Index
A
Academic research
bilateral science and technology agreements and, 199
commercialization of inventions, 74
in developing countries, 199-200
dissemination of results, 6, 9, 16
university views on IPR, 189, 190, 208-213
Adaptation of IPR to new technologies
biotechnology, 15, 19, 257-262, 266
case law processes, 270-271
computer programs, 250, 253-254, 255, 262-266
doctrinal issues in, 270-273, 281-282
evaluation of, 270-281
existing paradigms, 250-251
flexibility in, 190
fundamental issues, 249
implications of, 196-197, 281-283, 371
innovation rates and, 281
integrated information networks, 267-269
international dimension, 251-252, 260-262
patent law, 250
policy analysis needs, 253, 255, 259
reform processes, 253
rights-enforcing process, 275-281
rights-granting process, 273-281
small business, 252
sui generis approaches, 251, 271-272, 371
Adler, Reid, 327
Aerospace industry, sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
Agency for International Development (U.S.), 216
American Law Institute, 31
American Research and Development, 219
American Society for Composers, Authors, and Publishers, 278
American Superconductor, 217
AMP, Inc., 345
Andean Community countries, 84
Anell, Lars, 176
Animal rights, 260
Antidumping policy, 371
Antitrust policies, 16, 276, 343
Apple Computer Corp., 198, 289, 293 n.24
Arab Society for the Protection of Industrial Property, 185
Argentinian IPR, 73
agricultural research, 78
demand for, 78
international cooperation, 86
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120
pharmaceutical protection, 327
plant breeders' rights, 96
and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118
Armstrong, James E., III, 152, 155-158, 184, 186, 402-403
Armstrong, John A., 190, 192-207, 212, 213, 217, 241, 371, 373, 403-404
Artificial intelligence, 15, 181, 263
Associacion Nacional de la Industria de Programas para Computadoras, 233, 234, 235
AT&T, 191, 213, 232, 236-240, 243, 340, 341, 345-347, 377-378
Audiotapes, copying, 10, 160-161
Australia, 91
Author's rights law, 235
B
Bangladesh, 361
Barbaro, Daniele, 51
Barton, John, 251, 253, 256-283, 353, 404
Belarus, 73
Bell, Alexander Graham, 340
Bell Laboratories, 237, 340, 346, 348, 358, 377
Bement, Arden L., Jr., 388-390, 404-405
Biotechnology
adaptation of IPR to, 15, 19, 257-262, 266
bacterium that produces ethanol from sugar, 77-78
border restrictions, 277
breadth of protection, 276-277
capital raised through public offerings, 322
case law, 254, 257 n.3, 258 nn.5 & 6, 260, 270, 271, 320, 323, 324
case study, 319-328
cloning of proteins, 257-258
commercialization role of IPRs, 254, 319-321, 325
defined, 257
delayed ripening of fruits, flowers, and vegetables, 102 n.13
delays in patents, 324
deposit of cultures, 9
in developing countries, 77-78, 95-96, 101-103
effects of protection, 103
exclusion under TRIPS, 177
experimental use exemption, 261
foreign investments in, 101
history of, 319-323
human, 259
international policy issues, 166, 258, 260-262, 270, 276-277, 323-324, 326-327
licensing of products, 102
litigation, 279
market value of stocks, 320, 322
oil-digesting organism, 320
patents, 6, 9, 92, 96, 102, 147, 163, 171, 194-195, 244, 254, 270, 271, 274-275, 278, 279, 281, 319-320, 323, 351
pharmaceuticals, 260, 275, 321, 324-325, 327
piracy of, 77
plant breeders' rights, 10, 95-96
policy analysis needs, 259
process claims, 323
recombinant DNA technique, 6
relevant forms of intellectual property, 9
role of small firms in, 252, 326, 328
sales, 321
scope of claims, 324
solutions to IPR issues, 259-262
special issues, 257-259
sui generis protection, 261, 270, 283
trade barriers, 282
trade secrets protection, 194-195
transgenic animals, 92
U.S. pressure on developing countries for IPR, 183-184
U.S. research, 201
venture capital disbursements, 320-321
Borrus, Michael, 358, 373-377, 405
"Brain drain," 71
Brazilian IPR
biotechnology protection, 183-184
copyright for software, 72, 171, 240
demand for, 77-78
exclusions from patent protection, 77-78, 124-125, 171-172
and foreign direct investment, 99 n.9, 114, 116, 117
free riding, 76
international cooperation, 86
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120
negotiating position in GATT, 354
pharmaceutical protection, 327
plant breeding, 101-103
prevention of technology losses in, 73-74
ranking of, 69, 93, 99 n.9, 123, 136, 140
reforms, 84, 125 n.11, 171-173
research stature and, 83
and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133
sui generis legislation, 314
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118
trade secrets protection, 78, 172
Bridges, Bill, 348
Brunelleschi, 46
Building materials industry, sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
Bush, Vannevar, 214
Business Software Association of the United States, 236
C
Calvin, Melvin, 156
Cameras, miniature color video, 340
Camcorders, 340
Canada, 91
effects of TRIPS on, 177
multinational firms' R&D expenditures in, 137
semiconductor protection, 336
Carnegie Commission, 199
Case law on adaptation of IPR to new technologies, 270-271
Allen and Hanbury's v. Generics UK (U.K.), 159
Allen decision (U.S.), 260 n.9
Allen-Myland, Inc. v. IBM Corp., 269 n.41
Amgen, Inc. v. Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., 258 n.6, 270, 277 n.69
Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp., 264 n.25
Atari Games Corp. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., 309
BBC v. Commission of the European Communities, 159-160
Bergy, 257 n.3
on biotechnology protection, 254, 257 n.3, 258 nn.5 & 6, 260, 277 n.69, 320, 323
Broder Software, Inc. v. Unison World, Inc., 264 n.27
Cable/Home Comm. Co. v. Network Prod., Inc., 268
Certain Recombinant Erythropoietin decision, 277 n.69
Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc., 297, 306 n.63, 312 n.75
on computer software protection, 264 nn.25-28, 268-269, 270-271, 292, 296-299, 305-307, 309, 310
on copyright misuses, 276
Dawson Chemical v. Rohm and Haas Co., 276 n.67
Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 9, 254, 257 n.3, 260, 320
Diamond v. Diehr, 265, 292, 295, 309
Digidyne v. Data General, 269 n.41
E.F. Johnson Co. v. Uniden Corp., 292
Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Co., Inc., 269, 305, 307 n.66
on free movement of goods and IPR, 159-160, 282
Gottschalk v. Benson, 265, 287 n.10, 288 n.11, 309, 310
Graham v. John Deere Co., 305
Grams decision, 265 n.31
Harper and Row Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises, 291 n.19
Hibberd decision, 260 n.9
Hubco Data Products Corp. v. Management Assistance Corp., 292
Iwahashi decision, 265 n.31
Lasercomb America, Inc. v. Reynolds, 276
Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., 268, 316 n.86
Loctite Corp. v. Ultraseal, Ltd., 276 n.67
Lotus Development Corp. v. Borland Int'l, Inc., 300
Lotus Development Corp. v. Paperback Software Int'l, 264, 297, 300, 315, 331 n.8
Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co. v. Radio Corp., 265 n.33
Moore v. Regents of the University of California, 258 n.5
on pharmaceutical protection, 258 n.6
Plains Cotton Cooperative Assn. v. Goodpasture Computer Service, Inc., 264 n.28, 297
Scripps Clinic and Research Foundation v. Genentech, 258 n.6, 324
on semiconductor protection, 331 n.8
Texas Instruments, Inc., v. United States International Trade Commission, 278 n.73
United States v. Automobile Manufacturers Assn., Inc., 278 n.72
United States v. IBM, 269 n.41
United States v. Manufacturers Aircraft Assn., Inc., 278 n.72
Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd., 268, 291 n.18
Volvo v. Veng, 159
Warner Brothers v. Christiansen, 159
West Publishing Co. v. Mead Data Central, Inc., 269
Whelan v. Jaslow, 264 n.26, 296-299, 303-304, 314
White-Smith Music Co. v. Apollo, 286
Cathode-ray tubes, 340
Chakrabarty, Ananda, 320
Charge coupled devices, 340
Chemical industry, 20
attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 116, 115, 117, 118, 121, 131, 139
joint ventures by country, 117
licensing of technology in developing countries, 119, 120
sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132, 133
technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118, 119
Chemicals
imitation of, 126
innovation rates, 134
patentability of, 92, 96, 124, 125, 126, 136, 163, 171, 206, 279, 369
Chilean IPR, 84
and economic development, 236
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117, 216
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120
and technology transfer to wholly owned-subsidiaries, 118
Chinese IPR
biotechnology protection, 327
computer program protection, 314
ranking of, 93
Clones, 11
Coherent Radiation, 348-349
Colombian IPR, 73
biotechnology protection, 77
copyright protection for software, 72
demand for, 77
Commission of the European Communities,
Green Paper on Copyright, 159
Competitive advantage, basis for, 202
Competitive market systems
failures, 25-28
resource allocation problems, 24
Competitive strategy
of electronics firm, 228-232
IPR and, 189-190, 221-240, 243-245
of pharmaceutical firm, 221-228, 244
of software firm, 232-236
of telecommunications firm, 236-240
Computer industry
economic losses due to inadequate IPR protection, 12, 132
importance of IPR to, 192, 194
piracy in, 233
Computer-produced works, 181
Computer software/programs
1950s and early 1960s, 284-285
1960s (mid) and 1970s, 285-288
1980s, 288-293
adaptation of IPR to, 15, 19, 253-254, 262-266
advanced systems, 335
algorithms and computational procedures, 280, 287, 288, 289, 299, 300, 302-303, 309, 312, 314, 317
artificial intelligence, 15, 181, 263
Berne Convention protocol on, 181
bundling with hardware, 284
case law on, 264 nn.25-28, 268-269, 270-271, 275-276, 291 nn.18 & 19, 292, 296-299, 303, 314
case study on, 284-318
closed systems, 268-269
competitive strategies, 232-236, 239
controversies, 295, 296-299, 301-304
The Coordinator, 234
copying of, 10, 76, 236, 262, 270-271, 295
copyright protection, 7, 8, 54, 72, 125, 166, 171-172, 176, 177, 191, 196, 209, 217, 239, 240, 250, 252, 262-264, 270, 275, 282-283, 285-286, 289, 294, 295, 299-300, 304-309
customized, 196
DAC Easy, 234
data structures for, 303-304
decompilation as infringement, 262, 265, 266, 291-292, 299-300, 310, 312
digital media, 315-316
dimensions of protection, 262
Executive, 234
future challenges in protection of, 314-318
historical overview, 284-293
hypertext navigation systems, 317
interface protection, 266, 269, 280, 289, 295, 296, 299, 300, 312, 352-353
international perspectives on, 15, 92, 251-252, 264, 282-283, 309-314, 317-318
latent semantic indexing algorithms, 317
logic, 312
networks, 267-269, 280, 316-317, 353
for open systems, 263, 268-269
for parallel processing, 263
patent protection, 6, 7, 8, 50, 147, 196, 240, 243, 250, 265, 280, 282, 286-288, 290, 292, 295, 301-304, 309-310, 317
personal computer and, 288-289
piracy of, 233-234
processing flows, 314
protection of, 294-309
registration of, 235
relational data bases, 54;
see also Integrated information networks
rental rights, 177
research and development, 293
reverse engineering of, 314
shrink-wrap licensing, 291, 292
solutions to IPR problems, 263-266
special issues, 262-263
spreadsheets, 54
sui generis protection, 8, 240, 266, 282, 312, 313
trade secret protection, 196, 236, 239, 284-285, 286, 288, 290, 291-292, 295, 300
Translate, 234
translation from one programming language to another, 295
U.S. legal approaches (current) to protection, 294-308
vulnerability to infringement, 7, 10
Whelan v. Jaslow. 296-299
written in clean rooms, 262, 263
see also Information technologies
Confidentiality agreements, 74
Constitution (U.S.), property rights, 22, 304
attitudes on, 236
computer software, 270-271, 290
effects on innovation, 19
"fair use" doctrine, 30, 291 n.19, 315
and infant industries, 81-82
private, for individual consumption, 11 n.5
public domain, 51
technological advances in, 37, 47, 51, 56, 160
unauthorized, 37
Copyrights/copyrighting
adaptation to new technologies, 23, 250- 251
breadth of protection, 8, 30, 42, 53-54, 161, 264
common pool problems, 33-34, 35-36
for compilations of data, 177
for computer software, 8, 54, 72, 125, 166, 171-172, 176, 177, 196, 240, 252, 262-264, 270-271, 275, 282, 285-287, 289, 294, 299-300, 304-309
consent decree, 269 n.41
defined, 30
distinction from patents, 7, 30, 49, 54
enforcement practices, 91-92
historical background, 51-54
infringement of, 250, 291-292, 296-297, 316-317
international code on, 15
international conventions, 20
and knowledge production, 42
leniency in infringement proceedings, 42
levy on blank recording tapes, 160-161
misuse of, 276
modified approach, 282, 304-309
priority in awards of, 33
registration process, 285
royalty collection and distribution, 278
term of protection, 30, 49, 53, 91, 264, 285, 313, 332
trade negotiations related to, 176-177
traditionalist compared to protectionist view, 299-300
weak protection of, 124
for works written by others, 51-52
Corning Glass Works, 211, 217-219, 242, 340
Corporations
family-owned companies, 211
publicly traded companies, 212
Standard and Poor 500, 211-212
threats to, 378
see also Multinational companies;
Small businesses
Council of Ten in Venice, 52
Council on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, 178
Court of Justice of the European Communities, 159
Cross-licensing, 55, 102, 119, 152, 191, 219
benefits of, 228
in computer industry, 369-370
and information exchange, 237
and litigation, 278-280
patent protection and, 369-370
in semiconductor industry, 369-370
and working requirements, 242
Crumpe, Robert, 48
Cunningham, Mark, 212
D
Data bases
originality source in, 269 n.42
protection of information in, 181, 267-269, 282-283
David, Paul A., 19-61, 147, 151, 155, 156, 184, 186, 189, 376, 371, 405-406
Developing countries
academic research, 199-200
advantages of stronger IPRs to, 367-368
attitudes about IPR, 110, 153, 170, 200
biotechnology protection in, 95-96
"brain drain" from, 71
exclusion of products and processes from protection, 92
expropriation of intellectual property, 4-5, 10-11, 19-20
government role in research, 199
incentives for IPR in, 215, 363
intellectual property rights in, 73-74, 110, 200, 215
natural comparative advantage, 366, 367
optimal levels of IPR protection, 104-105
piracy by, 360
protection strategies of businesses in, 73-74
R&D intensities, 362-365
relevance of India's IPR system for, 165-166
research needs on IPR protection, 135-139
technological change in, 135-137
technology as a development driver, 206
technology capacity by type of economy, 361-362, 364-365
technology development in, 72
technology losses to competitors in, 73-74
transitional period for adherence to TRIPS, 178
turnkey technology purchases, 367-368
types of economies, 361-362
use of own IPRs, 366
venture capital availability in, 74
weak IPR systems in, 66, 73-75, 76-78, 116
see also Poor countries; and individual countries
Digital audio recording, 7
Digital Equipment Corp., 293 n.24
DNA, 319
DuPont, 211
Dynamic random access memory chips, 330, 333
E
Economic growth
innovation rates and, 135, 193-194
IPR protection and, 5, 12, 66, 67, 87, 152, 172, 189
technological development, 165
Economic policies and issues
analysis needs, 253
expropriation of intellectual property through, 4-5, 19-20
free riding, 76
and innovation, 298
interaction of IPR issues with, 16, 20-24, 73, 184
losses due to inadequate IPR protection, 4-5, 10, 131-133, 138, 140, 233-234
and patent system changes, 109
R&D costs, 6
in technology development, 209-212
U.S. sales and profits, 131-133
Economic theory of regulation, 92 n.5
Edward II, 45
Electron tube repeater technology, 340
attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 117, 118, 121
cross licensing in, 278
importance of IPR to, 192
innovation rates and IPR, 134
joint ventures by country, 117
multinational firm's competitive strategy, 228-232
product and process life cycles in, 214, 373-374
sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118
Elizabeth I, 48
Elzevir family, 52
Enforcement of IPR
adapted for new technologies, 249, 275-281
informal approaches, 213, 278-281
judicial, 275-278
levels of, 98
loopholes in TRIPS, 371
mechanisms, 249
mediation, 213
national differences in, 91-92
trade policy and, 178, 360-361
England
copyrights, 53
Stationers' Company, 53
Statute of Monopolies, 48
Entertainment industry, 12, 123
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
Environmental Quality Corporation, 217
Estonia, 73
Ethyl, 211
Europe/European Community
biotechnology protection, 9, 163, 253, 261-262,270, 271, 282
computer program protection, 240, 268-269, 282, 310, 311-313
congruence of IPR systems, 70, 86, 152
foreign direct investments by, 147, 226-227
IPR approach, 158-162
Maastricht Treaty, 159
patent system, 86, 91, 92 n.4, 160, 161, 226, 281 n.77
pharmaceutical patents, 226
plant breeders' rights, 96, 282
policy analysis process, 253
reciprocity provisions, 272
semiconductor protection, 282
sui generis protection, 261-262, 270
trade retaliation measures, 382
trade secrets, 161
European
Committee for Interoperable Systems, 312 n.75
Directive on the Protection of Computer Programs, 311, 353
Economic Community Treaty, 159
Evaluation of IPR protection, 25
age of technology and, 131, 140, 240
accuracy of estimates, 133
comparison of measures for, 119-121
data use for cost-benefit analyses, 147
disaggregated statistical analysis, 128-130
identification of doctrinal issues, 270-273
interindustry variation in foreign direct investment, factors responsible
ITC findings, 122-124
limitations of data, 369-370
measures compared, 112-121
rankings of countries, 69, 93, 99 n.9, 122, 123, 140
statistical analysis based on country data, 127-128
Evenson, Robert E., 136, 357, 360-368, 406-407
Exports
losses to infringing products, 12, 132
of technologies by developing countries, 363
F
Fair use doctrine, 30, 291 n.19, 315, 316
False advertising, 125
FAX machines, 340
Final Soft, 234
Finland, 216
Food industry
attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 116, 119, 120, 121, 139
joint ventures by country, 117
licensing of technology in developing countries, 119, 120
sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118, 119
Foodstuffs, patentability of, 92, 124, 125, 126, 153, 163, 165, 185
Foreign direct investment
age of technology and, 131, 140
attitudes of U.S. firms on, 114-119, 147
in biotechnology, 101, 226-227
in component-manufacturing facilities, 112-114, 130-131
corporate taxation level and, 127-128
disincentives for, 111-112, 205-206
driving forces in, 370-371
export/import ratio and, 127-128
GDP attributable to wholesale and retail trade, transport, and communication and, 127-128
GDP, per capita, and, 127-128
importance of, 193
industry-specific attitudes, 112-114, 139
national executive's frequency of change and, 127-128
non-IPR factors affecting, 127-128, 226, 227
protection of intellectual property rights and, 99 n.9, 100, 110, 111-114, 130- 131, 139-140, 215, 240, 370-372
in R&D facilities, 112-114, 131, 139
in rudimentary production and assembly facilities, 112-114, 130-131
sales and R&D expenditures of firms and, 115, 130-131
in sales and distribution outlets, 112-114, 139
technology transfer via, 111-114
types of, 112-114
unauthorized use of intellectual property and, 131-133
urbanization and, 127-128
Forest products industry, sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
France
computer program protection, 311
FACET program, 216
patent system, 50
Free riding, 72
exclusionary rules as, 92
research needs on, 75
U.S. trade retaliation for, 183, 184
welfare implications in North-South context, 103-105
Frischtak, Claudio R., 89-106, 407
Furland, Richard, 139
Fusion Systems, 219
G
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 162, 175
and developing country use of IPRs, 357, 360
Director General, 176
IPR issues in, 310
pressures on developing countries from, 368
special and differential treatment, 80-81
suitability as forum for uniformity, 185-186
see also Uruguay Round
General Electric, 320
Genes, patentability, 253, 258, 281
Genetic engineering
patentability of methods, 10
see also Biotechnology
Genetic sequences, patentability, 16, 253, 257, 258-259, 327
Genetics Institute, 320
Genetics Systems, 320
Germany
computer software protection, 311
copyright law, 351
multinational firms' R&D expenditures in, 137
ranking of IPR system, 69
semiconductor protection, 336
Goldberg, Morton David, 251, 252, 254, 329-338, 407-408
Gordon, Eugene I., 252, 254, 339-350, 408
Gorlin, Jacques, 153, 175-182, 186, 371, 408-409
Gray market goods, 12
Great Britain, see England; United Kingdom
Griliches, Zvi, 372
Group of Seven, Economic Summit, 5
H
Harris, Bryan, 152, 158-162, 184, 409-410
Health policies
drug approval delays, 16
interaction of IPR issues with, 16
Hewlett Packard, 137 n.24
Hills, Carla, 176
Hitachi, 346
Hong Kong IPR
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118
Hughes Aircraft Company, 340, 348
Human Genome Project, 258-259, 261
I
IBM Corp., 192, 198, 211, 213, 237, 293 n.24, 312, 341
Imitation, 34
economic compared to legal, 75
in packaging of products, 125
Immunex, 320
Imports/importation
franchise contracts, 48, 50, 51
of technologies by developing countries, 363
Indian IPR
burden of proof, 163
exclusions from patentability, 124, 163, 165
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117, 215, 216
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120
negotiating position in GATT, 354
patents, 125
pharmaceutical protection, 327
rationale, 164-165
reforms, 84
relevance for developing countries, 165-166
rights conferred, 163
technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries in, 116, 118
term of protection, 164
Uruguay Round negotiations, 166
Indonesian IPR
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120
ranking of, 123
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118
Industrial and farm equipment industry, 12, 124
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
Industrial Biotechnology Association, 260, 327
Industrial designs, 171, 251, 306, 307, 311
Industrial Property Institute (Mexico), 171
Infant industries, 81-82
Information technologies
importance to R&D, 198
protection by U.S., 20
and strengthening of IPR, 184
Infringement of IPR
analysis of losses due to, 11-12
antitrust violation for misuse of, 276 n.67
in biotechnology, 259
burden of proof, 163, 167, 171, 179
causes, 10-11
copyright, 250, 291-292, 316-317
decompilation of computer programs as, 250, 262, 265, 266, 291-292
definition of, 11
economic losses due to, 10, 11-12, 131-133
indirect effects of, 12
international, 10-12
level of, 10
for network software, 268
''paper trail" as a defense, 337-338
patent breadth and, 38
penalties for, 171
for pharmaceuticals, 184
rationale for leniency in proceedings, 42
survey time for patents and, 232
trademarks, 125
and U.S. sales and profits, 131-133
U.S. trade retaliation for, 184
Innovation
barriers to, 78
dissemination of, 24
and economic growth, 5, 135, 193-194
incentives of IPR laws, 253
incremental, 72, 83, 152, 201, 218, 241, 307, 351
nonpatentable, noncopyrightable, 351
patents and, 114
public subsidy for, 377
Innovation rates
adaptation of IPR to new technologies and, 281
in developed countries, 137-139
in developing countries, 363
free riding and, 76
indigenous, in developing countries, 110
IPR protection and, 5, 67, 87, 93, 97, 105, 133-139, 140-141, 189, 194
plant variety protection and, 271
Integrated circuits, 92
Integrated information networks
adaptation of IPR to, 268-269
case law on, 271
data base protection, 181
future challenges in protection of, 316-317
special issues, 267-268
Intellectual property, defined, 108, 132
Intellectual property law
applicability to new technologies, 19, 43, 50, 70
constitutional protections, 22
economic policy and, 19-21
historical background, 43-54, 190
"panda's thumb" analogy, 22
reforms, 23
Intellectual property rights (IPR)
and competitive strategy, 243-245
effectiveness of, 241-243
forums for reform, 353
globalization of, 204-206
history in the West, 43-54
hybrid approaches, 304-309
ignorance about, 72-74
international importance of issues, 5
justice and equity issues, 20
key issues, 339
misuse doctrines, 281
natural, 50
studies of, 71-75
and trade policy, 65
valuation of, 161
Western cultural view of, 354
Intellectual property rights regimes
dimensions, 168 n.1
investment and trade effects of changes in, 358, 368-372
see also Copyrights/copyrighting; International IPR regimes; National IPR regimes; Patents/patenting
Intermetallic compounds, 124, 125 n.11
International conventions
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, 20, 171, 176, 181, 196, 240, 264, 360
Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Micro-organisms for the Purpose of Patent Procedure, 9 n.2
effectiveness in developing countries, 363
extent of protection offered by, 4
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, 20, 90 n.2, 170, 196, 230, 360
Patent Cooperation Treaty, 86
Patent Law Harmonization Treaty, 179-180
for protection of new plant varieties, 102
reciprocity provisions, 272
trade secret protection in, 177-178
Trademark Law Harmonization Treaty, 180-181
Universal Copyright Convention, 264
Washington Chip Treaty, 177, 203 n.3, 335, 352, 353
International Intellectual Property Alliance, 169 n.2
International IPR regimes
barriers to achieving, 13-14, 15
characteristics, 14
dispute resolution, 359
enforcement mechanism, 366
importance of, 65-66
national interest of U.S. and, 12
International Trade Commission (U.S.), 12
enforcement of border restrictions, 277
country rankings of IPR protection, 122-123
study of economic effects of weak IPR, 131-132, 133, 140
International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, 10
Inventions, 7
biological and medical, 9
collective process, 55
common pool problem, 33-34
complementary, 55
cost-reducing process, 36
disclosure and dissemination, 108, 109
and economic growth, 363
importation of, 48-49
indicators, 365
monopoly franchises and, 55
natural rights claims to, 20, 26, 50, 57
open economies and, 206-207
and patent protection, 108, 217-218, 220
per inventor, 363
second-generation, 42
simultaneous, 220
Israel, joint ventures, 215
Italy
patents, 46-47
J
James I, 48
Japan
biotechnology research, 254, 327
electronic filing of applications, 156-157
expropriation of intellectual property, 5, 219
foreign direct investments by, 147
free riding by, 75-76
grace period for research publication, 9 n.3
litigation for patent infringement, 232
mechanisms of technology development in, 375
threat to U.S. business from, 378
Japanese IPR
biotechnology protection, 327
for computer program protection, 313-314
copyright protection, 160, 161
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117
levy on blank recording tapes, 160-161
licensing of technology, 76, 313
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120
origin of, 184-185
patent system, 55, 86, 136, 139, 152, 155-158, 226, 327
pharmaceutical patents, 226
reciprocity provisions, 272
reforms, 136
semiconductor protection, 336
sui generis chip protection, 203
and technology development. 148
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118
Jaslow Dental Laboratories, 296
Jefferson, Thomas, 26, 28, 50, 230
Joint ventures, 65, 80, 111, 114-116, 121
large corporations and small indigenous firms, 197-198
Modern Marshall Plan, 215-216
weakness of IPR and. 140
K
Keefauver, William L., 191, 236-240, 410
Kempe, John, 45
Know-how
capacity of firms and economies to cycle, 375
as intellectual property, 161, 299, 307
Knowledge, scientific and technological
advantages and disadvantages, 42
codified, 26-27
as a commodity, 25-26
cumulative and interactive nature of, 28
dissemination of, 32-33
economic analysis of production of, 32-36, 41-42
flows, 205
model of interdependent diffusion and learning, 40-41
piracy as a barrier to, 205
"public good" nature of, 24, 27-28, 110
and R&D economics, 26-27
role in economic life, 193
trade-offs in production of, 32-36
Knowledge-intensive products, exports of, 169
Korean IPR
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120
patents, 171
plant breeders' rights, 96
reforms, 72, 124, 136, 139, 170, 171
and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118
trade secrets law, 171
L
Labuda, Ed, 348
Latin America
working requirements for patents, 91
see also individual countries
Law, see Case law; Intellectual property law; Legislation
League for Programming Freedom, 303
Lee, Jeong, 131
Legislation
Act of Queen Anne (British), 53, 54
Biotechnology Patent Protection Act of 1991, 277 n.69
Copyright Act (1790), 50
Copyright Act of 1957 (India), 162
Copyright Act of 1976 (U.S.), 8, 264, 266 n.37, 285 n.1, 294, 332
Copyright Act of 1987 (Singapore), 171
Drug Price Competition and Patent Term
Restoration Act of 1984 (U.S.), 260 n.12
Fair Trade Law (Taiwan), 171
first copyright law, 53
Design Act of 1911 (India), 162
first patent law, 47
Law for the Development and Protection of Industrial Property (Mexico), 170
Ley Federal de Derechos de Autor, 235
Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act (1988) (U.S.), 170, 175
Orphan Drug Act of 1983 (U.S.), 260, 324
Patent Act (1791), 50
Patent Act (Korea), 171
Patent Law (Taiwan), 171
Patents Act of 1970 (India), 162-165
Plant Patent Act of 1930 (U.S.), 260 n.9
Plant Variety Protection Act of 1970 (U.S.), 260 n.9, 271
retaliatory, for weak IPR protection, 99
Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 (U.S.), 8, 252, 254, 272, 329, 331, 334, 335, 338, 352
Software Law of 1987 (Brazil), 171
South Carolina Act for the Encouragement of Arts and Sciences, 49
Statute of Monopolies (British), 48, 53
Tariff Act of 1930 (U.S.), 277 n.68
Trade and Merchandise Marks Act of 1958 (India), 162
U.S. Copyright Act, 30
License contract fee, 346
Licensing of technology, 110, 119
by academic researchers, 74, 190
automatic "licenses of right," 163
biotechnology products and processes, 102
breach of agreement, 292
compulsory, 91, 98, 125, 153, 164, 165, 167, 177, 313
computer programs, 291, 292, 294, 295
consent decrees, 243
country income and, 105
disincentives in developing countries, 100, 111
full-cost basis, 105
logic of, 165
lump-sum, 237
quality considerations, 116
restrictive access licensing agreements, 315-316
weak IPR protection and, 119, 120, 140
see also Cross licensing
Literary works, 7
Litigation
agreement on arbitration, 346-347
breadth of protection and, 281
cross licensing and, 278-280
current state of, 230-231
economics of, 275-276, 280-281, 347, 349, 353
expert studies and, 280
invalidation claims. 125
on proprietary information, 342-344. 345-347
on reverse engineering, 335
second generation, 290
strategic, 276
sui generis laws and, 242, 280
threats to small businesses, 252, 254, 276, 343-344, 345-347, 353
see also Case law
Lucky, Robert W., 358-359, 377-380, 384-385, 386, 387, 410-411
LYTEL, 345-347
M
Machinery industries
attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 118. 121, 131
innovation rates and IPR, 134
joint ventures by country, 117
sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115
technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118
Machlup, Fritz, 43
Malaysia, copyright law, 171
Mansfield, Edwin, 107-145, 240, 369, 370, 411
Manufacturing processes, patentability of, 92
Marks of origin, 125
Mars Corporation, 160
Marshall Plan, 214-215
Marx, Karl, 25
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 208, 213, 262
Maurer, Bob, 219
McKinney, George W., III, 190, 217-220, 411-412
McPherson, Isaac, 26
Mechanical technologies, 95
Medina Mora Icaza, Antonio, 190-191, 232-236, 412
Menell, Peter, 297-298
Merck & Co., 324
Merrifield, Bruce, 157, 190, 214-216, 412- 413
Metals industry attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 116, 118-121, 126
innovation rates and IPR, 134
joint ventures by country, 117
licensing of technology in developing countries, 119, 120
sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118, 119
Mexican IPR system, 73
enforcement powers, 171
foreign direct investment and, 99 n.9, 114, 117, 136
free riding, 76
Industrial Property Institute, 171
industrial property law, 235-236
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117
Law for the Development and Protection of Industrial Property, 170
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120
patent law reforms, 72, 84, 170-171
ranking of, 69, 84, 93, 99 n.9, 122, 123
and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133
and software industry, 191, 232-236
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118
trademarks and industrial designs, 171
Microorganisms
Mitsubishi, 219
Monopoly
bilateral contracts with other innovators, 39
deadweight burden of, 34-35, 36
publicly regulated private, 27
temporary, 41
trade, 47
Mossinghoff, Gerald, 157
Motor vehicle and motor vehicle parts industries, 12
innovation rates and IPR, 134
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
Motorola, 211
Mowery, David C., 358, 368-372, 386, 413-414
Multinational companies
alliances with small firms in developing countries, 200-201
competitive strategy, IPR and, 221-240
dominance of markets, 81
electronics firm, 228-232
hostility from developing countries, 119
pharmaceutical firm, 221-228
software firm, 232-236
telecommunications firm, 236-240
N
National Agricultural Chemicals Association (U.S.), 133, 140
National Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works, 263, 271, 273, 285 n.2, 289, 290, 297-298
National Institutes of Health, 16, 258. 327
National IPR regimes
administrative bureaucracy, 85
advantages and disadvantages of, 66-67, 93-97
closed-economy trade-offs, 94
congruent systems, 70, 90, 201, 204, 206;
see also Uniform intellectual property system
copyright protection, 91-92
cost reduction opportunities, 85
determinants of success, 194
differentiation of, 91-98, 100-101
evaluation of, see Evaluation of IPR protection
evolution of, 193
foreign invention protection, 109
global welfare perspective, 103-105
judicial system and, 85
minimum standards for, 90-91
national interests and, 89-91, 146
open-economy considerations, 98-103
patent office, 85
patenting, specifics of, 97-98
pressure from trade and investment partners for, 99, 148, 201
production capabilities and, 95
research capabilities and, 95
retaliatory actions for weaknesses in, 170
theory of capture and, 92
trends in evolution of, 170
see also individual countries
National Science Foundation, 214
Natural rights of inventors, 20, 26, 50, 57, 151
Netherlands, copyrights, 52
Newly industrializing countries (NICs), 357
defined, 169
enforcement of IPR, 170
exports of knowledge-intensive products, 169
foreign direct investments by, 147
free riding by, 183
imitation and expropriation of intellectual property, 14
IPR systems status in, 168-174
piracy by, 169
policy questions, 14-15
reforms in IPR, 99, 153, 169, 170-173, 183-184
trade policy, 366
U.S. trade retaliation against, 183-184
use of own IPRs, 366
see also individual countries
Nigerian IPR
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118
North American Free Trade Agreement, 86, 235, 236, 374
O
Office equipment industry, 134
Optical glass, 124
Optical waveguides, patent dispute, 219, 242
Optoelectronics
adaptation of IPR to, 254
applications, 339-340, 341, 350
AT&T v. LYTEL, 345-347
components, 341
evolution of, 340
patents, 254, 344-345, 348-349
potential of, 341
principles of, 340-341
proprietary information, 254, 342-344, 345-348, 349
Spectra Physics v. Coherent Radiation, 348-349
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 100, 111, 362
P
Pacific Intellectual Property Association, 157
Paraguay, 86
Patent Law Harmonization Treaty, 179-180
Patents/patenting, 27
adaptation to new technologies, 250-251, 270
advantages and disadvantages, 32, 43, 147, 156
application content and format standards, 179
bilateral monopoly contracts with other innovators, 39
breadth of protection, 4, 91, 161, 163, 180, 265, 287
"breakthrough," 39
claims drafting, 202, 218, 242
common pool problems, 33-34, 35-36
community, 160
competitive bidding scheme for, 39
consent decrees, 243
creation of U.S. system, 48-50
deadweight burden of monopoly, 34-35, 36
defensive policy, 228, 243, 344
deficiencies in law, 28
disclosure provisions, 45, 46, 179
distinction from copyrights, 7, 30, 49, 54
Doctrine of equivalents, 157-158
economic development and, 109
economics of, 275-276
electronic filing of applications, 156-157
English language specifications in, 179, 180
as entrepreneurial assets, 191
for evolutionary minor developments, 219
exchange of licenses among firms, 55-56
exclusionary rules, 77-78, 91, 124-125, 163, 167, 170-172
experimental use exemption, 261
extension of application period, 219
"first to invent" compared to "first to file," 152, 157, 179, 180, 218, 281 n.77, 281
"first to publish" as a basis for, 218
flooding, 327
historical background, 43, 44-50
"imitation," 368
increase in number of, 256
index of conformity to minimum standards, 122
and information infrastructure of the future, 317
and innovation, 114, 133-135, 140-141
interindustry differences in effects of, 369
international cooperation on, 15, 20, 260-261;
see also International conventions
interpretation of claims, 158, 179
invalidation claims, 125
and investment in R&D, 108
licensing of, 161
litigation, 230-232, 270, 271, 275-276, 344, 348-349
and marketing strategy, 224-227, 236-238
misuse doctrines, 243-244, 276
model law, 90 n.2
monopolies, 244
as nontariff trade barrier, 155
number of applications, 274
offensive, 344
originality, novelty, and nonobviousness tests, 30, 46, 202, 243, 250, 351
overlap with copyright protection, 250
petty, 351
previous publication or disclosure and, 9, 16
priority in awards of, 33
process of obtaining, 344
process versus product, 134, 163, 165, 179, 254
progeny of patented life form included under, 253, 259, 261
prospect theory approach to, 38-39, 55
publication of applications, 179
publication prior to, 281 n.77
races/racing, 33-34, 35, 39, 55
rationale for, 45, 49, 108-109, 164-165, 221-222, 339
on recombinant DNA technique, 6
retroactive "pipeline," 174, 178
revenue generation by, 85
simultaneous invention and, 220
social costs of, 108-109
suitability for new technologies, 23
and technological advances, 41-42, 55
and technology transfer, 44, 45-47, 48, 49, 55, 226
term of protection, 4, 29, 45, 47, 91, 97, 125, 153, 164, 167, 171, 172, 177, 179, 180, 224, 260 n. 12, 287
trade negotiations related to, 177
and unproductive competition, 38-39
welfare implications in North-South context, 103-105
working requirements, 91, 98, 125, 153, 167, 177, 242-243
see also specific technologies
Penrose, Edith, 109
Petri, Franciscus, 46
Petroleum refining industry
innovation rates and IPR, 134
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
Pharmaceutical industry, 99-100
expenditures on R&D, 325
multinational firm's competitive strategy, 221-228, 244
protection of U.S. innovation, 20
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
see also Chemical industry
Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association
country rankings for IPR protection, 122
estimates of sales losses due to weak IPR, 133, 140
list of problem countries, 169 n.3
Pharmaceuticals
biotechnology-derived, 260, 276, 321, 323
case law on IPR protection, 258 n.6
cephalosporins, 373
compulsory licensing, 125, 177
costs of imitation, 82
country-of-origin property rights, 185
drugs for tropical diseases, 96-97, 138-139
economic losses due to inadequate IPR protection, 12, 82, 138-139
erythropoietin, 258 n.6, 323, 325-326
exclusivity, 260
free riding by developing countries, 76
importance of IPR for, 190
infringement of, 184
innovation rates, 134
introduction of, 225
marketing strategy, 224-227
patentability of, 92, 96-97, 124, 125, 126, 153, 163, 172, 190, 206, 209, 223, 279, 369
registration protection, 224
secrecy for production processes, 224-225
term of protection, 260 n.12
tissue plasminogen activase, 258 n.6
trademark protection, 224
transitional period for adherence to TRIPS, 178
Philippines, IPR
compulsory licensing, 125
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120
patents, 125
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118
Phillips, 237
Photographic goods industry, 12
Photolithography, 330
Photophone, 340
competence and, 363
of computer software. 233
corporate, 233
by developing countries, 360
increases in, 189
industrial, 233
by newly industrializing countries, 169
and research and development, 205
sales losses due to, 233-234
Plant breeders' rights, 10, 84, 96, 103 n.15, 282, 367
Plant-breeding research, 166
Plant varieties
certificate of protection, 271
legislation, 260 n.9
Polanyi, Michael, 28
Policy issues, 12
defining, 261
interaction of other policies, 16
trade, 15-16
trade-offs, 13-16
vision of an international regime, 14-15
Poor countries
production capabilities and IPR, 93
special and differential treatment, 80-81
Predatory hiring, 74, 78, 136, 343, 345
Preston, John T., 190, 208-213, 217, 414
Price elasticity of demand, and length of patent protection, 36, 97
Primo Braga, Carlos Alberto, 153, 168-174, 183-184, 370, 415-416
Printing trade and technology, 47, 51, 56
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
Procurement system, 29, 32, 33-34
Property
defined, 31
system, 29;
see also Intellectual property system
Proprietary information, 201
litigation, 342-343
protection for optoelectronics, 254, 342-344, 345-348
publication of research results and, 345-346
purpose of, 339
recommendations, 347-348
required for marketing approval, 178
Protection of intellectual property
with "black boxes," 131 n.19
breadth of, 37-42
criteria for determining adequacy of, 124-125
in developing countries, 135-139
disadvantages, 3, 5, 13, 23, 38
double, 10
economic approaches to, 24-42
economic losses from inadequacies in, 4-5, 10, 11-12
effectiveness of, 4
and foreign direct investment, 111-114, 130-131, 139-140, 215
historical background, 47-48
industrialized versus developing countries, 110
and innovation, 5, 67, 87, 93, 97, 105, 133-139
international, 4
and joint ventures, 114-116, 140
and licensing of technology, 55, 119, 120
see also National IPR regimes
optimal levels from a global welfare perspective, 104-105
policy objectives of, 24-25, 164-165
product life cycles and, 6
production capabilities and, 95
R&D costs and, 6
reasons for inadequacies in some countries, 124-125
reform processes, 282
research capabilities and, 95, 109
research needs on, 135-139
resistance to reforms, 84
segmentation of technology and, 74
and technology transfer, 87, 111-112, 116-119
see also Copyrights; Intellectual property law; Patents
Protectionism, 5
Public good
knowledge as, 24
properties of, 27
solutions to problem of, 29
Putnam, Henry Haven, 52
R
Radar, 340
Rathmann, George, 244, 254, 319-328, 416
RCA David Sarnoff Labs, 340
Recombinant DNA technique, 6
Regimes, Intellectual property rights regimes; see International IPR regimes
Registration protection, 224, 235
Research and development
benefits of growth in, 207
capabilities and IPR protection, 93-95, 109
common pool problem, 33-34, 39
cooperative, 189, 197-198, 200-201
defense procurement procedures and, 199
federal government expenditures, 214
foreign direct investment in facilities for, 112-114, 131, 137, 139
funding for, 79-80, 101-102, 194, 199, 377-378
globalization of, 198-199
intensities in developing countries, 362-365
lack of legal protection and, 73
litigation and, 276
opportunities in developing countries, 82-83
patent protection and investment in, 108, 227, 274
piracy as a barrier to, 205
private sector intensities, 362-363, 365
proliferation and globalization trends, 197-201, 207
public sector intensities, 362, 364, 366-367
resource allocation to, 39
risks, 197
stature of programs as a product of IPR protection, 83
and technological knowledge, 26-27
uniform international IPR and, 79, 83
Research needs on IPR, 391-393
adaptation to new technologies, 393
costs and benefits of modifying patent systems, 136-137
cultural traditions and practices, 391
economic effects on developing countries, 392
data deficiencies and developing country conformance to IPRs, 392
effects of stronger protection, 133-139, 392-393
effects of weak protection, 71, 73-75, 393
"first to invent" compared to "first to file," 393
free riding, 75
indigenous technological innovation in developing countries, 392-393
methodological difficulties, 71-73, 75-76
multinational firms' R&D expenditures in developing countries, 137
patent protection and R&D expenditures in developing countries, 135-136
piracy effects, 392
sui generis approaches, 393
trade retaliation effects, 392
uniform compared to differentiated systems, 392
Research parks
cooperation among firms in, 136
funding problems in developing countries, 74
Resource allocation
in developing countries, 76-77
and enforcement levels, 98
protection of intellectual property and, 43
to R&D, 39
weak IPR systems and, 77
Reverse engineering, 76
of computer codes, 262, 265, 314
of high-intensity ultraviolet lamp, 219
and lawsuits, 335
royalty rates and, 34
of seed hybrids, 101 n.12
of semiconductor chips, 19, 268, 272, 332, 334, 335, 352
Rubber products industry
innovation rates and IPR, 134
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
Rules of origin, 371
Russia, 73
S
Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 235
Samuelson, Pamela, 234, 250, 252, 253-254, 284-318, 416
Scientific and technological advances
and effectiveness of IPR, 241-243
incremental refinement trends, 201-203
regional asymmetries in cost of and access to, 358, 373-377
trends in, 189, 190, 195-196, 207, 358-359, 377-380
Scientific goods industry, 12
innovation rates and IPR, 134
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
Secrecy, costs of, 35
Semiconductor chips
adaptation of IPR to, 15
age of technology, 240
case law, 331
case study, 329-338
compulsory licensing of, 177
and computer software protection, 288-289
copyright protection, 331, 331
defining the technology, 332-333
fabrication process, 330
history of, 329-332
innocent infringer provisions, 177, 336
internationalizing protection, 335-337, 352
layout designs, 177
legislation, 8, 252, 254, 272, 329, 331, 334-336, 352
lump-sum licensing, 237
mask works, 331, 332, 333, 352
patentability of, 6, 8, 84, 124, 177, 279
protection of, 92, 250, 334-337
reverse engineering of, 272, 332, 334, 335, 352
scope and limitations of protection, 177, 334-335
sui generis protection of, 8, 203-204, 252, 254, 272, 282, 309, 332, 333, 335, 352
trade negotiations related to, 177, 336
Semiconductor laser diodes, 346
Sherwood, Robert, 68-88, 111, 136, 416-417
Singapore, IPR
copyright law, 171
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120
and R&D investments in, 137 n.24
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118
Skolnikoff, Eugene B., 359, 380-383, 386, 417
Small businesses
advantages of stronger IPRs to, 371
biotechnology firms, 275-276, 328
and economic stability in developing countries, 215-216
innovation rates, 280 n.75, 283
litigation threats to, 252, 254, 275-276, 353
patents as assets, 369
protection of, 281
Small Business Innovation Research program, 218
Smith, Adam, 71
Soft Tec, 234
Software, see Computer programs/software
Software Action Group for Europe, 312 n.75
Southeast Asia
working requirements for patents, 91
see also individual countries
Soviet Union (former), trade secret law, 84
Spain, IPR
computer software protection, 235
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118
Spectra Physics, 348-349
Squibb Corporation, 139
Stallman, Richard, 303
Stamm, Otto, 190, 221-228, 243, 417-418
Statutes, see Legislation
Sui generis protection, 193
adaptation to new technologies, 251, 255, 272-273, 282
advantages of, 212-213, 251, 283
of biotechnology, 261, 270, 283
of computer software, 8, 240, 308-309, 312, 313
defined, 251
disadvantages of, 195-196, 198, 203-204, 251, 254, 351-352
evaluation of, 272-273, 351-352
international perspectives on, 252, 353
and litigation, 242
of semiconductor chips, 8, 203-204, 252, 254, 272, 282, 309, 332, 333, 335, 352
term of, 8
Superconductors, patentability, 217
T
Taiwanese IPR
copyrights, 171
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120
patent exclusions, 125
patents, 171
and R&D investments in, 137 n.24, 139
reforms, 72, 125, 136, 139, 170, 171
and sales losses of U.S. industries, 133
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118
trade secrets, 171
Taxes, 27
Technological development
capacity, by type of economy, 361-362, 364-365
in developing countries, 135-137
and economic growth, 165
free riding and, 76
geographic clustering of capabilities and players, 374-376
sovereignty and, 359
see also Scientific and technological advances
Technologies
adaptation of, 93
cost and availability issues, 3, 218-219, 358, 373-377
economic incentives for innovation, 12
diffusion of, 40, 75, 78-79, 98, 152, 165
flows, 205
investment scenarios for developing, 209-212
licensing of, 119
product life cycles, 6, 19, 214, 373-374
turnkey, 367-368
see also Adaptation of IPR to new technologies; Innovation; Scientific and technological advances
Technology transfer, 194
and codified knowledge, 26-27
compulsory licensing and, 153
educational costs in fees for, 229-230
encouragement of, 45-47
via foreign direct investment, 111-114, 131-133, 140
joint research and, 80
patents and, 44, 45-47, 48, 49, 55, 226, 228
research on, 72-73
royalty arrangements for, 228, 230
to subsidiaries, 116-119
unauthorized use of intellectual property and, 131-133
uniform international IPR regime and, 55, 56, 79, 87, 167-168
Telecommunications, competitive strategy of multinational firm, 236-240
Texas Instruments, 279
Textiles and apparel, 12
importance of patent protection, 369
innovation rates and IPR, 134
sales losses due to weak IPR, 132
Thailand, IPR
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 116, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 119, 120
patent exclusions, 124
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 116, 118
U.S. pressures on, 314
Trade
border restrictions on infringing products, 277
free trade agreements, 86
IPR as an issue of, 15-16, 20, 65, 310
monopolistic, 47
retaliation pressures, 99, 100, 153, 170, 183
see also Exports; Imports
Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
compulsory licensing under, 153, 167
computer program protection, 206
copyright and related rights, 176-177
dispute settlement under, 177, 372
Dunkel draft, 152-153, 185-186, 239- 240, 371
enforcement of IPR, 153, 178, 371
and foreign direct investment, 370
implications for developing countries, 167-168, 170
India's position on, 162, 167-168
investment and trade effects of. 358, 368-372
negotiations related to, 153, 175, 176-178
and reforms of IPR regimes, 172
semiconductor layout designs, 177, 336
suitability as forum for uniformity. 185-186
trade secrets, 177-178
transitional period before required adherence to, 153, 178
Trade Related Investment Measures, 371
Trade secret protection, 27, 96, 166
application to process technology, 203
for computer programs, 196, 236, 239, 284-285, 290, 291-292, 294, 295
cost reduction opportunities, 85
defined, 31
in developing countries, 74
employer versus inventor benefits, 32
enforcement of, 92
form and function, 30
as intellectual property, 30-31
law, 9, 22, 23, 31, 32, 33, 36, 84, 171
mechanism of, 202-203
offshore ventures and, 239
and resource allocation inefficiencies, 33
role of, 36
technology-information agreements, 238
trade negotiations related to, 177, 236
uniform international IPR regime and, 56
breadth of protection, 161, 305
competitive strategy, 238, 239
pan-European system, 160
for pharmaceuticals, 224
reforms in developing countries, 125, 171
weak protection in developing countries, 124
Transgenic animals and plants, 92, 101, 102, 177, 259
Transoceanic underwater communicationcable, 340
Transportation equipment industries
attitudes of U.S. firms about foreign direct investment, 112-113, 115, 117, 118, 121, 126, 139
joint ventures by country, 117
sales and R&D expenditures of firms, 115
technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118, 119
Tudor, Mary, 53
U
Uenohara, Michiyuki, 190, 228-232, 243, 418
Ultraviolet lamps, high-intensity, 219
Unauthorized use of intellectual property
see also Copying; Free riding
Uniform intellectual property system
''adequate and effective protection" standard, 186
barriers to achieving, 20, 54-57, 66, 89-90, 147-148, 151, 166, 251
benefits for nations and global economy, 66, 68, 71-80, 87, 147, 160, 192-193, 206
characteristics, 68-71
computer network for linking patent offices, 86
constitution-like framework for, 186
demand for, 76-78
determinants of success, 152
diffusion of benefits, 78-79
disadvantages of, 80-83, 87, 166
and dominance of markets, 81-82
ethical trade-offs, 81
examination of applications by transnational offices, 86
findings from interviews, 73-75
free-riding, 75-76
incentives for, 104-105
installation of, 85-87
and international competitiveness, 83
in open economies, 100-101
research on, 71-75
research stature and, 83
size of country and, 104
special and differential treatment for poor countries, 80-81
trade-offs between technological progress and technology diffusion, 55
training of administrative staff, 86
and transfer of technology, 55, 56
trends toward, 84-85
TRIPS as a forum for, 185-186
U.S. interests in, 376
Union for the Protection of New Varieties, 261, 282
United Kingdom
biotechnology protection, 258
multinational firms' R&D expenditures in, 137
semiconductor protection, 336
United States
Articles of Confederation, 49
biotechnology research in, 201, 254
conflicts with developing countries, 317-318
defense procurement procedures, 199
effects of stronger IPR on, 372
Food and Drug Administration, 260, 325
foreign direct investment attitudes of businesses, 112-114
grace period for research publication, 9 n.3
industrial design protection, 306, 307
industry views on IPR, 217-220
interindustry variation in effects of IPR, 369
levy on blank recording tapes, 160-161
mechanisms of technology development in, 375
opposition to Washington Chip Treaty, 203 n.3
pharmaceutical patents, 226
plant breeders' rights, 96, 271
policy analysis process, 253
post-war technology policy, 372
ranking of IPR system, 69
retaliatory actions for weak IPRs, 170, 172, 183, 186, 371, 372
semiconductor protection, 250-251, 252, 306
software protection approaches in, 250-252, 294-308
Special 301 provisions, 175
state differences in protection of trade secrets, 70
sui generis protection, 203-204, 271, 308
trade law reforms, 199
trade relations, 87
see also U.S. entries
UNIX, 240
Uruguay Round
barriers to agreement on IPRs, 251-252, 357, 360
concerns about, 162
importance of, 239
India's IPR regime and, 162, 166-168
IPR discussions, 5, 15-16, 66, 80, 86-87, 99, 148, 153
semiconductor chip protection, 352
see also Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
U.S. Chamber of Commerce Intellectual Property Task Force, 122
U.S. Copyright Office
"rule of doubt," 285-286
source code deposit requirements, 286, 290
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 4, 249
Commissioner of Patents, 157
complaints about, 302
examination standard, 349
number of applications processed, 274
policy analysis process, 253
training of administrative staff, 86
U.S. patent system
advantages of, 201
biotechnology patents, 77-78, 226, 253, 257, 259-260, 276-277, 327-328, 367
burden of proof on infringement, 163
compulsory licensing, 163
computer program patents, 7, 8, 201, 234, 243, 252, 286-288, 292, 301-302, 308-309
creation of, 48-50
delay in issuance of patents, 254, 258, 274-275, 324
effect of Patent Law Harmonization Treaty on, 179-180
effect of TRIPS on, 177
"first to invent" standard, 152, 157
origin of, 184-185
term of protection, 327
U.S. Trade Representative, 176
V
Vagelos, P. Roy, 324-325
and joint ventures with U.S. firms, 114, 117
and licensing of technology by U.S. firms, 120
patent exclusions, 126
and technology transfer to wholly owned subsidiaries, 118
Venter, Craig, 258
Venture capital, availability in developing countries, 74
Videotapes, copying, 10, 160-161
Virginia Company, 48
W
Western Electric Company of Illinois, 228
Westwood, Albert R.C., 401-402
Whelan Associates, 296
World Intellectual Property Organization, 66, 162, 167, 175
Berne Convention protocol, 181
biotechnology study, 260-261, 270
Committee of Experts, 180-181, 260 n.14, 273
dispute settlement between states, 181-182
model patent law, 90 n.2
objectives, 175
Patent Law Harmonization Treaty, 179-180
reform processes, 282
review of patent differences, 91 n.3
study group on harmonization, 157-158
Trademark Law Harmonization Treaty, 180-181
training of administrative staff, 86