TABLE S-1 Summary of Factors Associated with Breastfeeding Initiation, Duration, and Exclusivity Among WIC Participants
Factor Associated with BF | BF Initiation | |
---|---|---|
Study | Association | |
BF beliefs/attitudes | ||
BF in first hour | Ma and Magnus, 2012 | ↑ |
BF in hospital | Ma and Magnus, 2012 | ↑ |
BF information in hospital | Ma et al., 2014 | ↔ |
Ma and Magnus, 2012 | ↑ | |
BF support groups | Gross et al., 2011 | ↑ |
Peer counseling | Gross et al., 2009 | Reference: standard care Peer counselor: ↑↑ Lactation consultant: ↔ |
Yun et al., 2010 | PC has other positions in WIC: ↔ BF coordinator is BF PC task force member: ↔ |
|
Birth weight | Ma and Magnus, 2012 | ↔ |
Gross et al., 2009 | Reference: normal weight Very low: ↑↑ Low: ↓↓ Very preterm birth: ↔ Unknown birth weight: ↔ |
|
Child age |
BF Duration | BF Exclusivity | ||
---|---|---|---|
Study | Association | Study | Association |
Wojcicki et al., 2010 | Embarrassing or difficult in public ↔ | ||
Difficult if someone else feeds the child ↔ | |||
Physically painful and uncomfortable ↑↑ | |||
If friends and family do not approve of breastfeeding impacts attitudes ↔ | |||
If husband/partner does not approve of breastfeeding impacts attitudes ↔ | |||
Langellier et al., 2012 | BF 6 months ↑↑ BF 12 months ↑↑ |
Langellier et al., 2012 | Exclusive BF 6 months ↑↑ |
BF 24 months ↑↑ | Exclusive BF 12 months ↑↑ | ||
Exclusive BF 24 months ↑↑ | |||
Haughton et al., 2010 | ↔ | ||
Langellier et al., 2012 | BF 6 months ↑↑ BF 12 months ↔ BF 24 months ↔ |
Langellier et al., 2012 | Exclusive BF 6 months ↔ |
Factor Associated with BF | BF Initiation | |
---|---|---|
Study | Association | |
Child care arrangement | ||
Child gender | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | Boy vs. girl ↔ |
Employed | Darfour-Oduro and | ↔ |
Kim, 2014 | ||
Foreign born | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | ↑↑ |
Formula at hospital | ||
Gestational diabetes mellitus | Ma et al., 2014 | ↔ |
Jacobson et al., 2015 | ↔ | |
Government assistance | Darfour-Oduro and Kim, 2014 | ↔ |
Gross et al., 2009 | Food stamps ↓ | |
Hypertension | Jacobson et al., 2015 | ↔ |
Incentives | Murimi et al., 2010 | Incentives to encourage breastfeeding ↔ |
BF Duration | BF Exclusivity | ||
---|---|---|---|
Study | Association | Study | Association |
Shim et al., 2012 | Reference: parental care | ||
Center-based care: ↔ | |||
Nonrelative care: ↔ | |||
Relative care: ↑ | |||
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | BF 4 months boy vs. girl ↔ | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | Boy vs. girl ↔ |
Haughton et al., 2010 | BF 6 months boy vs. girl ↔ | ||
BF > 6 months boy vs. girl ↔ | |||
Langellier et al., 2012 | BF 6 months boy vs. girl ↔ | ||
BF 12 months boy vs. girl ↔ | |||
BF 24 months boy vs. girl ↔ | |||
Darfour-Oduro and Kim, 2014 | BF 3 months ↔ | Darfour-Oduro and Kim, 2014 | ↔ |
Haughton et al., 2010 | BF 6 months ↔ BF > 6 months ↔ |
Wojcicki et al., 2010 | Early introduction to formula ↔ |
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | BF 4 months ↑↑ | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010; | ↔ |
Langellier et al., 2012 | BF 6 months ↑↑ BF 12 months ↑↑ |
Langellier et al., 2012 | Exclusive BF 6 months ↔ |
BF 24 months ↔ | |||
Langellier et al., 2012 | BF 6 months ↔ BF 12 months ↔ |
Langellier et al., 2012 | Exclusive BF 6 months ↓↓ |
BF 24 months ↔ | |||
Darfour-Oduro and Kim, 2014 | BF 3 months ↔ | Darfour-Oduro and Kim, 2014 | ↔ |
Factor Associated with BF | BF Initiation | |
---|---|---|
Study | Association | |
Income | Jacobson et al., 2015 | Reference: annual income ≥ 25,000 |
Annual income < 4,999 urban: ↑ | ||
Annual income < 4,999 rural: ↔ | ||
Annual income 5,000–9,999 urban: ↑ | ||
Annual income 5,000–9,999 rural: ↔ | ||
Annual income 10,000–14,999: ↔ | ||
Annual income 15,000–19,999: ↔ | ||
Annual income 20,000–24,999: ↔ | ||
Intention to BF | ||
Married | Ma et al., 2014 | ↔ |
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | ↑↑ | |
Darfour-Oduro and Kim, 2014 | ↑↑ | |
Ma and Magnus, 2012 | ↑↑ | |
Maternal age | Ma et al., 2014 | ↔ |
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | ↔ | |
Jacobson et al., 2015 | Reference: 30 and older 17 and younger: ↔ | |
18–19: ↑↑ | ||
20–29: ↔ |
BF Duration | BF Exclusivity | ||
---|---|---|---|
Study | Association | Study | Association |
Wojcicki et al., 2010 | ↑ | ||
Haughton et al., 2010 | BF 6 months ↔ BF > 6 months ↔ | Tenfelde et al., 2011 | Prenatal intention to exclusive BF ↑↑ |
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | BF 4 months ↑↑ | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | ↔ |
Darfour-Oduro and Kim, 2014 | BF 3 months ↑↑ | Darfour-Oduro and Kim, 2014 | ↔ |
Dodgson et al., 2007 | Duration any BF ↑↑ | Dodgson et al., 2007 | ↔ |
Wojcicki et al., 2010 | Early introduction to formula ↔ | ||
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | BF 4 months ↔ | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | ↑↑ |
Dodgson et al., 2007 | |||
Tenfelde et al., 2012 | BF cessation: ↓↓ | ||
Dodgson et al., 2007 | Duration any BF | Dodgson et al., 2007 | Duration of exclusive BF |
Reference: 22–29 | Reference: 22–29 | ||
21 and younger: ↑↑ | 21 and younger: ↔ | ||
30 and older: ↔ | 30 and older: ↔ |
BF Duration | BF Exclusivity | ||
---|---|---|---|
Study | Association | Study | Association |
Haughton et al., 2010 | ↑↑ | ||
Langellier et al., 2012 | BF 6 months ↑↑ | Langellier et al., 2012 | Exclusive BF 6 months ↔ |
BF 12 months ↔ | |||
BF 24 months ↔ | |||
Wojcicki et al., 2010 | Early introduction to formula ↔ | ||
Haughton et al., 2010 | Maternal weight ↔ | ||
Langellier et al., 2012 | BF 6 months, Reference: ≥ 7 months until work | Langellier et al., 2012 | Exclusive BF 6 months, Reference: ≥ 7 months until work |
4–6 months: ↔ | 4–6 months: ↔ | ||
0–3 months: ↓↓ | 0–3 months: ↓↓ | ||
Not employed: ↔ | Not employed: ↔ | ||
BF 12 months: | |||
4–6 months: ↔ | |||
0–3 months: ↓↓ | |||
Not employed: ↔ | |||
BF 24 months: | |||
4–6 months: ↔ | |||
0–3 months: ↓↓ | |||
Not employed: ↔ |
Factor Associated with BF | BF Initiation | |
---|---|---|
Study | Association | |
Number of children | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | ↔ |
Postpartum health/ depression | Darfour-Oduro and Kim, 2014 | ↔ |
Poverty | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | Poverty ratio: ↑↑ |
Gross et al., 2009 | At or below poverty: ↓↓ | |
Pregnancy intent | ||
Prenatal WIC enrollment duration | Yun et al., 2010 | Non-PC agencies Reference: < 3 months |
3–6 months: ↑↑ | ||
≥ 6 months: ↑↑ | ||
PC agencies | ||
< 3 months: ↔ | ||
3–6 months: ↑↑ | ||
≥ 6 months: ↑↑ | ||
Prenatal WIC participation | ||
Prepregnancy BMI | ||
Previous BF experience | ||
Race | Ma et al., 2014 | Reference: Non-Hispanic black |
Non-Hispanic white: ↑↑ | ||
Other: ↑↑ | ||
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | Reference: white | |
Non-Hispanic black: ↓↓ | ||
Hispanic: ↔ | ||
Non-Hispanic other: ↓↓ |
BF Duration | BF Exclusivity | ||
---|---|---|---|
Study | Association | Study | Association |
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | BF 4 months ↔ | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | ↔ |
Dodgson et al., 2007 | Duration any BF: ↔ | Dodgson et al., 2007 | ↔ |
Wojcicki et al., 2010 | ↔ | ||
Darfour-Oduro and Kim, 2014 | BF 3 months: ↔ | Darfour-Oduro and Kim, 2014 | ↔ |
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | PIR, BF 4 months: ↑↑ | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | PIR: ↑↑ |
Haughton et al., 2010 | ↔ | ||
Dodgson et al., 2007 | Duration any BF: ↔ | Dodgson et al., 2007 | ↔ |
Tenfelde et al., 2011 | Prepregnancy overweight/obese ↓↓ | ||
Tenfelde et al., 2012 | BF cessation: ↓↓ | ||
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | BF 4 months, Reference: white | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | Reference: white |
Non-Hispanic black: ↓ | Non-Hispanic black: ↓↓ | ||
Hispanic: ↓↓ | Hispanic: ↔ | ||
Non-Hispanic other: ↓↓ | Non-Hispanic other: ↓↓ |
Factor Associated with BF | BF Initiation | |
---|---|---|
Study | Association | |
Jacobson et al., 2015 | Reference: Non-Hispanic white | |
Non-Hispanic black: ↓↓ | ||
Hispanic: ↑↑ | ||
American Indian: ↔ | ||
Asian/Pacific Islander: ↔ | ||
Ma and Magnus, 2012 | Reference: white | |
Black: ↓↓ | ||
Gross et al., 2009 | Reference: Non-Hispanic African American | |
Non-Hispanic white: ↔ | ||
Non-Hispanic other: ↑↑ | ||
Hispanic: ↑↑ | ||
Unknown: ↑↑ | ||
Evans et al., 2011 | African American: ↓ | |
White: ↑ | ||
Hispanic: ↑ |
BF Duration | BF Exclusivity | ||
---|---|---|---|
Study | Association | Study | Association |
Tenfelde et al., 2012 | BF cessation, Mexican: | ↓↓ | |
Haughton et al., 2010 | ↔ | ||
Langellier et al., 2012 | BF 6 months ↔ | Langellier et al., 2012 | Exclusive BF 6 months, Reference: Hispanic |
BF 12 months ↔ | Non-Hispanic white: ↑↑ | ||
BF 24 months ↔ | Non-Hisapnic black: ↔ | ||
Other: ↔ | |||
Wojcicki et al., 2010 | Early introduction to formula | ||
Reference: white | |||
Asian/Pacific Islander: ↑↑ | |||
Black/African | |||
American: ↔ | |||
Latino: ↔ |
Factor Associated with BF | BF Initiation | |
---|---|---|
Study | Association | |
Region of the United States | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | Reference: East |
Midwest: ↔ | ||
South: ↔ | ||
West: ↑↑ | ||
Stress factors at home | Ma and Magnus, 2012 | Number of stress factors at 12 months before baby was born ↑↑ |
Time in the United States | ||
Trimester medical care began | Jacobson et al., 2015 | Reference: 1st trimester 2nd trimester: ↔ |
3rd trimester urban: ↓↓ | ||
3rd trimester rural: ↔ | ||
No medical care: ↔ | ||
Ma and Magnus, 2012 | Prenatal care in 1st trimester: ↓ | |
Trimester WIC entry | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | Reference: No participation 1st trimester: ↓↓ |
2nd trimester: ↔ | ||
3rd trimester: ↔ | ||
Jacobson et al., 2015 | Reference: 1st trimester | |
2nd trimester urban: ↓↓ | ||
2nd trimester rural: ↔ | ||
3rd trimester urban: ↓↓ | ||
3rd trimester rural: ↔ | ||
Postpartum urban: ↔ |
BF Duration | BF Exclusivity | ||
---|---|---|---|
Study | Association | Study | Association |
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | BF 4 months, Reference: East | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | Reference: East |
Midwest: ↔ | Midwest: ↔ | ||
South: ↔ | South: ↔ | ||
West: ↑↑ | West: ↑↑ | ||
Haughton et al., 2010 | Years in the United States ↓↓ | ||
Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | Reference: No participation | Ziol-Guest and Hernandez, 2010 | Reference: No participation |
1st trimester: ↓↓ | 1st trimester: ↔ | ||
2nd trimester: ↔ | 2nd trimester: ↔ | ||
3rd trimester: ↔ | 3rd trimester: ↔ | ||
Tenfelde et al., 2011 | 1st trimester entry: ↑↑ | ||
Langellier et al., 2012 | BF 6 months: ↔ | Langellier et al., 2012 | ↔ |
BF 12 months: ↔ | |||
BF 24 months: ↔ |
Factor Associated with BF | BF Initiation | |
---|---|---|
Study | Association | |
Metallinos-Katsaras et al., 2015 | No previous live birth 1st vs. 3rd: ↑↑ | |
2nd vs. 3rd: ↑↑ | ||
1st vs. 2nd: ↔ | ||
1 or more previous live births | ||
1st vs. 3rd: ↑↑ | ||
2nd vs. 3rd: ↑↑ | ||
1st vs. 2nd: ↑↑ | ||
No previous live birth | ||
Prenatal vs. postpartum: ↔ | ||
1st trimester vs. postpartum: ↔ | ||
1 or more previous live births | ||
Prenatal vs. postpartum: ↑↑ | ||
1st trimester vs. postpartum: ↑↑ |
BF Duration | BF Exclusivity | ||
---|---|---|---|
Study | Association | Study | Association |
Metallinos-Katsaras et al., 2015 | First birth First vs. third: | ||
BF 3 months: ↔ | |||
BF 6 months: ↔ | |||
BF 12 months: ↔ | |||
Prenatal vs. postpartum | |||
BF 3 months: ↔ | |||
BF 6 months: ↔ | |||
BF 12 months: ↔ | |||
Subsequent birth | |||
First vs. third: | |||
BF 3 months: ↔ | |||
BF 6 months: ↔ | |||
BF 12 months: ↔ | |||
Second vs. third: | |||
BF 3 months: ↑↑ | |||
BF 6 months: ↑↑ | |||
BF 12 months: ↔ | |||
First vs. second: | |||
BF 3 months: ↓↓ | |||
BF 6 months: ↔ | |||
BF 12 months: ↑↑ | |||
Subsequent birth | |||
First vs. third: | |||
BF 3 months: ↑↑ | |||
BF 6 months: ↑↑ | |||
BF 12 months: ↑↑ | |||
Second vs. third: | |||
BF 3 months: ↑↑ | |||
BF 6 months: ↑↑ | |||
BF 12 months: ↑↑ | |||
First vs. second: | |||
BF 3 months: ↔ | |||
BF 6 months: ↔ | |||
BF 12 months: ↑↑ |
Factor Associated with BF | BF Initiation | |
---|---|---|
Study | Association | |
Joyce et al., 2008 | 1st vs. 3rd: ↑↑ | |
1st vs. 2nd: ↑↑ |
NOTES: BF = breastfeeding; BMI = body mass index; PC = peer counselor; PIR = poverty-to-income ratio. ↑↑ Factor was significantly associated with higher BF initiation, longer duration (continuous or categorical outcomes), or exclusivity in adjusted analysis; ↑ Factor was significantly associated with higher BF initiation, longer duration (continuous or categorical outcomes), or exclusivity in unadjusted/crude analysis; ↔ no significant association; ↓ Factor was significantly associated with lower BF initiation, shorter duration (continuous or categorical outcomes), or shorter exclusivity in unadjusted/crude analysis; ↓↓ Factor was significantly associated with lower BF initiation, longer duration (continuous or categorical outcomes), or exclusivity in unadjusted/crude analysis; data excluded in summary if no significance tests were performed.
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