preschool and school age children via a fortified, balanced food supplement 5. Health and nutrition education activities among village mothers D. Food Technology Projects 1. Village-level cheese/yogurt making 2. Introduction of an industrial process for soft cheese (Damietta) produced from powdered milk 3. Improvement of storage life and consumer acceptance of a locally produced weaning food 4. Demonstration of a method to improve refining process of locally produced cottonseed oil 5. Formulation of new, highly nutritious proto- type beverages produced from local products. In 1983, a third village (Beni Magdou1, Giza Gover- norate) was selected as a new demonstration site for MBF activities. The activities listed above, as well as new projects in the areas of vegetables, fruits, poultry, and food technology, are currently being implemented. In March 1983, MBF activities were reviewed to iden- tify the inputs needed so the NRC could conduct a more systematic analysis of the data available. This analysis would be the basis for a program on integrated rural development that could be established and institution- alized. Under that program, the NRC would provide tech- nical problem-solving and educational resources and would coordinate its efforts with other Egyptian agencies. The review identified three activities the NRC could under- take as an initial step: 1. Data analyses to determine the impact of the implemented projects on the socioeconomic development and nutritional status of the village community 2. Possible use of the three villages and their activities as demonstration sites 3. Establishment of organized efforts on nutrition education, support of women's role in develop- ment, and health and sanitation.