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Suggested Citation:"INDEX." National Research Council. 1994. Organizational Linkages: Understanding the Productivity Paradox. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2135.
×

Index

A

Accounting practice

cost-center analysis, 137

information technology and, 22-23

productivity assessment of, 127

in traditional performance evaluation, 144-145

Aerospace industry, 240, 241, 245, 248

Aggregation of data, 119, 120, 128, 171-172, 176-177, 184

theory of composition, 185, 298

American Hospital Supply Corporation, 43-44

Automated teller machines, 46, 89-90, 202

Automobile industry, 2, 56, 61, 232, 264

B

Banking/finance industry, 17, 18-20, 21, 23, 56

automated teller machines, 46, 89-90, 202

Behavior modification

measurement of productivity and, 107-108, 110-111, 139-140

principles of, 108-109

Biotechnology, 2

Bottlenecks, 117, 144, 155-156, 165, 175

C

Clerical productivity, 20

information technologies and, 33-36, 86

Communications

in computer-aided design, 249-250, 251-252, 260

in downsizing efforts, 269-270, 273-275

formalization of, 28-29, 252

in gain-sharing plans, 70-72

indexicality of, 27

individual skills, 197

in lean production systems, 66-67, 68

negative effect on productivity, 166, 225

social effects, 230

in software development, 10, 221, 222, 223-225, 226-228, 294

speed of, 26-27

team design and, 221, 226-228

threat-rigidity effect, 270

Communications industry, 18

Competency multiplier effects, 219-220

Competition

international, 1-2

managerial overhead and, 264

strategic information processing, 43-44

Composition theory, 185-188, 190, 298-299

Suggested Citation:"INDEX." National Research Council. 1994. Organizational Linkages: Understanding the Productivity Paradox. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2135.
×

Computer-aided design

assessment methodology, 141-142

computer-aided manufacturing and, 241, 259

data collection and management in, 243

definition of productivity in, 10, 244

designer-team linkage, 250-255, 259-260

expectations for, 10-11, 241, 243

implementation, 256-257

information flow in, 249-250, 251-252, 254-255, 260

isolation of workers in, 245, 251-252, 259-260

organizational complexity in, 247-248, 255, 260

principal activities in, 242-243

productivity determinants in, 243-250

productivity linkages in, 11

research needs, 259-260

resource management in, 245-246, 257-258, 260

role of, 240, 241

specialization in, 244-245, 253, 260

supervision, 250, 253-254, 260

system support, 248-249, 255-256, 260

team-organization linkage, 255-259, 260

tools, 248

training, 247

as transitional technology, 246-247, 254, 258, 260

workstation time-sharing, 245-246, 257-258

Computer-aided manufacturing, 241, 259

Computer-aided software engineering, 221n

Computer industry. See Software development

Conceptual Schematic Productivity model, 111-114

Continuous improvement, 70-71, 107, 147, 150

Core activities, 61-62, 293

Corporate investments, 2-3, 15, 17-18, 46

Customer service, 44-46

automation in, 62

subtask productivity analysis, 59-60

D

Document preparation

document revisions in, 34-35

quality vs. quantity trade-offs, 29-30

spoken communication vs., 26-27

See also Information technology

Downsizing

attitudes of retained workers, 275-276, 283-284

compensation for casualties of, 275, 283

as cost reduction tactic, 278-279, 281

as crisis management, 269, 270, 271, 274

cross-level effects, 267-268

decision-making processes, 270-271, 273

early retirement incentives in, 279

employee targeting in, 263-264, 276-277, 282-283

implementation, 268, 269, 272

information flow in, 269-270, 273-275, 285

level of application, 266-267

linkage insensitivity in, 271

mistaken beliefs in, 271-280, 288

obstacles to productivity gains in, 268, 281-284, 285, 295

organizational productivity and, 284-286, 292

partial factor productivity in analysis of, 262

participants in design of, 272-273, 276-277, 282, 283-284, 285

as productivity initiative, 11, 263-268

removal of top management in, 279-280

simultaneous restructuring, 278, 284, 285-286

successful model of, 281-286, 288

total factor productivity in analysis of, 262

trends, 263-266

value analysis in, 283

E

E-mail, 35, 225, 252

speech vs., 27, 28

Educational system, 141

Effectiveness, as assessment criterion, 8, 106, 134-135

Efficiency

coordination in groups, 230

as organizational assessment criterion, 8, 106, 134, 135

Employee compensation

bonus plans, 70, 71, 86-87

in downsizing, 275

Suggested Citation:"INDEX." National Research Council. 1994. Organizational Linkages: Understanding the Productivity Paradox. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2135.
×

gain-sharing plans, 69-72

in lean production systems, 68

productivity and, 48

response to change and, 85

stock participation, 83

subtask focus of, 86-87

wages, 2, 48

work behavior and, 108-109

Employee evaluation

misuse of productivity assessments, 127-128

motivation in, 140, 168, 171

in Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System, 178, 182-183

productivity measurement for, 107, 127-128

productivity vs. performance, 126-127

unit cost analysis, 127

Employee participation

in downsizing decisions, 272-273, 282, 283-284, 285

employee ownership and, 83

in innovation process, 136-137

in office automation decisions, 85

organizational congruence and, 140-141

in Scanlon plan, 70

in technology implementation, 257

trends, 207

F

Focus of attention, 65, 70, 75

Food service industry, 21, 108

G

Gain-sharing plans, 69-72

Goal alignment, 9, 107-111, 119, 139-141, 174, 183-184, 187, 202

Group functioning

communications in, 223-225

in composition theory, 185

in computer-aided design, 11, 250-255

coordination in, 10, 215, 225

in decentralized environments, 207, 260

degree of interdependence in, 185-187

entrainment process in, 228-229

experimental modeling, 230-232

in Goal Alignment model, 109-110, 119

individual performance and, 82, 117-121, 214, 218-219, 229-232, 250-255

in information technology, 33-36, 48

in innovation process, 137

input factors, 118

as measure of individual performance, 197

in organizational performance, 118, 187, 232, 250-255

performance measurement system for, 178-184

productivity determinants, 205

productivity linkages in, 122-123, 129

productivity measurement of, 117-119

public goods problem, 226n

research, 4, 229-232

role accuracy in, 187

in software development, 10, 214-215, 216-217, 218-229, 231-233

supervision, 185, 253-254

team design, 220-223

types of group structures, 120-121

worker isolation as productivity factor, 251-252, 259-260

H

Hiring practices, 95, 188

for software development teams, 220

Hourly output, 2, 263

Human factors research, 3-4

I

Individual performance/productivity

aggregation of data, 119, 120, 128

behavior modification in measurement of, 107-108, 139-140

communication skills, 197

components of job performance, 195-197, 199

in composition theory, 185

in computer-aided design, 250-255

Conceptual Schematic Productivity model, 111-114

in context of total performance, 126-127

in core vs. peripheral tasks, 61-62, 64-65, 293

demonstrated effort as factor in, 197

Suggested Citation:"INDEX." National Research Council. 1994. Organizational Linkages: Understanding the Productivity Paradox. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2135.
×

determinants of, 197-198, 204-206

direct observation for assessment of, 200-201

discipline as factor in, 197

downsizing effects, 267-268

effects of measurement on, 193

facilitative processes in organizations, 65-72

financial measures in assessment of, 127

gain-sharing plans and, 69-72

group performance and, 117-119, 128, 218-219, 250-255

information technologies and, 26-33, 35, 206

input measures, 124-125, 129

job-specific task proficiency, 195-196, 199

leadership skills, 197

management skills, 197

measurement of, 9

misuse of assessments, 127-128

model for IT assessment, 194-198

motivation in, 197, 198

non-job-specific task proficiency, 196

obstacles to measurement of, 128-129

obstacles to organization-level change, 58-64, 65, 73

organizational linkages, 56-64, 65, 72-76, 297-298

output determinants, 185

output measures, 123-124, 128, 168-170

peak vs. typical, 199-200

process determinants, 5-6, 58, 65-66

Productivity Servosystem model, 114-117

quality as assessment factor, 125-126

rating method, 200

research in, 4, 105-106

research needs, 77-79, 123-129

role linkages in, 57, 59-64

in software development team productivity, 215, 218-219

standardized sample for assessment of, 200

subtask relationships in, 57, 58-61, 86-87, 94-95

system determinants, 82

uncontrollable factors, 112-113

variables in, 111, 112

Industrial engineers, 4

Industrial/organizational psychology

behavior modification, 108-109

productivity research, 4

Information technology

administrative overhead in, 36-38

case studies, 211-212

clerical productivity and, 20

corporate investment in, 2-3, 15, 17-18, 46

corporate strategic applications, 43-44

customer service and, 44-46

ease of use and overuse of, 35, 41-42, 86

equipment obsolescence issues, 31

increases in workload related to, 33-36

interindustry comparisons, 16, 20-21

interrole effects, 62

intraindustry comparisons, 16, 21-24

labor productivity in, 145

latent structure, 195, 210

macro modeling of, 296-297

management control-seeking behavior, 40-41

management information systems, 21-22, 40-42, 48

multilevel analysis, 16-17

operator skills, 31-33

opportunity for profitability, 44-46

organizational communication and, 26-29

organizational structure and, 205-206

planning for implementation, 148

in poorly run vs. well-run firms, 25-26

productivity and, 47-49

productivity assessment, 194, 202, 207-208, 209

productivity components, 203-204, 210

productivity determinants, 205-206, 210

productivity improvement strategies, 206-208

quality vs. quantity trade-off in, 29-30, 48, 125

research needs in, 49, 158, 209-212, 297

sectoral analyses, 16, 17-20

socioeconomic impacts, 13, 14-15

spiraling investment in, 46-47, 90-91

subtask productivity analysis, 59-60, 86-87

See also Office automation

Innovation

international comparison, 137, 222

as organizational assessment criterion, 8, 106, 134, 136-137

Suggested Citation:"INDEX." National Research Council. 1994. Organizational Linkages: Understanding the Productivity Paradox. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2135.
×

Insurance industry, 17, 23-24, 46

Internal Revenue Service, 30

International linkages, 1-2

IT. See Information technology

J

Job classification, 68

Just-in-time manufacturing, 28

L

Labor costs, 91, 124-125, 129

M

Management/supervision

assessment activities, 138-139

assessment of, 197, 263

in computer-aided design, 250, 253-254, 260

control-seeking behavior, 40, 150, 223

decentralized, 207, 260

of downsizing efforts, 268-271

in dynamic environment, 143-144

as group performance variable, 185

growth trends, 264

improvement/PDCA cycle, 139, 147

information culture in, 40-42

introduction of office automation, 84-85

in IT productivity, 206-207

knowledge of results, 140

leadership climate, 83

level-specific performance evaluation, 141-143, 153, 168

by numbers, 41, 42, 48

optimal production technique strategy, 155-156

as organizational subsystem, 88

as overhead in IT, 36-38

participants in downsizing efforts, 272-273, 276-277

paternalistic style, 269-270

performance measurement needs, 145-146, 147-149, 167

productivity analysis for, 107

in productivity assessment, 129

as productivity determinant, 131-132, 205, 206

removal of, in crisis, 279-280

resource allocation issues, 257-258

role of, 138

social context of decision-making, 270

in software development teams, 222, 223

strategic planning, 147-148

of successful downsizing, 281-284, 285

systems model, 133, 134, 146-147

total quality management, 93-94

traditional measures of success in, 263

Marketing activities

customer service, 44-46

growth in, 38

information technology in, 22-23, 44-46

Material velocity management, 143-144, 155-156

Measurement of productivity outcomes, 136

administrative/managerial factors in, 129

aggregation of data, 176-177, 184

analysis of variance in, 208

as behavior modifier, 107-108, 139-140

comparison across units, 183, 184, 188

in computer-aided design, 244

in context of total performance, 125-126, 297-298, 300

contingencies concept, 179-181

cultural aspects of organizations, 99

data sources, 24-25

defining linkages in, 132-133, 139

definition of productivity in, 8-9, 202, 209

design variables, 153-155

in engineering design, 10

errors in, 127

financial measures in, 127

flexibility in, 139, 143-144, 151, 189

goal alignment in, 139-141

goals of, 128

good qualities in, 142-143, 150-152, 201

group level, 117-119, 129

hierarchical model, 9

inadequacy of, 131, 133-134, 157-158

individual level, 9, 106-107, 195

in information technologies, 14, 15-16, 194, 195, 209

as input/output ratio, 55, 244

input units in, 124-125, 129

knowledge of results in, 140

latent variable vs. observed measure, 194

in management system model, 147, 148-149

Suggested Citation:"INDEX." National Research Council. 1994. Organizational Linkages: Understanding the Productivity Paradox. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2135.
×

methods in, 200-201

misuse of results, 127-128

natural phenomenon, 166-172

new thinking in, 150-152, 158-159

obstacles to, 128-129

organizational conflicts as obstacle to, 166, 173-174, 177, 183-184

organizational goal alignment in, 9, 107-111, 119, 174, 202

at organizational level, 59

output units in, 123-124, 128, 168-171, 175, 185, 187, 190, 296

peak vs. typical performance, 197-198

performance components, 195-197, 199

performance determinants, 197-198

problems in, 24-26, 207

as productivity determinant, 193

productivity determinants, 204-206

Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System, 177-184, 211

profit impact of market strategies approach, 21

profound knowledge in, 133, 292-293

quality issues in, 125-126

research needs, 145-146, 209-212, 296-297, 300

role of, 106-107, 156, 167-168

scaling in, 193, 230-232, 295

selection of measures in, 152-153, 168-171

self-reported data in, 30

side effects of interventions in, 175-176

as source of productivity paradox, 7-8, 166, 171, 174-177

in strategic planning, 148

substantive theory, 193

task classification in, 120

taxonomy of linkage problems, 189

time lag effects, 7, 31, 157, 165, 175, 207

traditional measures, 139, 144-145

unit of analysis in, 202-203

user needs in, 139, 141-143, 154

welfare economics framework for, 18-19

Motivation, 66, 68-69, 71, 76

employee ownership and, 83

equipment problems and, 258-259

measurement of, 176, 178

operant psychology, 108-109

performance evaluation systems and, 140, 168, 171, 197, 198

productivity measurement as, 110-111

O

Office automation

definition, 84

employee response, 84-85, 97-98

generalizability of productivity outcomes, 91

implementation, 84-85

individual productivity and, 86-87, 94-95

labor costs and, 91

maintenance investments, 90-91

negative productivity effects, 86, 90, 91

obstacles to productivity improvement, 7

organizational subsystem interactions, 89-93, 95-96

symbolic values in, 97-98

technical problems in, 258

training, 91

See also Information technology

Organizational culture, 92-94, 97, 100

Organizational productivity

administrative overhead and, 36-38

analysis of variance in, 208

benefits of, 48

communications technologies in, 26-29

in computer-aided design, 255-259

conditions for improvement in, 72-76

coordination systems in, 65, 66-67, 68, 71-72, 74-75

core vs. peripheral tasks in, 61-62, 64-65, 293

defining linkages in, 132-133

determinants of, 205-206

downsizing and, 11, 284-286, 292

effects of measurement on, 193

equifinality of interventions for, 89, 93-94

facilitative processes, 65-72, 293-294

focus of attention in, 65, 70, 75

gain-sharing plans and, 69-72

goal alignment in, 173-174, 183-184, 187, 202

group functioning in, 33-42, 118, 187, 232, 255-259

horizontal linkages in, 295-296

implementation of interventions, 94

individual productivity and, 26-33, 57, 59-61

industry productivity and, 43-44

Suggested Citation:"INDEX." National Research Council. 1994. Organizational Linkages: Understanding the Productivity Paradox. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2135.
×

information technology in, 26-42, 43-47, 48-49, 205-206

in lean production systems, 68-69, 72

management functions in, 40-42, 48, 206

motivation processes in, 66, 68-69, 71, 76

office automation and, 6-7, 84, 86-87, 90, 91

in open system theory, 94-96

organization-specific measures of, 9, 107-111, 119, 139-141

organizational evolution and, 65-66, 70-71, 75-76, 78

in poorly run vs. well-run firms, 25-26

problem-solving systems in, 65, 67-68, 69, 71-72, 75, 78

process determinants, 5-6, 58, 65-66, 293-294

research needs, 76-79

role linkages in, 57, 59-64

side effects of interventions, 7, 165-166, 175-176

social linkages in, 77

sources of intervention failure, 207

system determinants of, 82, 83, 293-294

in systems model, 8, 99-100

as target of downsizing initiatives, 266-267

theory of aggregation for, 185

theory of composition for, 185-188, 190, 298-299

types of organizational linkages in, 56-58

vertical linkages in, 295-296

wages and, 48

See also Productivity

Organizational structure

company size, 263

complexity of linkages in, 57-58, 299

in computer-aided design, 247-248, 255, 260

degree of interdependency in, 58, 88

design activities in, 11, 162-164

dynamic homeostasis in, 89, 92-93

effects of office automation in, 89-93

employee compensation, 68-72

group structure in, 119

information needs at different levels of, 141-143, 153, 168

in IT productivity, 205-206

lean vs. mass production systems, 66-69, 72

linkages in, 162-165

as obstacle to productivity growth, 7, 293

as open system, 87-89, 94-96

organizational evolution and, 76

organizational subsystems in, 88, 162-164

political context, 97, 98-99

as productivity factor, 165, 175, 293-295

project teams, 10

specialization in, 88, 89-90

subsystem linkage as source of paradox, 184-185

subsystem reverberations, 88, 90-91, 95

system-wide intervention, 81, 95-96

taxonomy of linkage problems, 189

team design, 220-223

types of linkages in, 55-56, 189

See also Downsizing

Organized labor, 63-64

P

Partial factor productivity, 55, 262

Postal Service, U.S., 60-61, 62, 63, 64

Problem-solving systems, 65, 67-68, 69, 71-72, 75, 78

in Scanlon plan, 70

Product development, 263

Productivity

capital/labor, 19-20, 21, 145

company size and, 263

in computer-aided design, 10-11, 241, 243-250, 260

computer security measures and, 249-250, 254-255, 260

corporate investment in, 2-3

definitions, 8-9, 55, 106, 136, 202, 209, 244, 262

determinants, 204-206, 209

downsizing effects, 265-268

importance of growth in, 1-2

information technology components, 203-204, 209

partial factor productivity, 55, 262

profitability and, 43, 44

resource management issues, 246, 260

software/hardware upgrades and, 246-247, 258, 260

strategic planning for, 147-148

Suggested Citation:"INDEX." National Research Council. 1994. Organizational Linkages: Understanding the Productivity Paradox. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2135.
×

supervision issues, 253-254, 260

systems support in, 255-256, 260

task specialization in, 245, 253, 260

technology implementation in, 256-257

technology problems and, 258-259

throughput, 13-14

total factor productivity, 55, 262

trends, 2, 14-15

See also Individual performance/productivity;

Measurement of productivity outcomes;

Organizational productivity

Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System (ProMES)

aggregation of data, 184

conceptual base, 177

definition of productivity, 177

feedback report, 178, 182-183

linkage issues, 183-184

process, 178-181, 211

role of, 177-178

Productivity research

case studies in, 211-212

decentralized management, 207

downsizing effects, 284-287

individual level, 105-106

information technology, 14, 16-24

large group performance, 229-232

level of analysis, 3-4, 105, 161-162, 292, 295

linkages in software development, 218-219

multidisciplinary approach, 5

needs, 123-129, 145-146, 157, 185, 189-190, 259-260, 286-287, 294, 300

organizational linkages, 4-5, 162

software development teams for, 215

theory development, 74, 298-299

Productivity Servosystem model, 114-117

Profitability

company size and, 263

new technologies and, 44-46

as organizational assessment criterion, 8, 106, 134, 137

productivity and, 43, 44

Profound knowledge, 133, 292-293

Public goods theory, 226n

Purchasing procedures

computerization of, 43-44

corporate software, 32

organizational politics in, 98

Q

Quality

checkpoints, 135-136

information technologies and, 29-30, 48

as organizational assessment criterion, 8, 106, 134, 135-136

in productivity assessment, 8, 125-126

productivity rewards for employees, 87

total quality management, 93-94

Quality of work life, 8, 68-69, 106, 134, 136

R

Resource management, 245-246, 257-258

Retail settings, 92

Retirement incentives, 279

Robotics, 2

S

Scaling issues, 193, 230-232, 295

Scanlon plan, 69-72, 77

Security measures, 249-250, 254-255, 260

Shipbuilding industry, 2, 230-231

Side effects of interventions, 7, 165-166, 175-176

Size of companies, 263

Slack, 7, 11, 60-61, 63-64, 67, 73, 77, 78, 165, 188

Social linkages, 77

Software

in information technology productivity, 203, 246-247

product obsolescence as productivity issue, 31-32

spreadsheet modeling, 41-42, 90

Software development

analysis phase, 215

authority structure, 222, 228

coding operations, 216

communications in, 221, 222, 223-225, 226-228, 294

competency multiplier effects, 219-220

complexity of, 216

computer-aided, 221n

coordination in, 215, 216-226

design phase, 215-216

documentation of, 216

Suggested Citation:"INDEX." National Research Council. 1994. Organizational Linkages: Understanding the Productivity Paradox. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2135.
×

entrainment process in, 228-229

individual-group linkages, 10, 218-219

in information technology productivity, 203

infrastructure costs, 223

interdependence of components, 217-218

object-oriented design, 221n

process, 215-216

productivity determinants, 214-215, 233, 294

reassignment of members, 229

research on linkages, 218-219

role of teams in, 214

team design in, 10, 214, 219, 220-223, 226-228, 294

uncertainty in, 217

as unit of analysis, 215

unit of output in, 124

Specialization, 11, 88, 89-90, 244-245, 253, 260

Spreadsheet programs, 41-42, 90

Steel industry, 2, 263

Strategic planning, 147-148

Systems theory

analysis of decision-making, 96

in design of measurement systems, 154

human resources assessment in, 96-97

limitations of, 96

of management, 133

open systems, 87-89

organizational functioning in, 133-137

in productivity interventions, 94-96, 299

subsystem interactions in organizations, 88-94

T

Tank crew performance, 232

Task classification, 120

Textile industries, 2

Throughput productivity, 13-14

Time lag effects, 7, 31, 157, 165, 207

Total factor productivity, 55, 262

Total quality management, 93-94, 136, 147

Training

after downsizing, 275, 283

competency multiplier effects, 219-220

in computer-aided design, 247

hardware/software obsolescence and, 31-33, 246-247

office automation, 85, 91

in problem-solving, 68

software development teams, 219-220

system interactions in, 83

V

Valve-manufacturing industry, 22-23

W

Wages, 2, 48

Warehousing/inventory activities information technology in, 43-44

Warehousing operations, 23

Waste, 190

Suggested Citation:"INDEX." National Research Council. 1994. Organizational Linkages: Understanding the Productivity Paradox. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2135.
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Organizational Linkages: Understanding the Productivity Paradox Get This Book
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By one analysis, a 12 percent annual increase in data processing budgets for U.S. corporations has yielded annual productivity gains of less than 2 percent. Why? This timely book provides some insights by exploring the linkages among individual, group, and organizational productivity.

The authors examine how to translate workers' productivity increases into gains for the entire organization, and discuss why huge investments in automation and other innovations have failed to boost productivity.

Leading experts explore how processes such as problem solving prompt changes in productivity and how inertia and other characteristics of organizations stall productivity. The book examines problems in productivity measurement and presents solutions.

Also examined in this useful book are linkage issues in the fields of software engineering and computer-aided design and why organizational downsizing has not resulted in commensurate productivity gains.

Important theoretical and practical implications contribute to this volume's usefulness to business and technology managers, human resources specialists, policymakers, and researchers.

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