Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work was sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) in cooperation with the Transit Development Corporation. It was conducted through the Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP), which is administered by the Transportation Research Board (TRB) of the National Academies. COPYRIGHT PERMISSION Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein. Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, FAA, FHWA, FMCSA, FTA, TDC, or AOC endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP. DISCLAIMER The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in the report are those of the research agency. They are not necessarily those of the TRB, the National Research Council, the FTA, the Transit Development Corporation, or the U.S. Government. This report has not been edited by TRB.
Transit Cooperative Research Program - Project C-17 iv CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................. xii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. xiii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER 1. Research Plan..................................................................................... 18 1.1. Introduction..................................................................................................... 18 1.2. Objectives....................................................................................................... 20 1.3. Approach........................................................................................................ 20 1.4. Phase II Work Plan......................................................................................... 21 Phase II Task 1 - Prepare LRV Models ................................................................... 21 Phase II Task 2 - Symmetric Collisions between Identical LRVs ............................ 22 Phase II Task 3 - Collisions between Different LRV Designs .................................. 23 Phase II Task 4 - Modify LRV Models ..................................................................... 23 Phase II Task 5 - Collisions between Original and Modified LRVs.......................... 24 Phase II Task 6 - Evaluation of LRV Front End Specifications................................ 24 Phase II Task 7 - Evaluation of LRV Side Impact Specifications............................. 26 Phase II Task 8 - Data Analysis of Collisions between LRVs and Automobiles. ..... 27 CHAPTER 2. Phase II Research............................................................................... 29 2.1. Introduction..................................................................................................... 29 2.2. Summary of Analysis Results for Compatible LRV Collisions ........................ 31 2.3. LRV 1 Compatible Collisions .......................................................................... 38 LRV 1 Model ........................................................................................................... 38 Analysis Results ...................................................................................................... 41 2.4. LRV 2 Compatible Collisions .......................................................................... 52 LRV 2 Model ........................................................................................................... 52 Analysis Results ...................................................................................................... 56 2.5. LRV 3 Compatible Collisions .......................................................................... 69 LRV 3 Model ........................................................................................................... 69 Analysis Results ...................................................................................................... 71
Transit Cooperative Research Program - Project C-17 v 2.6. LRV 4 Compatible Collisions .......................................................................... 83 LRV 4 Model ........................................................................................................... 83 Analysis Results ...................................................................................................... 85 2.7. Summary of Analysis Results for Incompatible LRV Collisions ...................... 90 Analysis of LRV 1 â LRV 3 Incompatible Collisions ................................................ 94 Analysis of LRV 2 â LRV 4 Incompatible Collisions .............................................. 102 2.8. Development of a 1G LRV Design ............................................................... 110 2.9. Analysis of Collisions with Highway Vehicles ............................................... 113 Bumper Energy Absorption Analyses.................................................................... 139 Analysis of a SUV impacting the side of an LRV................................................... 142 2.10. Data Analysis of Collisions between LRVs and Automobiles ....................... 148 CHAPTER 3. Summary and Conclusions ............................................................. 150 REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 154
Transit Cooperative Research Program - Project C-17 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Force-Crush Plots for all the LRVs in the 25 mph Compatible Collisions. ..........................4 Figure 2. Normalized Crush Forces for the LRVs in the 25 mph Compatible Collisions. ..................5 Figure 3. Force-Crush Behaviors for the LRV 1 to LRV 3 Incompatible Crash Analysis. ..................6 Figure 4. Force-Crush Behavior for the LRV 2 to LRV 4 Incompatible Crash Analysis. ....................7 Figure 5. Finite Element Models for the Highway Vehicles used in the crash analyses. .................10 Figure 6. Collision Interface conditions for LRV 2 and Highway Vehicle 1. ......................................10 Figure 7. Collision Interface with Different LRV Front End Features. ................................................11 Figure 8. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 1 (LRV without a Bumper). ........12 Figure 9. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 1 (LRV Fitted with a Bumper). ...13 Figure 10. Calculated Crush for HV 1 in the 90 degree, 20 mph Collisions. ......................................14 Figure 11. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 2 (LRV without a Bumper). ......16 Figure 12. Force-Crush Profiles for the 45 and 90 degree, 20 mph Collisions (LRV Fitted with Bumper) .....................................................................................................17 Figure 13. Damage to a Full size pickup from a 20 mph LRV side impact.........................................25 Figure 14. Injury probability in side impacts as a function of the vehicle crush. .............................26 Figure 15. Vehicle Aggressivity for Side Impacts of Automobiles [7]. ...............................................28 Figure 16. Detailed finite Element Model of a Pioneer Passenger Coach Car...................................30 Figure 17. Comparison of the Measured and Calculated Collision Response. .................................30 Figure 18. Comparison of the Measured and Calculated Impact Force Histories.............................31 Figure 19. Force-Crush Plots for all the LRVs in the 15 mph Compatible Collisions. ......................34 Figure 20. Force-Crush Plots for all the LRVs in the 25 mph Compatible Collisions. ......................35 Figure 21. Normalized Crush Forces for the LRVs in the 25 mph Compatible Collisions. ..............36 Figure 22. LS-DYNA Simulation Global Energies. .................................................................................37 Figure 23. Overview of the 2-LRV Finite Element Model......................................................................38 Figure 24. Collision Interface for the LRV 1 Compatible Crash Analysis. .........................................39 Figure 25. Force Cross Section Plane Locations for the LRV 1 model. .............................................40 Figure 26. Force-Crush Behavior for all Speeds of the LRV 1 Compatible Crash Analysis. ...........42 Figure 27. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 1 Target Car in the 10 mph Compatible Collision...........43 Figure 28. Simulation of the LRV 1 Compatible Collision at 15 mph..................................................44 Figure 29. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 1 Bullet Car in the 15 mph Compatible Collision............45 Figure 30. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 1 Target Car in the 15 mph Compatible Collision...........45 Figure 31. Simulation of the LRV 1 Compatible Collision at 20 mph..................................................46 Figure 32. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 1 Bullet Car in the 20 mph Compatible Collision............46 Figure 33. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 1 Target Car in the 20 mph Compatible Collision...........47 Figure 34. Simulation of the LRV 1 Compatible Collision at 25 mph..................................................48
Transit Cooperative Research Program - Project C-17 vii Figure 35. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 1 Bullet Car in the 25 mph Compatible Collision............49 Figure 36. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 1 Target Car in the 25 mph Compatible Collision...........49 Figure 37. Simulation of the LRV 1 Compatible Collision at 30 mph..................................................50 Figure 38. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 1 Bullet Car in the 30 mph Compatible Collision............51 Figure 39. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 1 Target Car in the 30 mph Compatible Collision...........51 Figure 40. Force-Crush Behavior for the 30 mph LRV 1 Compatible Crash Analysis. .....................52 Figure 41. Force Cross Section Plane Locations for the LRV 2 Model. .............................................53 Figure 42. Overview of the Finite Element Model for LRV 2. ...............................................................53 Figure 43. Operational Interface Between LRV 2 (left) and an Existing LRV Design (right). ...........54 Figure 44. Collision Interface for the LRV 2 Compatible Crash Analysis. .........................................56 Figure 45. Force-Crush Behavior for all Speeds of the LRV 2 Compatible Crash Analysis. ...........57 Figure 46. Simulation of the LRV 2 Compatible Collision at 10 mph..................................................58 Figure 47. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 2 Bullet Car in the 10 mph Compatible Collision............59 Figure 48. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 2 Target Car in the 10 mph Compatible Collision...........59 Figure 49. Simulation of the LRV 2 Compatible Collision at 15 mph..................................................60 Figure 50. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 2 Bullet Car in the 15 mph Compatible Collision............61 Figure 51. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 2 Target Car in the 15 mph Compatible Collision...........61 Figure 52. Component Force History of the 15 mph LRV 2 Compatible Crash Analysis. ................62 Figure 53. Simulation of the LRV 2 Compatible Collision at 20 mph..................................................63 Figure 54. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 2 Bullet Car in the 20 mph Compatible Collision............64 Figure 55. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 2 Target Car in the 20 mph Compatible Collision...........64 Figure 56. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 2 Bullet Car in the 25 mph Compatible Collision............65 Figure 57. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 2 Target Car in the 25 mph Compatible Collision...........65 Figure 58. Simulation of the LRV 2 Compatible Collision at 30 mph..................................................66 Figure 59. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 2 Bullet Car in the 30 mph Compatible Collision............67 Figure 60. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 2 Target Car in the 30 mph Compatible Collision...........67 Figure 61. Force-Crush Behavior for the 30 mph LRV 2 Compatible Crash Analysis. .....................68 Figure 62. Force History at Four Locations along LRV 2 in the 30 mph Collision. ...........................69 Figure 63. Force Cross Section Plane Locations for the LRV 3 Model. .............................................70 Figure 64. Collision Interface for the LRV 3 Compatible Crash Analysis. .........................................70 Figure 65. Force-Crush Behavior for all Speeds of the LRV 3 Compatible Crash Analysis. ...........72 Figure 66. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 3 Bullet Car in the 10 mph Compatible Collision............73 Figure 67. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 3 Target Car in the 10 mph Compatible Collision...........73 Figure 68. Simulation of the LRV 3 Compatible Collision at 15 mph..................................................74 Figure 69. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 3 Bullet Car in the 15 mph Compatible Collision............75 Figure 70. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 3 Target Car in the 15 mph Compatible Collision...........75 Figure 71. Simulation of the LRV 3 Compatible Collision at 20 mph..................................................76
Transit Cooperative Research Program - Project C-17 viii Figure 72. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 3 Bullet Car in the 20 mph Compatible Collision............77 Figure 73. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 3 Target Car in the 20 mph Compatible Collision...........77 Figure 74. Simulation of the LRV 3 Compatible Collision at 25 mph..................................................78 Figure 75. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 3 Bullet Car in the 25 mph Compatible Collision............79 Figure 76. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 3 Target Car in the 25 mph Compatible Collision...........79 Figure 77. Force-Crush Behavior for the 25 mph LRV 3 Compatible Crash Analysis. .....................80 Figure 78. Simulation of the LRV 3 Compatible Collision at 30 mph..................................................81 Figure 79. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 3 Bullet Car in the 30 mph Compatible Collision............82 Figure 80. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 3 Target Car in the 30 mph Compatible Collision...........82 Figure 81. Force Cross Section Plane Locations for the LRV 4 Model. .............................................83 Figure 82. Collision Interface for the LRV 4 Compatible Crash Analysis. .........................................84 Figure 83. Component Force History for all Speeds of the LRV 4 Compatible Crash Analysis. .....86 Figure 84. Force-Crush Behavior for all Speeds of the LRV 4 Compatible Crash Analysis. ...........86 Figure 85. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 4 Bullet Car in the 20 mph Compatible Collision............87 Figure 86. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 4 Target Car in the 20 mph Compatible Collision...........87 Figure 87. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 4 Target Car in the 25 mph Compatible Collision...........88 Figure 88. Crush Level (mm) for the LRV 4 Target Car in the 30 mph Compatible Collision...........89 Figure 89. Force-Crush Behavior for the 30 mph LRV 4 Compatible Crash Analysis. .....................89 Figure 90. Force-Crush Plots for LRV 1 and LRV 3 in the 30 mph Compatible Collisions...............91 Figure 91. Force-Crush Behaviors for the LRV 1 to LRV 3 Incompatible Crash Analysis. ..............91 Figure 92. Force-Crush Plots for LRV 2 and LRV 4 in the 30 mph Compatible Collisions...............93 Figure 93. Force-Crush Behavior for the LRV 2 to LRV 4 Incompatible Crash Analysis. ................93 Figure 94. Collision Interface for the Incompatible Crash Analysis between LRV 1 and LRV 3......95 Figure 95. Simulation of the Incompatible Collision between LRV 3 and LRV 1 at 10 mph.............96 Figure 96. Crush Level (mm) for LRV 3 in the 10 mph Incompatible Collision..................................96 Figure 97. Simulation of the Incompatible Collision between LRV 3 and LRV 1 at 15 mph.............97 Figure 98. Crush Level (mm) for LRV 3 in the 15 mph Incompatible Collision..................................98 Figure 99. Simulation of the Incompatible Collision between LRV 3 and LRV 1 at 20 mph.............98 Figure 100. Crush Level (mm) for LRV 3 in the 20 mph Incompatible Collision................................99 Figure 101. Simulation of the Incompatible Collision between LRV 3 and LRV 1 at 25 mph.........100 Figure 102. Crush Level (mm) for LRV 3 in the 25 mph Incompatible Collision..............................101 Figure 103. Crush Level (mm) for LRV 1 in the 25 mph Incompatible Collision..............................101 Figure 104. Collision Interface for the Incompatible Crash Analyses between LRV 4 and LRV 2.102 Figure 105. Simulation of the Incompatible Collision between LRV 4 and LRV 2 at 20 mph.........104 Figure 106. Crush Level (mm) for LRV 2 in the 20 mph Incompatible Collision..............................105 Figure 107. Crush Level (mm) for LRV 4 in the 20 mph Incompatible Collision..............................105 Figure 108. Simulation of the Incompatible Collision between LRV 4 and LRV 2 at 25 mph.........106
Transit Cooperative Research Program - Project C-17 ix Figure 109. Crush Level (mm) for LRV 2 in the 25 mph Incompatible Collision..............................107 Figure 110. Crush Level (mm) for LRV 4 in the 25 mph Incompatible Collision..............................107 Figure 111. Simulation of the Incompatible Collision between LRV 4 and LRV 2 at 30 mph.........108 Figure 112. Crush Level (mm) for LRV 2 in the 30 mph Incompatible Collision..............................109 Figure 113. Crush Level (mm) for LRV 4 in the 30 mph Incompatible Collision..............................109 Figure 114. Comparison of the Original and Modified Crush Strengths for LRV 2.........................111 Figure 115. Example Collisions between LRVs and Automobiles. ...................................................114 Figure 116. Finite Element Model for Highway Vehicle 1...................................................................115 Figure 117. Finite Element Model for Highway Vehicle 2...................................................................115 Figure 118. 90 degree Collision Interface for LRV 2 and Highway Vehicle 1...................................116 Figure 119. 45 degree Collision Interface for LRV 2 and Highway Vehicle 1...................................116 Figure 120. Collision Interface without LRV Front End Safety Features..........................................117 Figure 121. Geometric Compatibility with Bumper ............................................................................118 Figure 122. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 1 (Side View â LRV without a Bumper)...............................................................................119 Figure 123. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 1 (Top View â LRV without a Bumper)................................................................................120 Figure 124. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 1 (Side View â LRV Fitted with a Bumper). ........................................................................121 Figure 125. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 1 (Top View â LRV Fitted with a Bumper). .........................................................................122 Figure 126. Calculated Crush for HV 1 in the 90 degree, 20 mph Collisions. ..................................123 Figure 127. Injury Probability as a Function of Maximum Lateral Crush. ........................................124 Figure 128. Geometric Compatibility with Thin Pilot Beam...............................................................125 Figure 129. Calculated Crush for HV 1 in the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with a Pilot Beam. .....125 Figure 130. Crush in HV 1 after a 45 degree, 20 mph Collision with LRV 2 both with and without a Bumper. ..............................................................................................................................127 Figure 131. Calculated Crush in HV 1 from the 45 degree, 10 mph Collisions................................128 Figure 132. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 2 (Side View â LRV without a Bumper). ..............................................................................129 Figure 133. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 2 (Top View â LRV without a Bumper). ...............................................................................130 Figure 134. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 2 (Side View â LRV Fitted with a Bumper)..........................................................................131 Figure 135. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 2 (Top View â LRV Fitted with a Bumper)...........................................................................132 Figure 136. Crush in HV 2 after a 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with LRV 2 both with and without a Bumper. .....................................................................................133 Figure 137. LRV 2 Front-End with an Extended Coupler Model........................................................134 Figure 138. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 2 (Side View â LRV Fitted with a Coupler)..........................................................................135
Transit Cooperative Research Program - Project C-17 x Figure 139. Simulation of the 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with HV 2 (Top View â LRV Fitted with a Coupler)...........................................................................136 Figure 140. Calculated Crush in HV 2 after a 90 degree, 20 mph Collision with a Coupler. ..........137 Figure 141. Front profile measurements for various highway vehicles [19]. ..................................140 Figure 142. Force-Crush Profiles for the 45 and 90 degree, 20 mph Collisions (LRV Fitted with Bumper)..................................................................................................141 Figure 143. Collision Interface for the 90 degree Impact of HV 2 into LRV 2...................................142 Figure 144. Side View of the Simulation of the HV 2 into LRV 2 90 degree, 35 mph Collision. .....144 Figure 145. Calculated Crush of HV 2 due to 90 degree Side Impacts into LRV 2. .........................145 Figure 146. Calculated Crush in LRV 2 after 90 degree Side Impacts from HV 2............................146 Figure 147. Crush Displacement Histories of LRV 2 during the 90 degree Impact from HV 2 at 20 and 35 mph. ..............................................................147
Transit Cooperative Research Program - Project C-17 xi LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Summary of the LRV models.......................................................................................................2 Table 2. Summary of vehicle crush lengths (in mm) for the compatible collision analyses. .............3 Table 3. Proposed CEM requirements for collisions between LRVs. ....................................................3 Table 4. Summary of the LRV models.....................................................................................................32 Table 5. Summary of vehicle crush lengths (in mm) for the compatible collision analyses. ...........33 Table 6. Material Properties Used in the LRV 1 Analyses.....................................................................40 Table 7. Component Masses in the LRV 1 Model ..................................................................................40 Table 8. Piecewise Linear Yield Curve for ASTM A588 .........................................................................55 Table 9. Material Properties Used in the Collision Analysis.................................................................55 Table 10. Component Masses in the LRV 2 Model ................................................................................56 Table 11. Material Properties Used in the LRV 3 Analyses...................................................................71 Table 12. Component Masses in the LRV 3 Model ................................................................................71 Table 13. Material Properties Used in the LRV 4 Analyses...................................................................84 Table 14. Component Masses in the LRV 4 Model ................................................................................85 Table 15. Summary of Vehicle Crush Lengths (in mm) for the Incompatible Collision Analyses....92 Table 16. Calculated Crush in Side Impacts of Highway Vehicles ...................................................137 Table 17. Calculated Fatality Probabilities in Side Impacts of Highway Vehicles...........................138 Table 18. Calculated Injury Probabilities (MAIS 3+) in Side Impacts of Highway Vehicles............138 Table 19. Calculated Energy Dissipation in Side Impacts of Highway Vehicles .............................140 Table 20. Statistical Fatality Rates for LRV Incidents. .......................................................................149
