National Academies Press: OpenBook

Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination (2016)

Chapter: 3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries

« Previous: 2 Review of the Social Security Administration and Other Selected Capability Determination Processes
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

3

Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries

As discussed in the preceding chapters, impairment of the ability to manage or direct the management of one’s benefits can lead to the appointment of a third party—in the U.S. Social Security Administration’s (SSA’s) terminology, a representative payee—to perform that function. Representative payees who appropriately discharge their role can enable beneficiaries who lack financial capability to meet their basic needs and to sustain the quality of their lives. However, empowering another person with control over disbursement of an individual’s financial resources also creates risks for improper use or mismanagement of those funds or actual financial abuse. A representative payee’s failure to disburse funds appropriately can have life-altering consequences, including insufficient funds to pay for housing, food, and clothing. When an individual lacks these necessities, consequences can include the development or exacerbation of health problems, which may require hospitalization; a decision to turn to criminal activity to obtain money, resulting in legal charges and possible incarceration; and inability to pay rent, which can lead to homelessness or institutionalization (Conrad et al., 2006; Moberg and Rick, 2008). Given the range of potential consequences of the appointment of a representative payee, the committee was asked to consider the effects of SSA’s decision to appoint a representative payee on the beneficiary.

BENEFITS ASSOCIATED WITH THE APPOINTMENT OF A REPRESENTATIVE PAYEE

Representative payee programs have been found to have significant positive effects on a beneficiary’s ability to live independently, which in

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

turn affects the individual’s health and well-being. Appointment of a representative payee is associated with increased ability to meet basic needs (Luchins et al., 2003); declines in homelessness, victimization, and arrests (Rosenheck et al., 1997; Stoner, 1989); and increased adherence to outpatient substance abuse treatment (Ries and Comtois, 1997). For individuals diagnosed with a mental impairment, better money management is associated with superior quality of life, fewer hospitalizations, improved treatment compliance, and greater self-efficacy (Elbogen et al., 2011; Luchins et al., 2003, 2014).

Research results are mixed as to whether the representative payee arrangement reduces substance abuse (Ries et al., 2004) or has no effect (Rosen, 2011; Rosen et al., 2007; Swartz et al., 2003). Even if substance abuse does not decrease, however, clients with representative payees are more likely to stay engaged in substance abuse and mental health treatment (Conrad et al., 2006; Ries and Comtois, 1997). In addition, coordination of a community-based representative payee program with psychiatric and clinical care has been associated with reduced substance use and improved quality of life and money management (Conrad et al., 2006).

In addition to effects on individual beneficiaries, the representative payee program may have positive economic implications for the communities in which beneficiaries live. For beneficiaries with mental illness and/or substance abuse currently involved in community human service programs, these programs provide the oversight needed to maintain household independence, avoid the use of shelters and confinement, and encourage participation in substance abuse treatment. Without independent housing, people often turn to family or friends, or become homeless. The societal cost of homelessness is surprisingly high because of the associated costs of hospitalization, medical treatment, incarceration, police intervention, and emergency shelter expenses (Pinellas County Board of County Commissioners, 2012, p. 22). For example, the average cost to incarcerate an inmate for a year in a community corrections center is $26,163, which is approximately $72 per day (Federal Register, 2013). Estimates of the annual cost of chronic homelessness range from $35,000 to $150,000 per person, which is $96 to $411 per day (Henwood et al., 2015). Such expenses often are borne by taxpayers through their local governments.

In sum, the committee recognizes that appointment of a representative payee can have significant positive effects on individual beneficiaries, with notable improvements in their abilities to live independently, and on communities, which can avoid the costs associated with providing institutional care—whether in shelters, residential treatment facilities or correctional facilities—to incapable beneficiaries. However, in addition to such positive effects, appointment of a representative payee also has potential negative consequences.

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH THE APPOINTMENT OF A REPRESENTATIVE PAYEE

There are potential psychological consequences of having a representative payee appointed to manage one’s benefits. Having access to one’s money and being able to manage it oneself is, for many people, critical to feelings of self-worth. Being able to control how one’s money is spent is considered one of the essential elements of liberty and of self-determination. Loss of control over finances can provoke fear and anxiety, be seen as a threat to autonomy, and encourage dependence (Dixon et al., 1999; Luchins et al., 2014), and having a representative payee may be perceived by the beneficiary as stigmatizing (Elbogen et al., 2008).

A representative payee is most often a friend or family member of the beneficiary, although other individuals (e.g., lawyers) or organizations (e.g., religious or community organizations, mental health centers, nursing or group homes) also may serve in this role. As work on guardianship has demonstrated, the outcome for the person with a guardian is affected by the characteristics of the guardian (Quinn, 2005; Quinn and Krooks, 2012). If the guardian is responsible, committed to keeping the person housed and in the community, and steadfast in allowing maximum personal freedom, the quality of the person’s life and the scope of permitted actions may be better than would be the case if the beneficiary were left without such support. If the guardian is not dedicated to the person’s best interests, however, having a guardian may reduce the quality of the person’s life.

Representative payee arrangements have the potential to significantly impact the beneficiary’s relationships with family members or friends serving in this role. Beneficiaries can be negatively affected by strain in their familial relationships resulting from conflict over the money management responsibilities of family members acting as representative payees. Indeed, having a family member who serves as their representative payee or on whom they are otherwise financially dependent has been found to be associated with a significantly increased risk of interpersonal conflict, aggression, and family violence perpetrated by individuals with severe mental illness (Elbogen et al., 2005b, 2008; Estroff et al., 1994, 1998). In one study, the risk of family violence by beneficiaries with severe mental illness doubled when a family member served as representative payee (Elbogen et al., 2008).

Assignment of a representative payee also has potential legal implications. As discussed in greater detail below, assignment of a representative payee infringes on an individual’s autonomy and may limit his or her civil liberties. The committee heard about a specific example of the potential legal implications at its first meeting, when SSA described its reporting requirements under the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act (Brady

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

Act).1 Under the act, any person who “has been adjudicated as a mental defective” is prohibited from possessing a firearm. Such individuals are to be reported to the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS), which gun dealers must check before selling a firearm. Currently, the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) reports to the NICS the names of beneficiaries deemed incompetent under its system. At the committee’s first meeting (Stanton, 2015) and in further correspondence,2 SSA reported that it was determining how it must comply with such reporting obligations with regard to beneficiaries deemed incapable. On January 4, 2016, the White House announced that SSA will begin the rulemaking process for reporting to the NICS.

USE OF BENEFITS AS LEVERAGE

Research has shown that, although they are not intended to take on this role, representative payees often attempt to improve treatment adherence, discourage substance use, or encourage other behaviors by using access to benefits as leverage (Appelbaum and Redlich, 2006; Elbogen et al., 2005a). Approximately 30-59 percent of patients report experiencing some form of leveraging (i.e., of access to money or housing, or avoidance of commitment to an institution or incarceration), associated primarily with efforts to reduce substance abuse and frequent hospitalizations (Appelbaum and Redlich, 2006; Elbogen et al., 2003a; Monahan et al., 2001). Attempts to influence a beneficiary’s behavior may be carried out in various ways. For example, a community mental health center may disburse benefits only when a treatment group is scheduled, thereby encouraging the beneficiary’s attendance. State-wide surveys of mental health center representative payee programs in Illinois and Washington State found disbursement of benefits to be at least moderately linked to avoidance of substance abuse in most programs and tightly linked in a substantial minority of programs. For most programs, receipt of benefits was tied less commonly to engagement in mental health treatment (Hanrahan et al., 2002; Ries and Dyck, 1997).

Leverage, however, can move beyond encouragement of desired behaviors to coercion, with the line between the two not always clear. Indeed, the same behavior may be viewed as leverage by its proponents and as coercion by its critics. Whereas leverage implies an effort to influence the beneficiary’s behavior in ways that are believed to be helpful to the person (e.g., avoidance of substance abuse), control of a person’s benefits can also be used to compel behaviors for the benefit of the representative payee

___________________

1 18 USC 922.

2 Personal communication, M. Rochowiak, Office of Disability Policy, SSA, September 21, 2015.

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

(e.g., demanding performance of work around the house in exchange for access to benefits), in effect exploiting the beneficiary. Beyond coercion, there is also the potential for overt misuse of benefits. For example, representative payees may pay bills with beneficiaries’ funds that benefit both the beneficiaries and the payees, such as their rent or food bills, or divert benefits directly for their own purposes. Although an examination of misuse of benefits by a representative payee is beyond the scope of this study, the potential effects of such actions on beneficiaries need to be acknowledged.

Even though leverage may produce several positive outcomes as compared with no use of leverage—for example, less alcohol and drug use and better money management (Ries et al., 2004)—the question of its legitimacy is legally and morally complex. One might argue that leveraging a beneficiary’s funds to ensure adherence is in the best interest of the beneficiary. Alternatively, critics might view such action as a violation of the beneficiary’s civil liberties (see the discussion of this issue below). To be most effective, leverage must be used carefully. One study found, for example, that clients were more likely to agree that leveraging funds was helpful if they also had opportunities to make decisions regarding their mental health treatment (Elbogen et al., 2005a). (Beneficiaries’ perspectives on leveraging of their benefits are discussed further below.) The knowledge base on the effectiveness and consequences of leverage would be expanded by additional research with control groups and alternative treatments, as well as longitudinal studies.

THE BENEFICIARY’S PERSPECTIVE

As discussed above, research has demonstrated many potential benefits and raised some concerns about the impact on the beneficiary of having a representative payee appointed. However, much of this research is based on reports from caregivers, practitioners, and representative payees, and less research has examined the impact from the perspective of the beneficiary. Those studies that have looked at the beneficiary’s perspective have explored satisfaction with having a representative payee, views on coercion, and use of funds.

Dixon and colleagues (1999) interviewed 54 clients with persistent mental illness who participated in an inner-city assertive treatment program and their case managers who served as representative payees regarding the benefits and problems associated with having a representative payee. They found that clients’ satisfaction with having a case manager as a representative payee was initially low, but the longer clients had a case manager serve as a representative payee, the more satisfied they became. Overall, both clients and case managers reported benefits of having a representative payee in the areas of housing, budgeting, and control of drug and alcohol

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

use. Fifty-three percent of the clients reported feeling very involved in the development of a monthly budget, and only 20 percent reported feeling that having the case manager as the representative payee interfered with the therapeutic process.

Elbogen and colleagues (2005a) explored beneficiaries’ feelings about the use of disability funds by representative payees as a way to improve treatment adherence. In this study, 104 clients recently diagnosed with schizophrenia or a related condition were interviewed. A majority (65 percent) of respondents reported that attempts to increase treatment adherence by withholding benefits were unhelpful. Those who felt respected by the representative payee were less likely to see this practice as coercive. Those with higher levels of education were more likely to perceive this strategy as coercive. Additionally, respondents who reported abusing substances in the previous month were less likely to endorse the use of benefits to increase adherence.

Angell and colleagues (2007) explored the effects of having a payee and the experience of “perceived financial leverage”3 on client–provider relationships. Their sample included 205 adults with mental illness who were receiving services from an urban community mental health clinic. Of those clients with a clinician as a payee, 40 percent reported perceived financial leverage. Clients with a clinician as a payee also reported experiencing more conflict, negativity, and intrusion in the client–practitioner relationship. Based on their analyses, the authors posited that “payeeship leads to strain in the therapeutic relationship when it is used as a mechanism for promoting adherence” (p. 370). Lastly, Elbogen and colleagues (2003b) conducted a study of persons hospitalized with a diagnosis of a psychotic or major affective disorder. A minority of clients with representative payees reported insufficient money to cover basic expenses such as housing, food, and shelter. However, 43 percent reported not having enough spending money for enjoyable activities. This complaint was more common among those whose representative payee was not a family member. As the authors note, lack of spending money may be highly problematic given the importance of social skills and social networks for individuals with severe mental disorders.

Taken together, this literature suggests that while beneficiaries may perceive some benefits to having a representative payee, such as maintaining stable housing, those who have a clinician as representative payee may perceive this arrangement as coercive and may experience a loss of

___________________

3 Respondents were categorized as experiencing perceived financial leverage based on an affirmative response to questions regarding (1) “whether the payee had ever withheld money until the respondent followed through on mental health treatment, alcohol or drug treatment, or taking medication”; or (2) “whether, in the past six months, anyone had made them feel as though they would not receive spending money if they did not attend treatment appointments or take medications” (Angell et al., 2007, pp. 366-367).

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

autonomy. However, the literature in this area is sparse and includes only individuals with mental illness, leaving the perspectives of other beneficiaries unexplored.

MINIMIZING THE IMPACT ON AUTONOMY OF HAVING A REPRESENTATIVE PAYEE

As noted above, appointing a representative payee raises legal issues related to individual civil liberties; it also raises philosophical issues of autonomy, societal responsibility, and justified paternalism. On the one hand, individuals who have reached adulthood are presumed to possess moral agency and legal rights that, in general, protect their decisions about personal health and well-being, how they spend their money, and how they manage their affairs. On the other hand, clear observation and a review of the available data on incapacity demonstrate that in many adults, the ability to exercise their moral agency and legal rights is restricted by developmental delay, neurodegenerative disorders, mental illness, or physical impairment. To deem someone incapable when he or she is not erodes personal liberty, creates stigma through labeling, deprives the person of the freedom to direct personally appropriate actions based on long-held values and preferences, and creates opportunities for exploitation. Alternatively, to permit someone incapable of clear inner direction to continue to manage his or her personal financial affairs may cause the person preventable harm resulting from mismanagement of funds and an increased potential for victimization by others.

Ultimately, the decision to appoint a representative payee entails weighing the beneficiary’s personal autonomy and preferences, or what remains after impairment, against paternalistic intervention meant to protect his or her best interests. Autonomy has been defined as “personal rule of the self that is free from both controlling interferences by others and from personal limitations that prevent meaningful choice” (Pantilat, 2008). In the case of persons needing a representative payee, however, it is precisely the personal limitations that demand the help of others. In such cases, a paternalistic approach may be warranted. For the purposes of this discussion, paternalism is defined as “the interference of a state or an individual with another person, against their will, and defended or motivated by a claim that the person interfered with will be better off or protected from harm. . . . At the theoretical level it raises questions of how persons should be treated when they are less than fully rational” (Dworkin, 2014). Such paternalism is commonly evident in a variety of contexts, such as legal (e.g., seatbelt laws, motorcycle helmet laws, antidrug legislation), medical (e.g., a physician withholding information about a patient’s condition), and medico-legal (e.g., civil commitment, requiring minors to have blood transfusions despite religious prohibition). In the case of SSA representative payment, the role of

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

the payee is to ensure that the person is sheltered and has sufficient money for food, shelter, and clothing, thus being protected from the consequences of his or her impairments and not becoming a burden on family and society.

SUPPORTED DECISION MAKING

It is also important to recognize that the decision to appoint a representative payee need not vitiate autonomy and substitute strict paternalism. Over the past few decades, the field of medicine increasingly has moved away from a paternalistic approach, with clinicians making decisions on behalf of patients according to their perceptions of patients’ best interests, toward a concept of shared decision making. Shared decision making in medicine has been defined as

a model of patient-centered care that enables and encourages people to play a role in the management of their own health. It operates under the premise that, armed with good information, consumers can and will participate in the medical decision-making process by asking informed questions and expressing personal values and opinions about their conditions and treatment options. (AHRQ, n.d.)

Such a model brings together the clinician’s expertise and the patient’s preferences, values, and opinions to reach a decision on important health care choices. Research has shown that the benefits of this model include increased patient satisfaction, more favorable health outcomes, and lower demand for health care resources (AHRQ, n.d.).

In a similar fashion, society has become increasingly attuned to assisting persons with disabilities in maximizing their intellectual potential and enhancing their moral authority with respect to decisions about their lives. Accordingly, recent years have seen a call by disability rights activists to move away from the traditional model of surrogate decision making, in which individuals are authorized to make decisions for persons with intellectual and cognitive disabilities, to a model of supported decision making, which acknowledges that some elements of autonomy—of holding values and preferences—survive despite these disabilities and are deserving of support by others.

Such a model has increasingly been encouraged or endorsed both in the United States and internationally. For example, courts in New York4 and Virginia5,6 have ruled in favor of persons with intellectual disabilities

___________________

4 In Re: the Guardianship of Dameris L., Pursuant to SCPA Article 17-A.

5Ross et al. v. Hatch, 2013.

6 See http://supporteddecisionmaking.org/sites/default/files/ross_hatch_trial_court_decision.pdf (accessed February 23, 2016).

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

seeking to terminate guardianship in favor of a supported decision-making model that assists and supports autonomy instead of superseding it. In 2015, Texas enacted Senate Bill 1881, enabling an adult with a disability to “voluntarily, without undue influence or coercion, enter into a supported decision-making agreement with a supporter.”7 The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ Administration for Community Living has endorsed this model as well, and provided funding for the creation of a national training, technical assistance, and resource center (the National Resource Center for Supported Decision Making) to gather and disseminate data and generate research on shared decision making (Bishop and Walker, 2015). The VA, as discussed in Chapter 2, uses a similar model (supervised direct payment) in certain cases in which a beneficiary is rated incompetent but determined to be capable of managing his or her benefits with supervision. Internationally, Article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities recognizes that “persons with disabilities enjoy legal capacity on an equal basis with others,” including the right to manage their financial affairs, and should be provided, when needed, the support necessary to exercise their legal capacity.8 Many countries, including Australia, Canada, and Sweden, among others, have increasingly supported such a model.

The concept of supported decision making can inform perspectives on determining a beneficiary’s need for a representative payee. With proper support, some beneficiaries who might otherwise require the appointment of a representative payee may be able to manage or direct the management of their benefits. For example, beneficiaries with disabilities who are prone to fluctuations in financial capability may be provided support proportional to their needs as situations dictate.

Supported decision making also can inform the role of the representative payee. Representative payees endorsing and using a supported decision-making model may encourage the expression of preferences, beliefs, and values; foster collaboration in decision making; provide skills training to improve financial competence and performance; and ensure opportunities for beneficiaries to make independent decisions, whenever possible. When supported decision making is pursued appropriately, a person with a representative payee may have more actual control over his or her life than someone without such support.

___________________

7 See http://www.capitol.state.tx.us/BillLookup/BillSummary.aspx?LegSess=84R&Bill=SB1881 (accessed February 23, 2016).

8 See http://www.un.org/disabilities/default.asp?id=272 (accessed February 23, 2016).

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

SUMMARY

This chapter has examined the effects of appointment of a representative payee on the beneficiary, which may include significant health (physical and mental), social, familial, and financial impacts. The consequential nature of appointing a representative payee implies the need to make such decisions with great care and the best evidence available.

Representative payees who appropriately discharge their role can enable beneficiaries who lack financial capability to meet their basic needs and to sustain the quality of their lives. Representative payee programs can have significant positive effects on a beneficiary’s ability to live independently; meet basic needs; avoid hospitalization, homelessness, victimization, or arrest; remain engaged in substance abuse treatment; and increase quality of life. Such programs may also have positive economic implications for communities in which beneficiaries live, which can avoid the costs associated with providing institutional care to incapable beneficiaries.

However, appointment of a representative payee also has potential negative effects. Loss of control over finances can have psychological consequences, affecting feelings of self-worth, provoking fear and anxiety, encouraging dependence, and threatening autonomy. Relationships with family members or friends who serve as representative payees can be strained by conflict over money management. Additionally, empowering another person with control over disbursement of an individual’s financial resources creates risks for improper use or mismanagement of those funds or actual financial abuse.

Although they are not intended to take on this role, research shows that representative payees may also try to leverage access to benefits to improve treatment adherence, discourage substance use, or encourage other behaviors. Leverage, however, can move beyond encouragement of desired behaviors to coercion, with the line between the two not always being clear. While leverage implies attempts to influence the beneficiary’s behavior in ways that are beneficial to the individual, control over an individual’s benefits can also be used to compel behaviors for the benefit of the representative payee, in effect exploiting the beneficiary.

Although limited, research on the beneficiary’s perspective suggests that beneficiaries have mixed feelings about the appointment of a representative payee, with positive feelings growing over time. Although beneficiaries may perceive some benefits to having a representative payee, such as maintaining stable housing, improved budgeting, and control of drug and alcohol use, beneficiaries who have clinicians as representative payees may view this arrangement as coercive and may perceive a loss of autonomy.

Ultimately, the decision to appoint a representative payee entails weighing the beneficiary’s personal autonomy and preferences, or what remains

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

after impairment, against paternalistic intervention meant to protect his or her best interests. However, appointing a representative payee need not vitiate autonomy and substitute strict paternalism. A supported decision-making model can inform perspectives on determining the need for and the role of the representative payee, and provide a foundation for a relationship that positively impacts the beneficiary. Representative payees endorsing and using such a model may encourage the expression of preferences, beliefs, and values; foster collaboration in decision making; and provide opportunities for beneficiaries to make independent decisions, whenever possible. Appropriate use of this model may provide a beneficiary with greater control over his or her life relative to someone without such support.

REFERENCES

AHRQ (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality). n.d. Shared decision-making. https://cahps.ahrq.gov/quality-improvement/improvement-guide/6-strategies-for-improving/communication/Shared-Decision-Making/index.html (accessed January 29, 2016).

Angell, B., N. I. Martinez, C. A. Mahoney, and P. W. Corrigan. 2007. Payeeship, financial leverage, and the client-provider relationship. Psychiatric Services 58(3):365-372.

Appelbaum, P. S., and A. Redlich. 2006. Use of leverage over patients’ money to promote adherence to psychiatric treatment. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 194(4):294-302.

Bishop, A., and E. Walker. 2015. Preserving the right to self-determination: Supported decision-making. ACL Blog. http://www.acl.gov/NewsRoom/blog/2015/2015_01_28.aspx (accessed January 29, 2016).

Conrad, K. J., G. Lutz, M. D. Matters, L. Donner, E. Clark, and P. Lynch. 2006. Randomized trial of psychiatric care with representative payeeship for persons with serious mental illness. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.) 57(2):197-204.

Dixon, L., J. Turner, N. Krauss, J. Scott, and S. McNary. 1999. Case managers’ and clients’ perspectives on a representative payee program. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.) 50(6):781-786.

Dworkin, G. 2014. Paternalism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2014 Edition). http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/paternalism (accessed January 29, 2016).

Elbogen, E. B., J. W. Swanson, and M. S. Swartz. 2003a. Psychiatric disability, the use of financial leverage, and perceived coercion in mental health services. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 2(2):119-127.

Elbogen, E. B., J. W. Swanson, M. S. Swartz, and H. R. Wagner. 2003b. Characteristics of third-party money management for persons with psychiatric disabilities. Psychiatric Services 54(8):1136-1141.

Elbogen, E. B., C. Soriano, R. V. Dorn, M. S. Swartz, and J. W. Swanson. 2005a. Consumer views of representative payee use of disability funds to leverage treatment adherence. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.) 56(1):45-49.

Elbogen, E. B., J. W. Swanson, M. S. Swartz, and R. Van Dorn. 2005b. Family representative payeeship and violence risk in severe mental illness. Law and Human Behavior 29(5):563-574.

Elbogen, E. B., C. Wilder, M. S. Swartz, and J. W. Swanson. 2008. Caregivers as money managers for adults with severe mental illness: How treatment providers can help. Academic Psychiatry 32(2):104-110.

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

Elbogen, E. B., J. Tiegreen, C. Vaughan, and D. W. Bradford. 2011. Money management, mental health, and psychiatric disability: A recovery-oriented model for improving financial skills. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 34(3):223-231.

Estroff, S. E., C. Zimmer, W. S. Lachicotte, and J. Benoit. 1994. The influence of social networks and social support on violence by persons with serious mental illness. Psychiatric Services 45(7):669-679.

Estroff, S. E., J. W. Swanson, W. S. Lachicotte, M. Swartz, and M. Bolduc. 1998. Risk reconsidered: Targets of violence in the social networks of people with serious psychiatric disorders. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 33(1):S95-S101.

Federal Register. 2013. Annual determination of average cost of incarceration. Washington, DC: Office of the General Counsel, Federal Bureau of Prisons. https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2013/03/18/2013-06139/annual-determination-of-average-cost-of-incarceration (accessed January 29, 2016).

Hanrahan, P., D. J. Luchins, C. Savage, G. Patrick, D. Roberts, and K. J. Conrad. 2002. Representative payee programs for persons with mental illness in Illinois. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.) 53(2):190-194.

Henwood, B. F., S. L. Wenzel, P. F. Mangano, M. Hombs, D K. Padgett, T. Byrne, E. Rice, S. C. Butts, and M. C. Uretsky. 2015. The grand challenge of ending homelessness (Grand Challenges for Social Work Initiative Working Paper No. 10). Cleveland, OH: American Academy of Social Work and Social Welfare.

Luchins, D., D. Roberts, and P. Hanrahan. 2003. Representative payeeship and mental illness: A review. Administration in Policy in Mental Health 30(4):341-353.

Luchins, D. J., P. Hanrahan, K. J. Conrad, C. Savage, M. D. Matters, and M. Shinderman. 2014. An agency-based representative payee program and improved community tenure of persons with mental illness. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.) 49(9):1218-1222.

Moberg, P. J., and J. H. Rick. 2008. Decision-making capacity and competency in the elderly: A clinical and neuropsychological perspective. NeuroRehabilitation 23(5):403-413.

Monahan, J., R. J. Bonnie, P. S. Appelbaum, P. S. Hyde, H. J. Steadman, and M. S. Swartz. 2001. Mandated community treatment: Beyond outpatient commitment. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.) 52(9):1198-1205.

Pantilat, S. 2008. Autonomy vs. beneficence. http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ethics/Content%20Pages/fast_fact_auton_bene.htm (accessed February 9, 2016).

Pinellas County Board of County Commissioners. 2012. Workshop session: The economic impact of poverty. http://www.stpete.org/oldsite/economic_development_dept/redevelopment_initiatives/docs/PSSCRA/May_2012___Pinellas_County___Economic_Impact_of_Poverty.pdf (accessed February 11, 2016).

Quinn, M. J. 2005. Guardianship of adults: Achieving justice, autonomy, and safety. New York: Springer.

Quinn, M. J., and H. S. Crooks. 2012. The relationship between the guardian and the court. Utah Law Review 2012(3):1611-1666.

Ries, R. K., and K. A. Comtois. 1997. Managing disability benefits as part of treatment for persons with severe mental illness and comorbid drug/alcohol disorders: A comparative study of payee and non-payee participants. American Journal on Addictions 6(4):330-338.

Ries, R. K., and D. G. Dyck. 1997. Representative payee practices of community mental health centers in Washington State. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.) 48(6):811-814.

Ries, R. K., D. G. Dyck, R. Short, D. Srebnik, A. Fisher, and K. A. Comtois. 2004. Outcomes of managing disability benefits among patients with substance dependence and severe mental illness. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.) 55(4):445-447.

Rosen, M. I. 2011. The “check effect” reconsidered. Addiction 106(6):1071-1077.

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

Rosen, M. I., T. J. McMahon, and R. Rosenheck. 2007. Does assigning a representative payee reduce substance abuse? Drug and Alcohol Dependence 86(2):115-122.

Rosenheck, R., J. Lam, and F. Randolph. 1997. Impact of representative payees on substance use by homeless persons with serious mental illness. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.) 48(6):800-806.

Stanton, S. 2015. Opening remarks and overview of the SSA capability determination process. Presentation to the Committee to Evaluate the Social Security Administration’s Capability Determination Process for Adult Beneficiaries, February 3, Washington, DC.

Stoner, M. R. 1989. Money management services for the homeless mentally ill. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 40(7):751-763.

Swartz, J. A., C. M. Hsieh, and J. Baumohl. 2003. Disability payments, drug use and representative payees: An analysis of the relationships. Addiction 98(7):965-975.

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×

This page intentionally left blank.

Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 67
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 68
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 69
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 70
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 71
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 72
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 73
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 74
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 75
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 76
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 77
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 78
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 79
Suggested Citation:"3 Effects of Appointment of Representative Payees on Beneficiaries." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/21922.
×
Page 80
Next: 4 Abilities Required to Manage and Direct the Management of Benefits »
Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination Get This Book
×
Buy Paperback | $52.00 Buy Ebook | $41.99
MyNAP members save 10% online.
Login or Register to save!
Download Free PDF

The U.S. Social Security Administration (SSA) provides benefits to disabled adults and children, offering vital financial support to more than 19 million disabled Americans. Of that group, approximately 5.5 million have been deemed – by virtue of youth or mental or physical impairment - incapable of managing or directing the management of their benefits. Hence, a representative payee has been appointed to receive and disburse SSA payments for these beneficiaries to ensure that their basic needs for shelter, food, and clothing are met. Periodically, however, concerns have been expressed about the accuracy of the process by which SSA determines whether beneficiaries are capable of managing their benefits, with some evidence suggesting that underdetection of incapable recipients may be a particular problem.

The importance of creating as accurate a process as possible for incapability determinations is underscored by the consequences of incorrectly identifying recipients either as incapable when they can manage their benefits or as capable when they cannot. Failure to identify beneficiaries who are incapable of managing their funds means abandoning a vulnerable population to potential homelessness, hunger, and disease.

Informing Social Security's Process for Financial Capability Determination considers capability determination processes used by other similar benefit programs, abilities required to manage, and direct the management of, benefits, and effective methods and measures for assessing capability. This report evaluates SSA's capability determination process for adult beneficiaries and provides recommendations for improving the accuracy and efficiency of the agency's policy and procedures for making these determinations.

  1. ×

    Welcome to OpenBook!

    You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

    Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

    No Thanks Take a Tour »
  2. ×

    Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name.

    « Back Next »
  3. ×

    ...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

    « Back Next »
  4. ×

    Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

    « Back Next »
  5. ×

    Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

    « Back Next »
  6. ×

    To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter.

    « Back Next »
  7. ×

    Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

    « Back Next »
  8. ×

    View our suggested citation for this chapter.

    « Back Next »
  9. ×

    Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

    « Back Next »
Stay Connected!