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Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies (1993)

Chapter: 15. National and International Programs

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Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

15
National and International Programs

Crop genetic resources have national and global importance. They are a valuable part of the cultural agricultural heritage of all nations, and their effective management and use are of strategic importance to national food security. Genetic resources are important to the agriculture of nations far beyond the geographic centers of origin or diversity. Access to and control of germplasm and information are important international issues, which are extensively debated at the international level. This chapter addresses the role of national programs in managing genetic resources and the need to develop an equitable and stable international system to guide the collection, management, conservation, and use of crop genetic resources for the benefit of all nations.

NATIONAL PROGRAMS

The primary purpose of a national system is to ensure that the genetic resources needed in agriculture, forestry, and conservation programs are available, evaluated, conserved, and used. This is a long-term requirement to safeguard national food production now and in the future, and it should be a responsibility of an official public agency. A national agency should assume the responsibility for carrying out a national policy on germplasm use and conservation and interact with other parts of the government structure that have responsibility for quarantine and research.

The germplasm activity in a country may be centralized or diffused,

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

public or private, large or small, or various combinations of these. When several organization are involved in germplasm management, the centralized coordination of information and documentation of the holdings in various collections is desirable. A national plant germplasm system must have the capacity and a policy to assemble germplasm (through active collecting or exchanging); process and store materials; grow, test, and evaluate; regenerate and distribute samples; and maintain appropriate data.

There is considerable variation among countries in the level of genetic resources activity, ranging from virtually none to rather large programs, such as that in the United States (National Research Council, 1991a), usually as part of national agricultural research systems. Only a limited number of countries, however, have clearly defined national objectives and policies and with an adequate infrastructure to preserve the germplasm resources necessary beyond their immediate needs.

Why are National Programs Necessary?

Access to diverse breeding materials essential to crop improvement is a major benefit provided by national programs. While the genetic diversity of major crop species has been extensively collected, much of the genetic diversity of others has not. This is especially true of many indigenous species that are poorly known outside the country or region where they are used. National programs are most appropriate for conserving these resources, since these minor species (in a global sense) may not command a high priority for international action.

The Importance of Exchange

Collections frequently include accessions obtained from other collections, and germplasm exchange operates in both directions. Plant germplasm exchange has played an important role in broadening the base of plant breeding, even in those countries that have a wide range of indigenous genetic resources. It has been shown that nations around the world benefit from the introduction of crops from other regions (Kloppenburg and Kleinman, 1988) (Table 15-1).

Participants in National Programs

Most existing collections have originated through the efforts of individuals involved in plant breeding, botanical and evolutionary

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

studies, or other research. For example, botanical gardens and arboretums have historically played a role in the collection, conservation, and exchange of certain types of germplasm (Plucknett et al., 1987); although intraspecific variation maintained is generally quite limited. In most countries, active collections are held in public agricultural research institutes. In some countries, private institutions and universities are the principal repositories.

Status of National and Regional Programs

National plant genetic resources conservation programs vary considerably in organizational structure, in the nature of materials conserved, and how those are used. Although many nations have some level of plant germplasm activity related to agriculturally important plants, there is no nation, to the committee's knowledge, that has a comprehensive approach to the identification and conservation (in situ or ex situ) of all, or even the most common, plant species extant in the country. Collections of agricultural crop species are most frequently handled by a branch of the crops research unit of the agriculture ministry. It could be argued that food and fiber crop species (including forestry species) should receive added priority attention in conservation programs, and they generally do when these types of programs exist. However, the conservation of economically important species as well as the protection of ecosystems would often be better if national policies and strategies dealt comprehensively with biological diversity.

The committee examined many national and regional efforts to manage crop genetic resources. Although not exhaustive, this activity has provided an overview of the present general status and needs of conservation, management, and use at the national level.

The Commonwealth of Independent States and Eastern Europe

Genetic resources work in Eastern Europe has a long tradition going back to the pioneering research and discoveries of Russian academician N. I. Vavilov. In the former socialistic system, genetic resources programs were guided by the Scientific-Technical Board for Wild Species and Cultivated Agricultural Plant Collection as part of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance encompassing the Soviet Union and all East European countries. They were coordinated by the N. I. Vavilov All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry (VIR). As a result, the collection and conservation of genetic resources were well established in that region. Local landcares

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

TABLE 15-1 Percentages of Regional Food Crop Production and Industrial Crop Area Accounted for by Crops Associated with Different Regions of Diversity

 

Regions of Diversity

Regions of Production

Chino-Japanese

Indo-chinese

Australian

Hindustanean

West Central Asiatic

Mediteranean

African

Euro-Siberian

Latin American

North American

Total Dependence

Food crops (percent production)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chino-Japanese

37.2

0.0

0.0

0.0

16.4

2.3

3.1

0.3

40.7

0.0

62.8

Indochinese

0.9

66.8

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.2

0.0

31.9

0.0

33.2

Australian

1.7

0.9

0.0

0.5

82.1

0.3

2.9

7.0

4.6

0.0

100.0

Hindustanean

0.8

4.5

0.0

51.4

18.8

0.2

12.8

0.0

11.5

0.0

48.6

West Central Asiatic

4.9

3.2

0.0

3.0

69.2

0.7

1.2

0.8

17.0

0.0

30.8

Mediterranean

8.5

1.4

0.0

0.9

46.4

1.8

0.7

1.2

39.0

0.0

98.2

African

2.4

22.3

0.0

1.5

4.9

0.3

12.3

0.1

56.3

0.0

87.7

Euro-Siberian

0.4

0.1

0.0

0.1

51.7

2.6

0.4

9.2

35.5

0.0

90.8

Latin American

18.7

12.5

0.0

2.3

13.3

0.4

7.8

0.5

44.4

0.0

55.6

North American

15.8

0.4

0.0

0.4

36.1

0.5

3.6

2.8

40.3

0.0

100.0

World

12.9

7.5

0.0

5.7

30.0

1.4

4.0

2.9

35.6

0.0

 

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

Industrial crops (percent area)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chinese-Japanese

8.3

4.7

0.0

1.4

7.4

27.5

0.1

0.0

45.4

5.1

91.6

Indochinese

5.0

43.5

0.0

7.1

2.9

0.0

22.6

0.0

18.8

0.0

56.4

Australian

0.0

51.2

0.0

0.0

1.8

3.3

0.0

0.0

15.4

28.3

100.0

Hindustanean

2.6

14.2

0.0

7.2

20.5

17.2

0.9

0.0

35.2

2.1

92.7

West Central Asiatic

1.5

14.7

0.0

0.0

4.5

14.2

0.1

0.0

56.6

8.4

95.5

Mediterranean

0.0

3.9

0.0

0.2

2.4

25.3

0.0

0.0

31.8

36.5

74.9

African

1.3

16.3

0.0

0.1

10.6

0.4

22.4

0.0

46.0

3.0

77.7

Euro-Siberian

0.4

0.0

0.0

0.1

12.8

41.3

0.0

0.0

17.5

27.9

100.0

Latin American

0.2

30.4

0.0

0.4

5.9

0.4

25.7

0.0

28.0

9.1

72.1

North American

0.0

3.7

0.0

0.0

8.3

33.1

0.0

0.0

39.6

15.3

84.7

World

2.1

13.7

0.0

2.0

10.8

18.2

8.3

0.0

34.4

10.5

 

NOTE: Reading the table horizontally along rows, the figures can be interpreted as measures of the extent to which a given region of production depends on each of the regions of diversity. The column labeled "total dependence" shows the percentage of production for a given region of production that is accounted for by crops associated with nonindigenous regions of diversity. Due to rounding error the figures in each row do not always sum to 100.

SOURCE: Kloppenburg, J.R., and D.L. Kleinman. 1988. Seeds of controversy: National property versus common heritage. Pp. 175–203 in Seeds and Sovereignty: The Use and Control of Plant Genetic Resources, J.R. Kloppenburg, Jr., ed. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. Reprinted with permission, ©1988 by Duke University Press.

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

and old cultivars have been well collected and programs begun notably in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, (formerly East) Germany, Hungary, Poland, the Republics of Montenegro and Serbia, and the Slovak Republic (Table 15-2). VIR also holds one of the largest worldwide collections of cultivated species.

However, today it seems unlikely that there will be adequate central and local support to sustain work on genetic resources at these centers. For example, letters written by the director of the program in Bulgaria point out the extreme lack of financial resources that is forcing this center to cut back its work drastically, or even cease operating altogether, with a major loss to the world community. Similar problems exist at VIR.

In general, genetic resources have had a higher priority in agricultural research in Eastern Europe than in Western Europe. Although the principle of free exchange of genetic resources has been supported, the accessibility of the collections to the international community has been hampered by a backlog in the development and availability of adequate computerized information systems. A major step forward has been realized through the establishment of a number of European data-base systems, as part of the European Cooperative Program for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR), for specific crops. However, these systems are under serious threat in the wake of political developments in the former Soviet Union and in Eastern Europe, and the enormous economic problems that have followed. Shortage of funds and change national priorities in a transfer to a market economy are taking their toll. While it is still difficult to assess the actual situation, it is obvious that international support is needed to avert the wholesale loss of valuable collections in most of these countries.

Western Europe

Since the 1950s, conservation of crop genetic resources has received increasing attention in western Europe. Previously, genetic variation was primarily assembled as part of breeding programs or in the context of taxonomic and ecogeographical studies at Universities and other specialized institutions. However, concern about genetic erosion has become widespread, and many countries have established a variety of activities specifically aimed at conservation of genetic variation (Table 15-2). Since 1959, many of these activities in Europe have been stimulated by the European Association for Research on Plant Breeding (EUCARPIA) through the Genetic Resources Section

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

TABLE 15-2 European Data Bases That Serve Important Roles in Coordinating Working Group Activities in the European Program

Crop or Species

Institute

Allium spp.

HRI, Wellesbourne, United Kingdom

Avena spp.

FAL, Germany (West)

Barley

ZIGuK, Germany (East)

Beta spp.

CGN, Netherlands

Prunus spp.

NGB, Sweden

Rye

PBAI, Poland

Cultivated Brassica spp.

PBAI, Poland

Pisum spp.

Wiatrowo Experimental Station, Poland

Sunflower

 

Cultivated species

CRI, Szeged, Hungary

Wild species

IFVC, Republics of Montenegro and Sebria

Forages

 

Tristeum flavescens and Arrhenatherum elatius

Research Station of Grasses, Roznava, Slovak Republic

Poa spp.

FAL, Germany (West)

Lathyrus latifolius, L. sylvestris, L. heterophyllus, and L. tuberosus

Institut de Biocénotique Experimentale des Agrosystèmes, Universitéde Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, France

Medicago, perennial species

Groupe d'Etude et de Contrôle des Varietée des Semences, INRA, La Minière, Guyancourt, France

Bromus spp.

RCA, Hungary

Trifolium alexandrinum, T. resupinatum, and wild related taxa

Field Crops Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel

Lolium spp.

Instituto del Germoplasma, CNF, Bari, Italy

Annual species, Phalaris spp., Vicia spp. and Hedysarum

 

Dactylis spp. and Festuca spp.

PBAI, Poland

Trifolium subterraneum annual species

INIA, Spain

Phleum spp.

NGB, Sweden

Trifolium pratense

Federal Agricultural Research Station, Changins, Switzerland

Lolium multiflorum, L. perenne, and Trifolium repens

WPBS, Aberystwyth, Wales

NOTE: The following acronyms are listed: CGN, Center for Genetic Resources; CNR Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche; CRI, Cereal Research Institute; FAL, Institut für Planzenbau and Pflanzenzüchtung der Bundesforschungsantalt für Landwirtschaft; IFVC, Fruit and Viticulture Research Institute; HRI, Horticultural Research Institute; INIA, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias; INRA, Institut National de la Recherche Agrnomique; NGB, Nordic Gene Bank; PBAI, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute; RCA, Research Center for Agrobotany, Institute for Plant Production and Qualifications; WPBS, Welsh Plant Breeding Station; ZIGuK, Zentralinstitut für Genetik and Kulturpflanzenforschung.

SOURCE: Adapted from International Board for Plant Genetic Resources. 1990. Annual Report 1989. Rome: International Board for Plant Genetic Resources.

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

National genetic resources conservation is organized in a variety of ways, ranging from national germplasm banks, such as those of Germany [West], Greece, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, Turkey, and a consortium of the Nordic countries, to coordinated institutional activities, such as those in Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, France, and Portugal. Mandates and objectives vary from conserving what is still available nationally to occasionally more basic approaches, for example, sampling overall genetic variation of certain crop species.

Programs tend to be largely opportunistic, with a few exceptions for individual crops, emphasizing exploitation rather than systematic long-term conservation of overall biodiversity. However, there are signs of change. The European Parliament decided in 1991 to establish a new and separate budget line for a European Community Program on the Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources to be executed through the commission's Directorate-General for Agriculture. This program is presently under consideration.

Eastern, Southern, and Southeastern Asia

Among the major germplasm banks of the world are those of the People's Republic of China which hold 4000,000 samples, with 200,000 accessions in long-term storage. Japan and India, each with under 100,000 accessions in long-term storage, are also among the most recent in establishing centralized modern long-term storage facilities. The Japanese seed storage facility at Tsukuba is, perhaps, the most mechanically sophisticated seed storage of its kind in the world. It went into operation in 1979 and expanded in 1986. In Beijing, a modern seed storage facility has recently been put into operation, and in India, a new central seed storage facility and laboratories are being developed with bilateral financial assistance.

As in other regions of the world, there is variety in the organizational pattern of genetic resources conservation programs in the various countries of Asia. Most are nationally coordinated programs, with centralized institutional germplasm bank for cultivars, for example, in Japan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, India, Nepal, Indonesia, the People's Republic of China, Thailand, and the Republic of Korea. Some countries have only special collections while others (for example, Myanmar) have no germplasm programs. Many have central coordinating councils or committees, but these need to be strengthened. Important to the region is the germplasm collection of the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center in Taiwan.

In addition to seed collections, clonal materials are maintained in

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

Researchers selectivity pollinate an experimental crop of hybrid onions growing in breeding cages. Several successful varieties released by the Indian Institute of Horticulture Research have provided higher yields and longer storage duration. Credit: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

the People's Republic of China, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, and several other Asian countries. Botanic gardens, arboreta, and parks play an important role in conversation programs in Sri Lanka, India, and Indonesia. In Indonesia, education of the public on the importance of conserving genetic resources is an integral part of the national effort, and public institutions, as well the general public, are encouraged to participate in maintaining many endangered species (Sastrapradja et al., 1985).

Latin America and the Caribbean

Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Cubae, Guatemala, and Mexico have established coordinated plant genetic resources conservation programs organized within the framework of the agricultural research institutions of the ministries of agriculture. Similar programs are emerging in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Chile. The Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE, Tropical Agriculture Research and Training Center) in Costa Rica serves a coordinating role in the Central American region. In other countries, modest collections are held by public or private institutions. For the most part,

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

there is little coordination among them. Considering the importance of the wide array of plant species throughout Latin America and the Caribbean, the present level of organization and support for genetic resources conservation is alarmingly inadequate.

Many gaps exists in national collections, especially collections of locally important plant species. The largest national program and ex situ collection of material is that of the Centro Nacional de Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia (CENARGEN, National Center for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology) in Brazil. CENARGEN and independent institutions that are coordinated through CENARGEN and Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria (EMBRRAPA, Brazilian Enterprise for Agricultural Research) conduct extensive collection efforts. Some collection efforts are made by international centers and germplasm banks outside Brazil, but in the absence of the necessary infrastructure (staff, laboratories, and storage facilities), the level of collection activities is relatively low.

In situ conservation is important in both the lowland and highland tropics and subtropics and thus, so is the need to conserve natural ecosystems. Although national authorities in Latin America recognize the urgency to build the capacity to acquire, conserve, and use germplasm, economic constraints and personnel shortages frequently place this activity at a low priority.

One model of a cooperative interregional program in Latin America is the Andean crop network of Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador that focuses on indigenous crop resources. For the past 25 years these countries have been collecting, documenting, maintaining, and characterizing more than 30 crops, including grains, tubers, and fruits that have been and are major staples for the highland populations of these countries (National Research Council, 1989b).

The CATIE germplasm bank in Costa Rica serves as a regional research and training center designed primarily to serve the Central American nations. In practice, its activities and influence extend beyond that region. CATIE initiated the Genetic Resources Project in 1976 with the help of international funding. It has an active evaluation program and maintains 5,000 accessions, representing 335 species, that are being grown out. There are about 6,000 accessions of seed in long-term, cold storage facilities that are capable of holding seed material at -17¹C and 5 to 7 percent relative humidity.

Africa

The national genetic resources conservation programs in Africa have recently been described in considerable detail (Attere et al., 1991;

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

Ng et al., 1991). In general, most activities have occurred over the past decade, although several germplasm collections originated from earlier breeding programs (for example, sorghum in eastern Africa and plantation crops in western and central Africa). Africa is endowed with great genetic diversity, but this wealth has not been adequately conserved and utilized (Thitai, 1991). There is, however, a growing awareness of the need to avert the loss of these important resources.

Currently, there is activity on genetic resources in about 30 countries that ranges from collection work to more coordinated comprehensive national programs (Attere et al., 1991; Thitai, 1991). The increased efforts that have occurred over the past decade are not widely recognized. Although these changes are paralleled in other regions of the developing world, they are more impressive in Africa because of the paucity of prior activities.

Africa covers a number of traditional centers of diversity. In recent years, a degree of regionality has emerged, particularly in the Southern African Development and Coordination Conference countries (Angola, Botswana,Lesotho, malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe). Consultations have led to the proposal for a regional program for southern Africa and a regional germplasm bank (Kyomo, 1991). A program of collection, conservation, and distribution has been established for the Great Lakes countries of Burundi, Rwanda, and Zaire (ne Nsaku, 1991). The program in Ethiopia, which was established in 1976, presently holds more than 45,000 accessions in a national center (Thitai, 1991).

Because of the interrelationships between Mediterranean countries and earlier regional programs, most countries of northern Africa have national programs, all with some form of seed storage and a national coordinator. More than 25 countries comprise eastern and southern Africa and the island states. Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda (eastern Africa); Burundi, Rwanda, Zaire (central Africa); Malawi, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (southern Africa); and Mauritius have defined national programs (Attere et al., 1991). National genetic resources programs are at various stages of development in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Sudan (Thitai, 1991). Genetic resources activities are ongoing in many other countries.

The 22 countries of western Africa show the widest range of development of national programs. Twelve have no national program at all, whereas Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and Senegal have more advanced national programs.

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×
Australia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea

Until the early 1970s, little attention was paid to the conservation of Australia's own native genetic resources or to the extensive materials introduced from overseas. The prevailing view was that additional material could easily be collected if it were required. The cost of recollection was considered lower than the cost of long-term conservation. This view gradually began to change with the increasing threats of genetic erosion in both Australia and overseas. International developments prompted Australian scientists to propose a national network of genetic resources centers that would conserve germplasm of Australian's most important crop and pasture species and tie this network in with the international network (Francis, 1986) sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Although this plan was accepted in principle by the state and federal governments in the mid-1970s, it took two major committees of enquiry and almost a decade to develop firm proposals for an Australian network of genetic resources centers. The complete network came into being in the late 1980s.

Eight centers, each with a professionally qualified curator, cover temperate crops and pasture plants of greatest economic importance in Australia. This includes a small center in the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization's Division of Plant Industry, Canberra, Australia, concerned with conserving relatives of crop plants indigenous to Australia that are often of great interest to other countries and that provide a valuable asset in reciprocal exchange programs. Although the situation with respect to the conservation of genetic resources is improved, there are still substantial gaps in the established network. For example, important groups of plants, such as horticultural forest species, have yet to be included in the Australian national system. Furthermore, there is an urgent need to develop national crop data bases on genetic resources that can be accessed through any or all of the centers.

New Zealand does not have a genetic resources program at present. It does, however, participate in international exchange activities and generally supports the concepts of conservation of biodiversity.

Germplasm activities in Papua New Guinea are carried out in the Crops Research Division of the Department of Agriculture and Livestock. The Laloki Station has responsibility for overall coordination of the plant genetic resources program. Vegetatively propagated materials are maintained in field germplasm banks or in active collections at various locations around the country. The main collections include sweet potato, banana, taro, yam, cassava, sugarcane, and sago.

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

Traditional vegetable, fruit and nut tree species, as well as cash crop species are maintained among various institutes and experiment stations. Seed collections, consisting mainly of introduced species are held in short- to medium-term storage. Except for winged bean and certain other indigenous food plants, the seed collections are mainly used for experimental purposes and not as germplasm stores. With the help of IBPGR, collecting trips made during 1986 and 1987 added samples to the collections of taro, yams, cassava, bananas, and other plants. Additional collecting activities have broadened the materials held in the respective field germplasm banks. Of particular significance are the banana and root and tuber crops.

North America

The United States and Canada have what they consider to be centrally coordinated national systems; however, many other public and private institutions participate in each system.

The U.S. National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) was recently reviewed by the National Research Council (1991a). It contains more than 350,000 individual accessions, with more than 240,000 of these being in long-term storage at the National Seed Storage Laboratory. On average, NPGS distributes about 125,000 samples to more than 100 countries each year.

Although germplasm activities began much earlier (National Research Council, 1991a), the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction was not established until 1898. It was expanded in 1946 with the establishment of regional plant introduction stations. The present NPGS emerged in 1974 following a major reorganization of the Agricultural Research Services of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (National Research Council, 1991a).

Plant Gene Resources of Canada operates as a unit under the Plant Research Center within the Research Branch of the Ministry of Agriculture. The system began in 1970 following a series of consultations. The system holds about 82,000 accessions. Both mid- and long-term storage facilities are maintained at the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Ontario. Materials are freely exchanged as long as they are available and plant quarantine procedures are met.

INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

Although the primary responsibility for the management of plant genetic resources rests with each nation, there are important reasons why nations should act in concert to protect, preserve, and use these

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

resources. First, the task is enormous, so the involvement of all nations would more likely ensure proper protection of the world's plant genetic resources. Second, it is in the self-interest of each nation to participate in a global system. Plant distributions are often transnational, and different plant species occur in different regions of the world. The alleles that are needed or that are useful in one region are often found in another. Finally, there are disparities among nations with regard to the location and holding of plant germplasm, the financial resources available for conservation and use, and the technical expertise and other vital components of germplasm management that only a global system of collaboration can help to structure for the equitable benefit of all concerned.

Despite the recognition by scientists since the early 1930s of the importance of genetic diversity and the accelerating pace at which landraces and natural populations of wild species related to crops were being lost (Frankel and Bennett, 1970; Frankel and Hawkes, 1975b; Harlan, 1975; National Research Council, 1972), there was no organized international effort until the 1960s to ensure the conservation and preservation of genetic diversity of even the most important food crops. In the 1940s and 1950s, many countries began to assemble their own collections based on collections developed by plant specialists or crop breeders. Concepts such as the conservation of the total spectrum of diversity was not a high priority in the early stages, until international organizations lent a vastly expanded dimension to these efforts (Chang, 1985e; Hawkes, 1985).

Food and Agriculture Organization

FAO convened the first international meeting on plant genetic resources in 1961 and later established the Panel of Experts on Plant Exploration and Introduction in 1965 (Frankel and Hawkes, 1975c; Williams, 1984). A parallel panel of experts on forest gene resources was established by FAO in 1968 (National Research Council, 1991b). FAO also established a crop ecology and genetic resources unit 1968 to deal with activities related to the collection, conservation, and documentation of genetic resources (Williams, 1984). Two major technical conferences, in 1967 and 1973, specifically on genetic resources were cosponsored by the International Biological Programs and FAO.

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

The greatest impetus to the internationalization of germplasm was provided with the establishment of the international agricultural

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

research centers (IARCs) in the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (Baum, 1986). The CGIAR system was established in 1971, at which time there were four operational IARCs (Baum, 1986). These and subsequent CGIAR centers amassed large germplasm collections as a consequence of their work on particular crops. Today they represent a major element of an emerging global germplasm system.

International Board for Plant Genetic Resources

The technical conferences on genetic resources and the FAO Panel of Experts consistently recommended that a global network of crop genetic resources centers be established. The United Nations Conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972, gave FAO the responsibility to assist in the establishment of an international genetic resources program (Frankel, 1988). Subsequently, FAO requested that the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) of the newly formed Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) establish a mechanism to encourage, coordinate, and support conservation of genetic resources and to make them available for use by all nations. Following a series of modifications of recommendations by TAC, CGIAR approved the formation of the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) (Baum, 1986). In 1974, IBPGR was organized to be associated with FAO in Rome, Italy. FAO provided logistical support to IBPGR and continued publishing its documents related to germplasm activities including its genetic resources newsletter.

In October 1991, a previously ratified agreement was signed by board members from China, Denmark, Kenya, and Switzerland, which established the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). After ratification by the Italian government is obtained, IPGRI will assume the duties of IBPGR and the latter will cease to exist.

European Association for Research on Plant Breeding

In 1959 the European Association for Research on Plant Breeding EUCARPIA) established the Wild Species and Primitive Forms Section (currently, the Genetic Resources Section). It highlighted the importance of using wild species related to cultivated crops as sources of genetic traits for disease and pest resistance, and as tools for understanding the evolution of crop gene pools. Since 1960, genetic conservation and the danger of genetic erosion in wild species and primitive forms have become major concerns of the association.

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

SELECTED INTERNATIONAL CROP DATA BASES

To address documentation, the IBPGR encourages the establishment of international data bases for various crops. These would logically be handled by base collection holders. Several international data bases are being developed. Through the European Cooperative Program for Conservation and Exchange of Crop Genetic Resources, several regional European data bases have been set up (see table below). Some of these regional data bases have spread beyond the confines of Europe and may eventually become part of international data bases. The extensive documentation system of the International Rice Research Institute may serve as an example of other international crop data bases under consideration.

Selected International Crop Data Bases

Data Base/Location

Description

Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT), Mexico

Maize germplasm in major Latin American germplasm banks. Software, ACCESSION EDITOR, developed to facilitate compilation of standardized maize passport data. Later, query software will be produced to facilitate the management of this large data base.

North Carolina State University, United States of America

Inventory of samples of wild Arachis spp. in major collections in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, India (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics [ICRISAT]), and the United States. Project initiated after recommendations of the joint meeting of the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR), and ICRISAT held in February 1989 at CIAT.

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Syria

Mediterranean forages. Project started in 1987 at IBPGR headquarters and continued in 1989 at ICARDA. Particular emphasis on filling gaps in records received earlier from germplasm banks in 15 countries. Data base on wild species closely related to wheat. Project was initially carried out at IBPGR headquarters (in 1988) and then moved to ICARDA.

University of Southampton, United Kingdom

ecogeographical data base for Vicia faba, Vicia sativa, and their relatives in Vicia subgenus Vicia. Data base will complement the Vicia section of Mediterranean forages system.

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

Data Base/Location

Description

University of Malaya, Malaysia

Records of Citrus spp. herbaria data necessary for studying the distribution of Citrus and its wild relatives in southeastern Asia. In 1989 IBPGR assisted the university in acquiring a microcomputer.

University of Reading, United Kingdom

First version of data base in primitive cacao germplasm (begun in 1988 with support of IBPGR and the Biscuit, Cake, Chocolate, and Confectionery Alliance of the United Kingdom) completed and distributed in 1989. Further development of the system includes information on morphology and disease resistance.

Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agronómos (ETSIA), Spain

Data base on Cucumis germplasm. After completion of documentation of comprehensive collection at Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas Spain, the work in 1989 concentrated on collating passport data from other major Cucumis collections.

Universidad Politecnica, Spain

Data base for cultivated Brassica species in the Mediterranean; follow-up to collecting missions sponsored by IBPGR.

Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute (PBAI), Poland

Data base for cultivated Brassica germplasm maintained in European collections.

International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), France

International Musa Conservation Network. Development of a Musa data base to serve the network.

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines

Worldwide rice germplasm conservation and dissemination services with special emphasis on tropical cultivars and wild species of Asia. Also serves as coordinator of the International Rice Testing Program. Data base includes germplasm, international nurseries, and breeding records, all interlinked and freely distributed. Germplasm data base includes pass port, characterization, and evaluation data. Seed storage, rejuvenation, viability monitoring, and distribution are computer managed. Also develops and supplies software for personal computers for national germplasm use.

SOURCES: International Board for Plant Genetic Resources. 1990. Annual Report 1989. Rome: International Board for Plant Genetic Resources; International Rice Research Institute. 1991. Rice Germplasm: Collecting, Preservation, Use. Los Baños, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute.

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

EUCARPIA was instrumental in recommending a series of germplasm banks that spanned Europe. The national germplasm banks of Italy and Germany (then, the Federal Republic of Germany) and the Nordic germplasm bank subsequently emerged. A germplasm bank committee of EUCARPIA continued to meet and has been closely related with IBPGR and the ECP/GR, which forged cooperation between eastern and western Europe largely through the development of European crop data bases.

THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

An original concept of the FAO Panel of Experts on Plant Exploration and Introduction was to establish regional exploration centers within the major regions of diversity of major crops. A regional approach makes botanical sense and was thought to be more effective because many centers of diversity are located in the less developed regions of the world that could not devote major resources to germplasm banks. Attempts to develop regional centers in the areas of major crop diversity were not successful (Baum, 1986). It became clear that the essential operating unit was the national program.

The basic function of IBPGR was to promote an international network of genetic resources centers in cooperation with national programs, donor nations and institutions, and individual scientists (International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 1988c). It was to act as a catalyst for stimulating the action needed to sustain a viable network of institutions for conserving plant genetic resources and to provide leadership and advice on establishing and managing germplasm collections. IBPGR activities included exploring and collecting important plant species; encouraging development of facilities for preserving and using collections; training germplasm specialists and technicians; fostering establishment of base collections of important crops; establishing operational standards for germplasm banks; creating a data and information center; publishing an annual status report on germplasm conservation activities; and assisting in the development of networks to facilitate the documentation and exchange of germplasm materials. The ultimate goal is a globally integrated genetic resources system.

Between 1978 and 1988, an estimated 230,000 samples of various crops were added to germplasm collections through multi-institutional collaborations, and field collection activities were carried out in more than 100 countries. The criteria for selecting crops and regions included the immediate or potential danger of genetic erosion, the economic and social importance of the crops, the requirements of plant breeding, and the availability of existing collections.

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

IBPGR policies today stress the need to analyze the available information on species distribution and collection holdings and has moved to more systematic programs based on effective sampling of gaps in collections or rescuing threatened germplasm (van Sloten, 1990b). IBPGR has given increased priority to strategic research on genetic resources and to raising the scientific standards applied in germplasm work worldwide.

In 1983, the Twenty-Second Biennial FAO Conference adopted Resolution 8/83, the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources. Under Article 9.2 of the annex to the resolution, the FAO council established the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources (see Chapter 14). The FAO commission was to

  • Monitor the international arrangements referred to in Article 7 that relate to the strengthening of international activities and development of an integrated global system;

  • Recommend measures that would ensure that the global system would be comprehensive and have an efficient operation; and

  • Review matters relating to the policy, programs, and activities of FAO in the field of plant genetic resources and to give advice to FAO.

The FAO is developing plans for a Fourth International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources to be held in 1995. Preparations include development of a report on the state of the world's plant genetic resources. This will be derived from individual country studies, regional reports, and a survey of national programs that is being conducted and analyzed in cooperation with IBPGR. From this, FAO hopes a plan of action will emerge to guide future plant genetic resources activities.

THE GLOBAL GENETIC RESOURCES NETWORK

Most available genetic resources are part of active collections. These have been assembled to serve the ongoing breeding and introduction programs of several hundred institutions throughout the world. Of the estimated 2.6 million accessions held worldwide, there are only about 1.3 million unique samples and about 35 percent of these are held by the crop-oriented IARCs (van Sloten, 1990a). To safeguard collections held outside the developed world and outside the IARCs, and to formalize worldwide responsibility, IBPGR proposed and helped to set up a network of institutions holding base collections of particular crops. As of 1990 about 50 institutions had voluntarily entered into an agreement to accept such responsibilities (International

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 1991). These include the IARCs within the CGIAR system, regional germplasm banks, and larger national programs in both developed and developing countries (Table 15-3). The intent is to duplicate each accession in at least two base collections. A good start has been made , but many minor crops are not yet stored in base collections; and many duplicate base collections have yet to be identified or stored. Several institutes and programs have accepted responsibility for maintaining selected vegetatively propagated crops as field or greenhouse collections (Table 15-4).

Regeneration is a major problem for seed collections, and few base collection holders have the capacity to do it. Another problem is that environmental specificity often requires multiplication under conditions not available in the country of the base collection holder. Furthermore, there are problems of limited support, inadequately trained staff, and poor management. Since the important materials are in long-term storage, however, there is still an opportunity to organize regeneration networks. (Chapter 5 contains a more detailed discussion of regeneration.)

Documentation is another problem. Accessions entered in a base collection should be accompanied by adequate passport data and, if possible, characterization data (see Chapter 8). This is often not the case, limiting the usefulness of such accessions to breeders.

IBPGR has spent much effort toward standardizing data collection and developing descriptor lists for various crops. The development of appropriate information systems specially designed for use in genetic collections and for facilitating the exchange of information between germplasm banks and with users and collection managers is only slowly improving.

OTHER INTERNATIONAL CENTERS

The IARCs form the backbone of the international network. They are responsible for collecting, distributing, and conserving the genetic resources of many specific food crops. An effective lead was provided by the program embarked on by IRRI at Los Baños, Philippines, which began operations in 1962. It now holds the major collections of the world's landraces of Indica and Javanica rices and is still expanding, and it has given added emphasis to wild rice species. Other IARCs are following suit, notably Centro Internacional de la Papa (potatoes and sweet potato), International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (sorghum, millet, chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut), Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (landraces

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

TABLE 15-3 Base Collections of Seed Crops That Accepted Responsibility for Long-Term Conservation

 

Scope of Collection

 

Crop and Species Covered

Global

Regional

Institute

Cereals

 

 

 

Barley

 

PGR, Ottawa, Canada

 

 

European

NGB, Lund, Sweden

 

 

African

PGRC\E, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

 

 

Asian

NIAR, Tsukuba, Japan

 

 

ICARDA, Syria

Maize

 

New World

NPGS, United States

 

 

Asian

NIAR, Tsukuba, Japan

 

 

Asian

TISTR, Bangkok, Thailand

 

 

European

VIR, Leningrad, Russia

 

 

Mediterranean

Portuguese Genebank, Braga, Portugal

Millets

 

 

 

Pennisetum spp.

 

NPGS, United States

 

 

PGR, Ottawa, Canada

 

 

ICRISAT, India

Eleusine spp.

 

PGRC/E, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

 

 

ICRISAT, India

Minor Indian millets

 

Indian

NBPGR, New Delhi, India

Eragrostis

 

PGRC/E, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Panicum miliaceum

 

ICRISAT, India

Setaria italia

 

ICRISAT, India

Oats (Avena spp.)

 

PGR, Ottawa, Canada

 

 

NGB, Lund, Sweden

 

 

FAL, Braunschweig, Germany (West)

Rice

 

 

 

Oryza sativa

 

 

 

O. indica

 

IRRI, Philippines

O. javanica

 

IRRI, Philippines

O. japonica

 

NIAR, Tsukuba, Japan

 

 

African

IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria

 

 

NPGS, United States

Wild Species

 

IRRI, Philippines

Rye

 

Polish Genebank, Radzikow, Poland

 

 

NGB, Lund, Sweden

Sorghum

 

NPGS, United States

 

 

ICRISAT, India

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

 

Scope of Collection

 

Crop and Species Covered

Global

Regional

Institute

Wheat

 

 

 

Cultivated species

 

VIR, Leningrad, Russia

 

 

CNR, Bari, Italy

 

 

NPGS, United States

 

 

Asian

CAAS, Beijing, People's Republic of China

 

 

ICARDA, Syria

Wild species

 

Plant Germplasm Institute, University of Kyoto, Japan

(Triticum and Aegilops spp.)

 

ICARTA, Syria

Food Legumes

 

 

 

Chickpea

 

ICRISAT, India

 

 

ICARDA, Syria

Cicer spp.

 

ICARDA, Syria

Faba bean

 

CNR, Bari, Italy

 

 

ICARDA, Syria

Groundnut

 

ICRISAT, India

 

 

South American

INTA, Pergamino, Argentina

Lentil

 

ICARDA, Syria

Lens spp.

 

ICARDA, Syria

Lupin

 

ZIGuK, Gatersleben, Germany (East)

 

 

European

INIA, Madrid, Spain

Pea

 

NGB, Lund, Sweden

 

 

Mediterranean

CNR, Bari, Italy

 

 

Central and East European

Polish Genebank, Radzikow, Poland

Phaseolus

 

 

 

Wild species

 

JBNB, Bruxelles, Belgium

Cultivated species

 

CIAT, Colombia

 

 

NPGS, United States

 

 

European

FAL, Braunschweig, Germany (West)

Pigeonpea

 

ICRISAT, India

 

 

NBPGR, New Delhi, India

Soybean

 

NIAR, Tsukuba, Japan

 

 

NPGS, United States

Wild perennial

 

CSIRO, Canberra, Australia

Vigna spp.

 

 

 

Wild species

 

JBNB, Bruxelles, Belgium

V. mungo

 

NBPGR, New Delhi, India

V. radiata

 

IPB, Los Baños, Philippines

 

 

AVRDC, Taiwan

V. umbellata

 

NBPGR, New Delhi, India

V. unguiculata

 

IITA, Nigeria

 

 

NPGS, United States

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

 

Scope of Collection

 

Crop and Species Covered

Global

Regional

Institute

Winged bean

 

IPB, Los Baños, Philippines

 

 

TISTR, Bangkok, Thailand

Root crops

 

 

 

Carrot

 

IHR, Wellesbourne, United Kingdom

Cassava (seed)

 

CIAT, Colombia

Solanum spp.

 

CIP, Peru

Sweet potato (seed)

 

NPGS, United States

 

 

Asian

AVRDC, Taiwan

 

 

NIAR, Tsukuba, Japan

Vegetables

 

 

 

Allium

 

CGN, Wageningen, Netherlands

 

 

IHR, Wellesbourne, United Kingdom

 

 

NPGS, United States

 

 

South and East European

RCA, Tápiószele, Hungary

 

 

Asian

NIAR, Tsukuba, Japan

Amaranthus

 

NPGS, United States

 

 

Asian

NBPGR, New Delhi, India

Capsicum

 

CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica

 

 

AVRDC, Taiwan

 

 

Asian

NBPGR, New Delhi, India

Cruciferae Brassica carinata

 

FAL, Braunschwieg, Germany (West)

 

 

PGRC/E, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

B. oleracae

 

CAAS, Beijing, People's Republic of China

 

 

IHR, Wellesbourne, United Kingdom

 

 

CGN, Wageningen, Netherlands

Raphanus

 

CAAS, Beijing, People's Republic of China

 

 

IHR, Wellesbourne, United Kingdom

 

 

Asian

NBPGR, New, Delhi, India

Wild species

 

Universidad Politécnica, Madrid, Spain

 

 

Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

 

Scope of Collection

 

Crop and Species Covered

Global

Regional

Institute

Oilseeds and green manures

 

 

 

B. campestris,

 

PGR, Ottawa, Canada

B. juncea

 

Asia

NBPGR, New Delhi, India

B. napus Sinapis alba

 

FAL, Braunschweig, Germany (West)

Vegetables and fodders

 

 

 

B. campestris, B. juncea,

B. napus

 

IHR, Wellesbourne, United Kingdom

B. napus

 

FAL, Braunschweig, Germany (West)

All Cruciferae crops

 

East Asian

NIAR, Tsukuba, Japan

Lactuca spp.

 

IHR, Wellesbourne, United Kingdom

 

 

CGN, Wageningen, Netherlands

Okra

 

NPGS, United States

 

 

NBPGR, New Delhi, India

Safflower

 

NBPGR, New, Delhi India

Tomato

 

CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica

 

 

ZIGuK, Gatersleben, Germany (East)

 

 

NPGS, United States

 

 

Asian

IPB, Los Baños, Philippines

Southeastern Asian vegetables

 

Southeast Asian

IPB, Los Baños, Philippines

Cucurbitaceae

 

 

 

Benincasa, Luffa, momordica, Trichosanthes spp.

 

IPB, Los Baños, Philippines

Cucumis, Citrullus,

Cucurbita spp.

 

NPGS, United States

Citrullus, Cucurbita spp.

 

VIR, Leningrad, Russia

Cucumis, Citrullus spp.

 

INIA, Madrid Spain

Eggplant

 

CGN, Wageningen, Netherlands

 

 

NPGS, United States

 

 

NBPGR, New, Delhi, India

Industrial crops

 

 

 

Beet

 

FAL, Braunschweig, Germany (West)

 

 

NGB, Lund, Sweden

 

 

Mediterranean

Greek Gene Bank, Thessaloniki

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

 

Scope of Collection

 

Crop and Species Covered

Global

Regional

Institute

Cotton

 

Mediterranean

Greek Gene Bank, Thessaloniki

Sugarcane (seed)

 

NIAR, Tsukuba, Japan

 

 

NPGS, United States

Tobacco

 

Mediterranean

Greek Gene Bank, Thessaloniki

Jute and kenaf

 

BJRI, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Forages

 

 

 

Legumes

 

 

 

Centrosema spp.

 

CIAT, Colombia

 

 

CENARGEN, Brazil

 

 

CSIRO, Brisbane, Australia

Desmodium spp.

 

CIAT, Colombia

 

 

CSIRO, Brisbane, Australia

Desmanthus spp.

 

CSIRO Brisbane, Australia

Stylosanthes spp.

 

CIAT, Colombia

 

 

CSIRO, Brisbane, Australia

Leucaena spp.

 

NPGS, United States

Lotononis spp.

 

ILCA, Ethiopia

 

 

Seed Bank, RBG, Kew, United Kingdom

Macroptilium spp.

 

CENARGEN, Brazil

 

 

CSIRO, Brisbane, Australia

Neonotonia

 

African

ILCA, Ethiopia

 

 

Seed Bank, RBG, Kew, United Kingdom

Zornia spp.

 

NPGS, United States

 

 

CIAT Colombia

Trifolium spp.

 

African

ILCA, Ethiopia

 

 

Seed Bank, RBG, Kew, United Kingdom

Grasses

 

 

 

Cynodon spp.

 

NPGS, United States

Cenchrus spp.

 

Seed bank, RBG, Kew, United Kingdom

 

 

ILCA, Ethiopia

 

 

CSIRO, Brisbane, Australia

Digitaria spp.

 

ILCA, Ethiopia

 

 

CSIRO, Brisbane, Australia

 

 

Seed Bank, Kew, RBG, United Kingdom

Pennisetum spp.

 

NPGS, United States

Paspalum spp.

 

NPGS, United States

Urochloa spp.

 

CSIRO, Brisbane, Australia

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

 

Scope of Collection

 

Crop and Species Covered

Global

Regional

Institute

Others

 

 

 

Tree species

(Fuel and environmental stabilization in arid areas)

Seed Bank, RBG, Kew, United Kingdom

Sesame

 

KARI, Nairobi, Kenya

 

 

RDA, Republic of Korea

Sunflower

 

European, Mediterranean

Plant Production Research Institute, Slovak Republic

NOTE: The following acronyms are listed: AVRDC Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center; BJRI, Bangladesh Jute Research Institute; CAAS, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; CATIE, Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigacióny Enseñanza; CENARGEN, Centro Nacional de Recursos Genéticos; CGN, Center for Genetic Resources; CIAT, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical; CIP, Centro Internacional de la Papa; CNR, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche; CSIRO, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization; FAL, Institut für Pflanzenbau und Pflnzenzüchtung der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landwirtschaft,; ICARDA, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas; ICRISAT, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics; IHR, Institute of Horticulture Research; IITA, Internatioanl Institute of Tropical Agriculture; ILCA, International Livestock Center for Africa; INIA, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias; Instituto Nacional de Technologia Agropecuaira; IPB, Institute of Plant Breeding; IRRI, International Rice Research Institute; JBNB, Jardin Botanique National de Belgique; KARI, Kenyan Agricultural Research Institute; NBPGR, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources; NGB, Nordic Gene Bank; NIAR, National Institute of Agrobiological Research; NPGS, National Plant Germplasm System; PGR, Plant Gene Resources of Canada; PGRC/E, Plant Genetic Resources Center; RBG, Royal Botanic Gardens; RCA, Research Center for Agrobotany, Institute for Plant Production and Qualification; RDA, Rural Development Administration; TISTR, Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research; VIR, N.I Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry; ZIGuK, Zentralinstitut für Genetik und Kulturpflanzenforschung.

SOURCE: Updated from International Board for Plant Genetic Resources. 1990. Annual Report 1989. Rome: International Board for Plant Genetic Resources. Reprinted with permission, ©1990 by International Board for Plant Genetic Resources.

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

TABLE 15-4 Field Germplasm Banks That Accepted Responsibility For Conservation (Active Collections for Vegetative Material), 1990

 

Geographical Representation

 

Crop and Species Covered

Global

Regional

Institute

Roots and tubers

 

 

 

Cassava

 

CIAT, Colombia

 

 

Central American

INIA, Mexico

 

 

African

IITA, Nigeria

Sweet potato

 

Asian and Pacific

AVRDC, Taiwan

 

 

IITA, Nigeria

Fruits

 

 

 

Banana

 

Banana Board, Jamaica

 

 

Southeast Asian

PCARRD, Philippines

 

 

African

DGRST, Cameroon

Citrus

 

East Asian

Fruit Tree Research Station, Tsukuba, Japan

 

 

Mediterranean

INIA, Valencia, Spain

 

 

Mediterranean and African

IRFA, Corsia, France

 

 

North American

USDA, United States

 

 

Latin American

CENARGEN, Brazil

 

 

South Asian

IIHR, Indiaa

Subfamily

 

University of Malaya,

Aurantioideae

 

 

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Industrial crops

 

 

 

Cacao

 

University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago

 

 

CATIE, Costa Rica

Sugarcane

 

Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, India

 

 

USDA, Florida, United States

Perennial species

 

 

 

Allium spp.

 

 

 

Short-day spp.

 

Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israela

Long-day spp.

 

Research Institute for Vegetable Growing and Breeding, Olomouc, Czech Republic

Arches spp. (wild)

 

Latin American

CENARGEN, Brazil

Glycine spp. (wild)

 

CSIRO, Australia

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

NOTE: The following acronyms are listed: AVRDC, Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center; CATIE, Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza; CENARGEN, Centro Nacional de Recursos Genéticos; CIAT, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical; CSIRO, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization; DGRST, Delegation Generale a La Recherche Scientifique; IIHR, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research; IITA, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture; INIA, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias; IRFA, Institut de Recherches sur les Fruits et Agrumes; PCARRD, Philippine Council for Agricultural and Resources Research and Development; and USDA, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

a Under discussion or awaiting formal agreement.

SOURCE: Updated from International Board for Plant Genetic Resources. 1990. Annual Report 1989. Rome: International Board of Plant Genetic Resources. Reprinted with permission, ©1990 by International Board for Plant Genetic Resources.

of Phaseolus species and cassava), International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (cowpea, yams, and rice), International Center for Research in Agroforestry (multipurpose trees), and others. These institutes have direct linkages, through their plant breeding programs and germplasm collections, to national agricultural research systems, and they serve as effective centers of germplasm exchange.

There is no systemwide genetic resources program formally coordinated within the CGIAR that addresses the complete range of plant genetic resources issues. However, the IARCs have organized an intercenter plant genetic resources working group to address issues of common interest.

CONSTRAINTS TO EFFECTIVE INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

The institutional problems largely stem from asymmetry in the availability and, more important, the used of genetic resources in plant breeding and biotechnology in developed and developing countries. Although, with few exceptions, the free exchange of genetic resources is taking place, there is an underlying uneasiness that increased involvement of the private sector in plant breeding may affect this free exchange, if not now, possibly in the future (see Chapter 14). The most important part of the solution is to improve the position of developing countries in plant breeding and seed production. Much of the earlier scholarship and fellowship support to train plant breeders and other agricultural scientists is no longer available. Some progress is being made through the activities of the CGIAR in cooperation with national programs. Much more needs to be done, however,

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

especially in improving the quality of collections. It is generally becoming appreciated that no country is self-sufficient in genetic resources and that all countries can benefit from the free flow of germplasm, especially if there is a strong capability in place to use it (Keystone Center, 1988, 1990, 1991).

The standards of management and the facilities that house the collections are also of concern. In response to criticism that genetic erosion was taking place in numerous germplasm banks because of inadequate conversation practices, IBPGR initiated a review of standards. Those germplasm banks that did not meet these standards were encouraged to make the necessary improvements, and some have done so (International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 1989a).

Much has been achieved in collection efforts, training, the establishment of germplasm banks (especially in developing countries), documentation, and research support. However, the funding available for genetic resources activities at both the national and international level does not reflect the substantially increased public and political awareness of the importance of genetic resources (Keystone Center, 1988, 1991). The CGIAR has consistently been a major provider of funds since the early 1970s. Funds from most other international sources have been smaller and, the debates of recent years notwithstanding, have not provided the substantial support that is needed. Clearly enhancement of the CGIAR's role would be the logical means of improving these programs. However, even within the CGIAR system, there is much variability in the emphasis on and quality of germplasm resource endeavors.

THE FUTURE

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, gave the biodiversity issue greater visibility and a higher place on the international political agenda. A draft Convention on Biological Diversity has received wide support. While vague and open ended in its general recommendations, the convention's message is clear: people are concerned about the general decline of biodiversity and recognize the need for international action to realize effective programs of plant genetic resources conservation, notably in centers of diversity.

The need for substantial additional and sustainable funding by the international community is acknowledged. The convention makes no specific recommendations about the level of funding and its governance or about how policies, strategies, program priorities, and eligibility criteria are to be established. These issues will be subject

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

to further negotiations in future conferences of parties to the convention and during the designation of a secretariat at an existing international organization.

Plant genetic resources relevant to agriculture are only part of overall biodiversity. In dealing with plant genetic resources, it is to be expected that existing structures and organizations will be taken into account. While still inadequate for reasons indicated in this chapter, a basic global structure is in place for plant genetic resources. It includes the FAO Commission on Plant Genetic Resources, which provides an intergovernmental platform for policies and oversight; the IBPGR, which coordinates and provides technical support at the program level; various regional programs; and ultimately international and national plant genetic resources programs. International cooperation in this structure is well established and accepted as the norm by most participating institutions, with the apparent emphasis in the draft convention on national sovereignty over indigenous plant genetic resources as a basic principle.

Various scenarios can be envisaged for the further development of international collaboration in germplasm conservation and use. These include a continued emphasis on national programs, Internationalization through CGIAR, internationalization through FAO, and internationalization through a new consortium of institutions.

Continued Emphasis on National Programs

Considerable progress has been made at many levels of germplasm conservation and use since 1970. Global activities take place in a coherent framework provided by IBPGR, the IARCs, and many regional programs. An increased awareness of environmental issues and the need to conserve nature in general benefit genetic resources conservation. The primary responsibilities, however, rest with national germplasm banks and the willingness of national governments to make available the resources necessary for crop germplasm conservation or a national genetic resources conservation strategy. A major problem with this approach is that a significant burden rests on developing countries in regions with major plant diversity. The need for development and the scarcity of resources make it unlikely that such countries will be able to assume this burden.

Genetic resources issues are attracting considerable political and public attention (see Chapter 14). However, genetic erosion continues to take place inside and outside germplasm banks, and genetic resources cannot be saved by political rhetoric. Only a few developing countries have sound genetic resources programs, other than the

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

IARC programs. This situation is unlikely to change significantly unless substantial and permanent international funding is made available to assist developing countries in financing their germplasm banks, which were largely built with foreign assistance.

In the long term, a global system that is able to coordinate and foster activities from in situ conservation to collection, evaluation, storage, distribution, and use would be in the interest of all nations. As the principal users and beneficiaries of conserved germplasm, national programs should have a significant role in this global effort.

Internationalization Through CGIAR

The CGIAR centers so far provide the strongest programs and links in genetic resources conservation. Although much is being achieved through CGIAR, its programs cover only a limited number of food crops and forages. There is limited coordination among the various commodity-oriented centers and in their relationship to IBPGR. CGIAR could strengthen the genetic resources work of those centers, inasmuch as they already have an international working base, essential facilities, and trained staff; however, this will require additional funding and improved coordination.

Most of the commodity-oriented IARCs are located in or near the major centers of species diversity for a large number of the world's food crops. Their present mandate for genetic resources covering specific crops could be extended to include wider regions. Although national germplasm banks currently cooperate with the genetic resources programs of the IARCs for individual crops, in an expanded program, the IARCs could actively promote and support both regional and national conservation programs. This would, however, broaden their responsibilities beyond breeding for specific crops. It would require a systemwide program that would set objectives and priorities independent from those of the individual crop research programs of the various IARCs. Such a program could be strengthened further by establishing within the overall budget of CGIAR a separate item for the genetic resources programs distributed over the IARCs. Regional committees and an overall advisory group could be devised to satisfy technical and national interests. This would have consequences for the role of the IBPGR, which would require consideration and proper linkages to such activities at other centers, and for large areas of the world not served by IARCs. The IARCs are not staffed to assume these tasks at present, however, and some may have little interest in pursuing them, even if funding were made available (Hawkes, 1985).

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×
Internationalization Through FAO

The FAO Commission on Plant Genetic Resources and its International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources are based on the notion that genetic resources are the common heritage of humankind (see Chapter 14). This concept implies international responsibility for genetic resources, which is further heightened by the fact that important centers of genetic diversity are located in the less developed and poorer regions of the world. The framework of the undertaking includes the following:

  • A basic legal structure (the undertaking itself) approved by members of the Twenty-Second Session of the FAO Conference;

  • An international forum (the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources) established at the 1983 FAO conference that offers an opportunity for countries to discuss issues related to plant resources; and

  • A financial mechanism (the International Fund for Plant Genetic Resources) through which contributions are received and applied toward conserving and using plant genetic resources.

The activities of the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources are directed toward the further refinement and implementation of the intent of the undertaking to strengthen the preservation, use, and availability of germplasm. It also addresses issues related to, for example, the establishment of a legal network of base collections, an international fund, and in situ conservation. There is an overlap between the aims of IBPGR and the stated objectives of the FAO commission, as there are among many agencies working in the area of genetic resources.

A major proposal of the commission has been the establishment of an international fund to finance genetic resources activities as well as activities in plant breeding and seed production in developing countries. The fund's specific objectives and the types of activities to be supported have yet to be defined.

Internationalization Through a New Consortium of Institutions

Many efforts related to the conservation of genetic resources, biodiversity, and the environment in general are under way. Many of them could be merged into a new structure, but efforts to do so have not progressed substantially. The programs of FAO and the IARCs, and many national programs, are focused primarily on food crops. Other plant conservation activities are usually undertaken by different

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

organizations including national governments and private organizations, yet it is increasingly evident that these diverse efforts are inextricably linked, or should be. Food crop and related species are one part of the total biological diversity. The species covered under the current efforts of FAO, the IARCs, and national programs must be expanded to perennial tree crops and other woody species of the tropics, many of which are of great value in sustainable agriculture systems and for improving the quality of life poor people in rural areas.

Furthermore, although nature conservation efforts have generally focused on in ex situ methods and genetic resources programs have focused on situ methods, in situ and ex situ technologies need to be more broadly applied in all genetic resources conservation programs. A properly structured and adequately funded organization could eliminate some of the institutional isolation and help to bring about a more holistic approach to the conservation of germplasm resources.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The world scientific and technical community has put in place the beginning of a functional network of both national and international genetic resources programs that are capable of safeguarding germplasm for the future. Present knowledge and rapid developments in a number of fields related to genetic conservation, including modern biotechnologies, provide a good basis for rational and selective conservation. Adequate operational funding remains the bottleneck.

Other problems still exist at the geopolitical level, however. Although the debate on the legal and effective ownership continues, genetic erosion also continues to take place, notably in developing countries, where most of the world's untapped genetic resources exist. It is in the interest of world agriculture that countries in regions with major genetic diversity be provided with the means to participate more fully in genetic resources conservation and use of biological resources.

International responsibility for conserving, managing, and using genetic resources must be translated into a workable form of funding within a coherent framework that satisfies the basic principles of the FAO International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

The options described are complementary. Any strategy should build on the existing framework and activities, stressing national involvement

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
×

and the cooperation of FAO, IBPGR, and the other CGIAR centers. A major criticism of the CGIAR has been that it has no formal legal basis for action among governments.

An adequate and appropriate funding mechanism must be established to support national and international conservation, management, and use of genetic resources.

Various funding mechanisms have been suggested, ranging from individual donations by interested countries to donations determined by specific criteria (see Chapter 13). International dialogue on the issue has yet to lead to a fully acceptable system. However, a consensus has recently emerged on establishing a global plant genetic resources initiative with a call for a trust fund that would be used to foster growth of local, national, regional, and global programs (Keystone Center, 1991).

Developed countries can afford, if they so desire, to maintain their own national germplasm banks in association with active breeding programs. However, external funding is needed to support the national germplasm banks, active collections, and international programs that serve developing countries. Support to national programs should be selective and based on such criteria as the availability of important genetic diversity and the specific interest and long-term commitment of the concerned government. On that assumption, only about 30 to 40 base collection germplasm banks worldwide would be needed to safeguard genetic resources. An annual contribution of US$5 million to each germplasm bank would probably allow a reasonable genetic resources program to be carried out (see Chapter 13). An additional US$40 million annually will be needed for general applied research, evaluation, and documentation programs. This adds up to a total of about US$240 million annually. Although this is a sizable sum, global commercial seed sales were estimated to be about US$30 billion (Barton and Christensen, 1988; Office of Technology Assessment, 1984), most of which were in developed countries.

When a germplasm banks has an efficient design and cost-effective equipment, the operating cost, excluding regeneration, is modest. For instance, the power consumption at IRRI costs under US$1 per accession each year (T. T. Chang, personal communication, June 1992). Increased collaboration and pooling of existing resources are essential to implementing new international efforts in the face of dwindling resources, both financial and biological.

Suggested Citation:"15. National and International Programs." National Research Council. 1993. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Crop Issues and Policies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2116.
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This anchor volume to the series Managing Global Genetic Resources examines the structure that underlies efforts to preserve genetic material, including the worldwide network of genetic collections; the role of biotechnology; and a host of issues that surround management and use.

Among the topics explored are in situ versus ex situ conservation, management of very large collections of genetic material, problems of quarantine, the controversy over ownership or copyright of genetic material, and more.

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