National Academies Press: OpenBook

Radioactivity in the Marine Environment (1971)

Chapter: Front Matter

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1971. Radioactivity in the Marine Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18745.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1971. Radioactivity in the Marine Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18745.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1971. Radioactivity in the Marine Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18745.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1971. Radioactivity in the Marine Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18745.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1971. Radioactivity in the Marine Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18745.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1971. Radioactivity in the Marine Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18745.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1971. Radioactivity in the Marine Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18745.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1971. Radioactivity in the Marine Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18745.
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]H I RADIOACTIVITY IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Prepared by the PANEL ON RADIOACTIVITY IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT of the COMMITTEE ON OCEANOGRAPHY NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL NATIONAl . ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1971 [JAS-NAE MOV 11 197, UBnARY

ISBN0-309-01865-X Available from Printing and Publishing Office National Academy of Sciences 2101 Constitution Avenue Washington, D.C. 20418 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 78-609785 Printed in the United States of America Order from National Technical lnformation Service, Springfield, Va. 22151 Order No.

/ 'j FOREWORD Fourteen years ago, the Academy published Effects of A tomic Radiation on Oceanography and Fisheries, one of a series of Academy studies on the biological effects of atomic radiation. That 137-page report summarized knowledge and problems known at that time and made suggestions for fu- ture programs for additional research. During the years that have followed, much new knowledge has been added to our understanding of the marine environment, the paths of movement that radioactive materials take within it, and the effects of such materials on other components of the envi- ronment. Thus, it was appropriate that the Academy, in response to a request from the Atomic Energy Commission, under- take to prepare a second comprehensive review of our under- standing of this area. The task was subsequently assigned to the Panel on Radioactivity in the Marine Environment of the Committee on Oceanography. This volume, the product of that review, brings together the results of the research of many scientists. A representative and highly competent group was assembled at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, in the fall of 1967 to prepare various sections of this report. Sub- sequently, the Panel has filled gaps and revised and updated this material to present a more comprehensive summary of the current state of understanding in this field. It is particularly appropriate that this contribution to our understanding of the marine environment be available at a time when man is increasingly concerned with the ways in which his own actions may affect his environment. Though this work is specifically addressed to radioactivity in the ma- rine environment, many of the concepts that pertain to our understanding of this problem can be applied effectively to studies of other wastes discharged into the marine environ- ment, including industrial wastes, municipal sewage, pesti- cides, nutrients, heavy metals, and heat. It is perhaps ironic that, of the many substances that man has introduced into his environment over the centuries, he understands best and controls most rigorously the radioactive materials that have been produced only during the past quarter century. We are indeed fortunate that our intense concern for public safety and protection from radioactivity since 1950 has stimulated much basic research that can be applied to other serious en- vironmental problems that we are just beginning to recognize. Philip Handler President National Academy of Sciences Hi

PREFACE This report provides an account of what has been learned about radionuclides in the marine environment since the publication of a report about the same general subject by the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Coun- cil (NAS-NRC) in 1957. The present report has been writ- ten by the Panel on Radioactivity in the Marine Environ- ment of the National Academy of Sciences' Committee on Oceanography.* Thirty-one persons from twenty organiza- tions within the United States-university departments, national laboratories, and federal agencies-and from three laboratories outside the United States (Canada, England, and Monaco) have contributed to one or more of the ten chapters in the report. Death came to one of the contributors, Joseph Rivera, and to one of the Panel members, Milner B. Schaefer, before the report was completed. Mr. Rivera, a scientist at the Atomic Energy Commission's Health and Safety Laboratory, New York City, devoted his research efforts to the measure- ment of man's exposure to radiation from fallout and con- tributed information from his research to the discussion, in 'Succeeded by the Ocean Affairs Board in November 1970. Chapter 8, of the ecological aspects of radionuclides in the ocean. Dr. Schaefer was a contributor to the 1957 publica- tion and also was a longtime member of both the National Academy of Sciences' Committee on Oceanography and the Panel on Radioactivity in the Marine Environment. He was educated as a fisheries biologist and was recognized inter- nationally for his broad understanding of the ocean, includ- ing the impact of radionuclides on the marine environment. Dr. Schaefer had accepted the responsibility for writing the Introduction for this report but later asked to be relieved of this responsibility because of illness. I wish to express our appreciation to Albert Bove, Editor for the Division of Earth Sciences, and Richard Vetter, Exe- cutive Secretary of the Ocean Affairs Board, for their invalu- able editorial and administrative help. Financial support by the United States Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Biology and Medicine, for ex- penses related to the writing of the report is gratefully acknowledged. Allyn H. Seymour, Chairman Panel on Radioactivity in the Marine Environment

COMMITTEE ON OCEANOGRAPHY JOHN C. CALHOUN,C7z0/rmart Vice President for Programs Texas A&M University RICHARD C. BADER Rosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric Sciences University of Miami KARL BANSE Department of Oceanography University of Washington WAYNE V. BURT Department of Oceanography Oregon State University CHARLES L. DRAKE Department of Geology Dartmouth College PAUL M. FYE Director Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute HOWARD R. GOULD Esso Production Research Company Houston, Texas JOHN A. KNAUSS Graduate School of Oceanography University of Rhode Island GERALD J. PAULIK College of Fisheries University of Washington DONALD W. PRITCHARD Chesapeake Bay Institute The Johns Hopkins University HENRY STOMMEL Department of Meteorology Massachusetts Institute of Technology GEORGE P. WOOLLARD Hawaiian Institute of Geophysics Honolulu WARREN S. WOOSTER Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California, La Jolla VI

PANEL ON RADIOACTIVITY IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT ALLYN H. SEYMOUR, Chairman Laboratory of Radiation Ecology College of Fisheries University of Washington VAUGHAN T. BOWEN Chemistry and Geology Department Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution EGBERT K. DUURSMA Laboratory of Marine Radioactivity International Atomic Energy Agency, Monaco RICHARD F. FOSTER Environmental Studies Section Battelle Northwest Laboratories EDWARD D. GOLDBERG Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California, La Jolla M. GRANT GROSS Marine Sciences Research Center State University of New York, Stony Brook ARNOLD B. JOSEPH Division of Water Quality Improvement Environmental Protection Agency BOSTWICK KETCHUM Associate Director Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution FRANK G. LOWMAN Puerto Rico Nuclear Center College Station AKIRA OKUBO Chesapeake Bay Institute The Johns Hopkins University DONALD W. PRITCHARD Chesapeake Bay Institute The Johns Hopkins University *MILNER B. SCHAEFER Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California, La Jolla WILLIAM L. TEMPLETON Aquatic Ecology Section Battelle Northwest Laboratories HERBERT L. VOLCHOK Health and Safety Laboratory U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, New York 'Died July 26, 1970. VII

CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION 1 A. H. Seymour 2 SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVITY AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 6 A. B. Joseph, P. F. Gustafson, I. R. Russell, E. A. Schuert, H. L. Volchok, A. Tamplin Natural Radioactivity, 7; Nuclear Explosives, 9; Nuclear Reactors, 22; Wastes from the Processing of Reactor Fuel Elements, 31; Radioisotopic Power Generators, 32; Packaged Radioactive Waste Disposal, 35; Miscellaneous Sources of Radioactivity, 36; Summary, 39; Acknowledgments, 39 3 OCEANIC DISTRIBUTIONS OF RADIONUCLIDES FROM NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS 42 H. L. Volchok, V. T Bowen, T. R. Folsom, W. S. Broecker, E. A. Schuert, G. S. Bien 90Sr in Surface Ocean Water, 43; 90Sr in Ocean Water from Surface to 700 Meters, 51; 90Sr in Deep Ocean Water, 62; The Inventory of 90Sr in the Ocean, 70; The Ratio of 137Cs to 90Sr in Seawater, 71; Tritium in the Oceans, 72; 14C in the Pacific Ocean, 74; Other Fallout Radionuclides in Ocean Water, 75; Nuclide Reference Table, 77; Summary, 79 4 PHYSICAL PROCESSES OF WATER MOVEMENT AND MIXING 90 D. W. Pritchard, R. O. Reid, A. Okubo, H. H. Carter Introduction, 90; Ocean Characteristics and Circulation, 92; Mixing Processes in the Marine Environment, 106; Oceanographic Implications of the Distribution of Natural Tracers and Fallout Isotopes, 119; Near-Shore and Estuarine Environments, 129; Summary, 133 5 MARINE CHEMISTRY 137 E. D. Goldberg, W. S. Broecker, M. G. Gross, K. K. Turekian Introduction, 137; Chemical Systematics and Elemental Reactivities in Seawater, 137; Coastal Ocean, 141; Open Ocean, 142; Conclusion, 145; Summary, 145 6 MARINE SEDIMENTS AND RADIOACTIVITY 147 E. K. Duursma, M. G. Gross Sorption of Radionuclides by Marine Sediments, 147; Vertical Movement of Radionuclides in Marine Sediments, 153; Radionuclide Transport by Sediments, 155; Scavenging Ability of Sediments, 157; Summary, 159 viii

7 ACCUMULATION AND REDISTRIBUTION OF RADIONUCLIDES BY MARINE ORGANISMS 161 F. G. Lowman, T. R. Rice, F. A. Richards Influence of Nonbiological Factors on the Availability of Radionuclides to Marine Organisms, 162; Biological Factors That Influence the Availability of Radionuclides to Marine Organisms, 163; Results of Biological Activity, 166; Estuaries, 187; Summary, 194 8 ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS OF MARINE RADIOACTIVITY 200 V. T Bowen, J. S. Olsen, C. L. Osterberg, J. Ravera Roles of Models in the Future of Marine Ecology, 201; Marine Ecosystems, 202; Organism Interrelationships in Marine Ecosystems, 205; The Possible Radiosensitivity of Marine Ecosystems, 208; Human Ecology and the Marine Environment, 214; Summary, 218; Acknowledgments, 218 9 RADIATION EFFECTS 223 W. L. Templeton, R. E. Nakatani, E. E. Held Natural Radioactivity, 224; Mortality Induced by Acute Radiation Exposure, 224; Chronic Exposure, 225; Influence of Environmental Factors on Radiation Effects, 230; Behavior and Metabolic Stimulation, 231; Radiation Effects on Populations, 232; Environmental Studies, 232; Effects on Resources, 235; Research Needs, 236; Summary, 236 10 EVALUATION OF HUMAN RADIATION EXPOSURE 240 R. F. Foster, I. L. Ophel, A. Preston Use of the Sea in Relation to Radiation Exposure, 240; Acceptable Dose, 242; Methods of Evaluation, 244; Human Exposure from Radionuclides in the Sea, 251; Conclusions, 257; Summary, 257 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 261 INDEX 263 ix

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