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Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (1993)

Chapter: 8 International Migration

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Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
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8
International Migration

Sharon Stanton Russell

INTRODUCTION

As of the late 1980s, international migrants of all types worldwide were estimated to number in the range of 80 million people, of whom approximately 35 million were in sub-Saharan Africa (Widgren, 1987; Ricca, 1989; United Nations, 1989b; Russell et al., 1990). If these figures are even nearly correct, then almost half of the world’s migrants were in sub-Saharan Africa, although the region itself contained less than 10 percent of the world’s population.

Of these 35 million sub-Saharan African migrants, approximately 5.4 million were officially recognized refugees; possibly an equal number were internally and externally displaced—in refugee-like circumstances but not officially recognized as refugees. In this study, migrants are defined as persons who have crossed international boundaries, regardless of their reasons for movement or length of stay abroad (both of which are difficult to discern from available data). International migrants include those seeking employment; family members accompanying or joining those who have migrated before them; people seeking refuge from drought, famine, political upheavals, or military conflicts (whether designated as official refugees or

Sharon Stanton Russell is a research scholar at the the Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
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not); as well as pilgrims, temporary visitors, workers posted outside their countries of origin, and children migrating for school. The definition of official refugee differs slightly by designating institution. The 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees defines a refugee in part as a person who, “owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality…[etc.] is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable or…unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country….” The Organization for African Unity Convention of 1969 expands this definition by adding the following: “The term refugee shall also apply to every person who, owing to external aggression, occupation, foreign domination or events seriously disturbing the public order… is compelled to leave…to seek refuge in another place” (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 1979).

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of international migration streams in sub-Saharan Africa: their scale, directions, and links to economic factors, and their effects on the size, structure, and composition of the region’s populations. Demographic analysis is often complicated by international migration, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where international population movements have been volatile and frequently unpredictable, as much for political as for economic reasons. Census data, which at best are slow to be published, are rapidly rendered outdated by migrations associated with sudden economic reversals (e.g., changes in oil or commodity prices) or political events. Despite the difficulties of studying the phenomenon, international migration can have striking consequences for the demographic profiles of both sending and the receiving areas, and the subject warrants attention in any comprehensive review of population dynamics.

DATA SOURCES

Statistical data on international migration in sub-Saharan Africa are of limited availability and often poor quality. Data on migration flows among countries are virtually nonexistent. To estimate the stocks of migrants in the region, their proportions in total population, and their age and sex composition, this chapter has drawn upon files compiled from country censuses reported to the United Nations Population Division, Trends and Structure Section. These data are from the 1970 and 1980 census rounds; results from the few countries that have conducted censuses in the 1990 round are not officially available, although preliminary results from Lesotho (not yet reported to the United Nations) are considered in the analysis below. Data on stocks of refugees in the region (and their changes in recent years) are derived from the World Refugee Survey, published annually by the U.S. Committee for Refugees. Data from both census and refugee survey sources

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

were cross-tabulated by country of origin and destination during preparation of International Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa, published by the World Bank (Russell et al., 1990), and have been updated for this chapter (see Tables 8–1 through 8–141 for regional and country-level data on migration and refugee flows). When relevant, the analysis below also makes use of country-specific survey and detailed census results as well as findings from the extensive literature review conducted for the World Bank study.

Census data often do not allow clear distinctions to be drawn among types of migrants. Specifically, census results seldom indicate whether official refugees were included or excluded. For these and reasons cited above, the population estimates presented here must be considered approximations. Furthermore, some censuses report foreign nationality rather than foreign birth (see Tables 8–1 and 8–15). Generally, place of birth is a better datum than nationality for inferring migration, since nationality may or may not change as migrants settle and may or may not apply to the second generation. Even place of birth has its limitations, however: It reflects lifetime movement (without temporal reference) and does not give any information about multiple, staged, or circular migrations. In this chapter, the term “migrant” is used in reference to nonnationals identified by either or both classifications. The term “refugee” is reserved for those officially recognized as such by the United Nations or Organization of African Unity definitions.

REGIONAL PATTERNS

Despite the data limitations, important regional and subregional2 patterns can be discerned. These patterns can be seen in the map on migration and in Tables 8–1 through 8–8. First, the vast majority (approximately 90 percent) of sub-Saharan African migrants are Africans. Non-African migrants include long-time residents originating from Lebanon, Syria, India, and Pakistan, as well as Europeans and some from the Western Hemisphere. The proportions of foreign born in total populations vary considerably, with the highest being in western Africa.

Second, labor migration has been a feature of all subregions, but especially notable in western Africa, and from the nations of southern Africa to the Republic of South Africa. Third, refugee migrations, on the other hand,

1  

For the readers’ convenience, all tables appear at the end of this chapter.

2  

The classification of countries by subregion adopted here follows the groupings used by Adepoju (1988) which, in turn, are consistent with those of the World Population Data Sheet published annually by the Population Reference Bureau. These classifications may differ from those used by other sources; for example, Mozambique is here considered to be in East Africa.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
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International migration in sub-Saharan Africa. SOURCE: Based on Ricca (1989).

have been predominant in eastern Africa. Fourth, clandestine migration is pervasive throughout the region and considered “routine” in western Africa, where seasonal migration also figures more prominently than elsewhere on the continent.

Western Africa

The highest concentration of migrants is found in western Africa, a subregion that migrants have always considered as an economic unit where trade in goods and services flowed freely, as did people. Precolonial migrations were often group movements related to internecine warfare, slave

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

raids, famine, drought, and the spread of religions—as well as trade. During the colonial period, the French pursued forced labor recruitment policies, while the British adopted agricultural production policies that attracted farm labor. The development of plantation agriculture helped to bring about a shift during this period from group migration to individual movement, differentiated by age, occupation, and sex.

In the postcolonial period, migration in western Africa has become largely spontaneous and includes levels of both seasonal and undocumented migration reportedly higher than elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa. The levels and directions of migration in the region are notably volatile. Until the early 1970s, Ghana was the favored destination of western African migrants, and as of the 1960 census, migrants numbered more than 800,000 and made up 12 percent of Ghana’s total population. By 1970, migrants numbered only 562,000 and comprised only 6.6 percent of total population (see Table 8–1).

Over the past two decades, Côte d’Ivoire has supplanted Ghana as a major pole of attraction for migrants from Burkina Faso, Mali, Guinea, Ghana, Niger, and elsewhere (see Table 8–2). Foreigners, who were 22 percent of the total population as of the 1975 census, are now reported to be nearly 30 percent, giving Côte d’Ivoire by far the highest concentration of foreigners in sub-Saharan Africa (see Table 8–1). The second highest concentration is in The Gambia, where migrants are about 11 percent of the total population and include significant numbers from Senegal, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, and Mali (see Table 8–2).

Census data from Nigeria are not available, but it is well known that flows to that country increased substantially during the 1970s and early 1980s, as the combined result of Nigeria’s oil boom and the protocol on freedom of movement signed in 1980 by members of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The majority of migrants were from Ghana, Togo, Benin, Niger, and Chad. By 1982, there were estimated to be 2 to 2.5 million nonnationals in Nigeria, roughly 2.5 percent of total population. However, a 1983 survey of migrants in Nigeria found that only 23.3 percent of them were legal, so their numbers and proportions may have been even higher (Makinwa-Adebusoye, 1987; Adepoju, 1988; Orubuloye, 1988). Economic and political adversities since the early 1980s have dramatically changed international migration to Nigeria. Between 1983 and 1985, some 1.5 million nonnationals were expelled by government order (Afolayan, 1988:21–23). By the late 1980s, Nigeria had become an exporter of professionally and technically trained personnel.

According to the 1976 census, there were close to 119,000 migrants in Senegal (see Table 8–1); however, other estimates (Zachariah and Condé, 1981) put the number at that time in the range of 355,000 (with Guinea being the largest source country), and it is this latter figure that has led to

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

the characterization of Senegal as having become a significant country of immigration. By taking the lower figure, migrants amount to nearly 2.4 percent of the total population; the higher figure is closer to 7 percent of the total population.

There is little quantitative evidence on the composition of migrants in western Africa. They are generally thought to be primarily young; male; illiterate or at least less well educated than the host country populations; and concentrated in low-status, temporary jobs, especially those in agriculture, mining, commerce, and services. On the other hand, they are also reported to have high levels of employment.

There are some exceptions to this characterization, however. Ghanians in Nigeria included large numbers of school teachers, professionals, and technicians; the 1983 survey of migrants found that nearly 53 percent had secondary, technical, or tertiary education. About 25 percent of those surveyed were in skilled occupations and another 14 percent in semiskilled activities. Only 37 percent were in unskilled jobs (Makinwa-Adebusoye, 1987:24; Adepoju 1988:68).

It has also been observed that more recent flows in western Africa (especially to Côte d’Ivoire) have included more women and children (Makinwa-Adebusoye, 1987), which may indicate a shift toward family migration or reflect movement of dependents for family reunification. Of the eleven western African countries for which data are available on the sex ratio of the foreign born, five have ratios very close to 1.00 (Table 8–15). Further, future censuses may confirm observations (see Russell et al., 1990) that implementation of the ECOWAS regional protocols on free circulation during the 1980s, along with rising levels of education, have led to more migration of skilled workers in western Africa.

There is also evidence of medium- to long-term migration, especially from Mali and Burkina Faso. Guineans are also noted to have longer average residence outside than other migrants (Adepoju, 1988). Although the majority (59 percent) of sub-Saharan African migrants over age 20 enumerated in Mauritania’s 1977 census had been in the country less than five years, nearly 25 percent had been resident 10 years or more. For Sierra Leone as of 1974, 20 percent of all foreign nationals had been resident 10 years or more and another 19 percent had been born there.

The future of migration to Côte d’Ivoire is somewhat uncertain at present. Given historical trends and the continuing relative economic deprivation of neighboring source countries, there may be little significant reduction in flows. On the other hand, both economic and political conditions in Côte d’Ivoire are worsening, and there are reportedly high levels of unemployment among educated Ivoirians and a less welcoming response to migrants. Although the occupational concentrations of migrants and nationals are different, such circumstances have been known to result in nationals taking jobs they previously considered beneath their qualifications.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

In the past several years, refugee flows have come to figure more prominently than heretofore in western Africa. In 1988, Guinea-Bissau and Ghana were the only countries in the subregion producing refugees; numbering only 5,500, these constituted less than 1 percent of all sub-Saharan African refugees. Similarly, the subregion’s nine asylum countries hosted only 15,200 refugees (primarily from Chad in middle Africa) also less than 1 percent of the total (Russell et al., 1990). By 1990—only 2 years later—13 western African nations were providing asylum to more than 800,000 people (nearly 16 percent of all sub-Saharan African refugees) primarily from other western African countries, notably Liberia (nearly 730,000) and Mauritania (more than 60,000) (see Tables 8–9 and 8–10).

Middle Africa

Historical patterns of international migration in middle Africa were linked to religious factors, tribal expansion, the slave trade, migrations of nomads and pygmies, and movement across “artificial,” colonial political boundaries by members of socioeconomic units thus divided.

Although migration in the subregion is often characterized as largely male and temporary, analysis of sex ratio data for various middle African countries suggests that types of migration vary considerably by nationality and country of destination. Migrants from Zaire in Cameroon had the highest sex ratio (number of males per female) of any foreign group enumerated in the Cameroon (1976) census (2.59), implying temporary migration largely by males. Zairois in the Congo as of 1984, on the other hand, had a sex ratio of 0.88, reflecting the existence of female migration, whereas Senegalese in the Congo had a sex ratio of 3.0.

Among the middle African countries for which census data are available, the largest migrant stocks (more than 600,000) are enumerated in Zaire (see Table 8–1), where mineral deposits and infusions of investment capital have created jobs for skilled and unskilled workers, and the foreign born represent slightly more than 2 percent of the total population. The second major country of destination is Cameroon, where nearly 220,000 migrants constituted about 3 percent of total population in the 1976 census. The great majority were palm plantation workers from Nigeria and, to a lesser extent, from Chad and the Central African Republic (CAR) (see Tables 8–3 and 8–6, note a).

The Congo has the highest proportion of migrants in middle Africa (more than 5 percent), mainly from Zaire, CAR, Angola, Mali, Senegal, and Cameroon (see Tables 8–1, 8–3, and 8–6, note a). Nearly three-quarters of the migrants to the Congo enumerated in 1984 had arrived within the preceding 10 years, and more than half had come within the preceding three years. At the other extreme, as may be seen in Table 8–1, the foreign born in Angola were less than 1 percent of the total population in 1983.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

The total number of refugees from middle Africa increased slightly, from 490,000 in 1988 to 521,900 in 1990, but (because of even greater increases in other subregions) their proportion among all sub-Saharan African refugees declined from 12.5 to barely 10 percent. The absolute increase in middle African refugees resulted from greater numbers fleeing into Zaire, Zambia, and Namibia (see Tables 8–11 and 8–14) from drought-induced famine and continued hostilities in Angola, by far the major source country in the subregion, with about 436,000 refugees (see Table 8–16). The number of refugees from Zaire and Chad decreased slightly, despite a new outflow from Chad in 1989 associated with the overthrow of the government. Previously, during the late 1980s, many of the earlier Chadian refugees had been repatriated.

Eastern Africa

Eastern Africa is the principal geographical focus of African refugee movements, and these refugee flows dominate other types of migration in this subregion. As may be seen in Table 8–16, of the seven countries that generate more than 90 percent of the continent’s refugees, four are in eastern Africa and one is neighboring Sudan; of the thirteen countries that receive more than 90 percent of the refugees (see Table 8–17), seven are in eastern Africa and one is again Sudan. Of these major source and asylum countries, three (Ethiopia, Sudan, and Somalia) are in both categories.

However, as of 1987, it was no longer accurate to characterize refugee movements as confined to the Horn.3 The number of refugees originating from Mozambique increased dramatically (nearly 163 percent) between 1986 and 1987, and by 1990 Mozambique had surpassed Ethiopia as sub-Saharan Africa’s major source country, accounting for 27 percent of the region’s refugees. The countries of eastern Africa most affected by the Mozambican exodus—Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe—were among the top 12 asylum countries, together receiving nearly 29 percent of Africa’s refugees (Tables 8–12 and 8–17).

The predominance of refugees in eastern Africa does not mean, however, that other types of international migration are not found. Historically, migration in the subregion was affected by precolonial inflows of Arabs and Asians; the partition of the area into colonies; the development of export-oriented agriculture as well as mining and extractive industries; and restric-

3  

The U.S. Committee for Refugees defines the Horn of Africa as comprising Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti, Kenya, and the Sudan (other sources may or may not include the latter two countries). With its independence from Ethiopia, Eritrea will be considered separately as part of the Horn.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

tions on free population movements both following independence and, from time to time, as the result of interstate conflicts.

Since before independence, populations moved from Rwanda, Burundi, and Zaire to Uganda, Kenya, and elsewhere in eastern Africa, as contract labor replaced old East-West slave routes. There have also been labor flows from Malawi and Mozambique to South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Zambia (Adepoju, 1988:34,35). In the past, Tanzania received sizable inflows from other sub-Saharan African countries. Some were refugees or people in refugee-like circumstances, but Tanzania has been both a labor-sending and a labor-receiving country, with explicit policies to govern such movements. However, in the face of deteriorating economic conditions in the 1970s, the proportion of migrants in Tanzania’s total population declined from 3.7 percent in 1968 to 2.4 percent in 1978.

Kenya has not been a major country of in-migration, and only 1 percent of its total population in 1979 was composed of migrants, largely from Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Somalia. However, until recently, Kenya was a major receiver of educated Ugandans. During the 1980s, the increasing availability of skilled Kenyan graduates placed pressures on the Kenyan labor market, and as a result, skilled Ugandans moved to other locations within and outside Africa, including South Africa.

In addition to both hosting and producing refugees, Sudan has been an exporter of migrants to the oil-producing countries of the Middle East and elsewhere. An estimated 334,000 Sudanese were abroad as of 1983 (Choucri, 1985:5), and by 1985, some 500,000—including two-thirds of the country’s technical and professional workers—lived abroad (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), 1988:1). Some of the resulting manpower shortage in Sudan was attenuated by skilled Ethiopian refugees, who replaced trained Sudanese migrants to the Gulf (Adepoju, 1990:7). Although the oil price downturn in the 1980s prompted concerns about large-scale return migration, as of the late 1980s there was no evidence this had occurred. The full consequences of Sudan’s support for Iraq in the 1990–1991 Gulf War have yet to be determined, however.

Southern Africa

Migration in southern Africa has generally been characterized as temporary and oscillatory, historically and in the present shaped by migration to the Republic of South Africa (RSA), principally from Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland (BLS) but also from Mozambique, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. In addition to migration of mine workers (organized through labor recruiters), there was—until 1963—a considerable amount of clandestine migration, which included accompanying women and children. In 1963, South Africa imposed strict immigration controls that curtailed both undocumented

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
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migration and family migration, and further prohibited BLS migration to South Africa except for work in mines and agriculture.

Changes in the national composition of migrant mine workers in South Africa began to appear in the mid-1970s. Several sending countries imposed their own restrictions on migration to RSA. Tanzania and Zambia enacted such restrictions shortly after independence, and Malawi withdrew its labor in 1974, although it reduced those strictures in 1978. As a result of these measures and a secular decline in mine migrants from Mozambique, there has been a shift toward increasing proportions from Lesotho (United Nations, 1989b).

A number of factors have combined to bring about these and other recent changes in southern African migration to South Africa (De Vletter 1988:5). First, after increases in the price of gold, the withdrawal of Malawian labor, and worsening relations with Mozambique, South Africa sought to stabilize the migrant work force and to attract more mine labor from within the country, with substantially increased wages and longer work contracts. Second, legislative changes have accompanied a policy shift toward “careers in mining.” Mine companies are now permitted to construct housing for married workers, and black workers are permitted to occupy senior positions formerly reserved for whites.

Third, in response to periodic bans on migration by supplier countries, South Africa has sought to reduce its dependence on foreign labor and has used either threatened or actual expulsions as a disincentive to further political actions by remaining suppliers. Finally, with rising levels of education both in labor-supplying countries and within South Africa itself, the benefits of an educated work force have become more evident, and policies have emphasized establishment of a permanent, skilled labor force from domestic sources.

From Chamber of Mines of South Africa data, it is possible to discern some of the consequences of these factors. Although total employment in the mines increased and a growing proportion of official migrants have been concentrated in mining, the proportion of workers from foreign countries decreased from 78 percent in 1974 to about 40 percent in 1984–1986 (Financial Mail, 1987:33; United Nations, 1989b: Table 65).

The full impact of these changes on the labor-supplying countries of southern Africa is not yet clear. However, it has been noted that the supply of mine labor now far exceeds demand throughout southern Africa (De Vletter, 1985), and the International Labour Organization (ILO) has mounted a series of studies (under the “Assistance to Migrant Workers in Southern Africa Project”) to inform planning in countries of the subregion bracing for effects of expected further declines in migration to South Africa. In Botswana alone, the number of mine labor recruits dropped from 40,390 in 1976 to 19,648 in 1986, and the proportion of novices (first-time workers)

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
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among all recruits dropped from 25 percent in 1976 to 1.6 percent in 1985 (Taylor, 1990).

Some will find new destinations outside their countries of origin. Migrants from Lesotho are already known to have begun taking work in “homeland” areas (which South Africa considers to be independent nations), and anecdotal reports suggest that other national groups (including Ghanians, and Ugandans formerly resident in Kenya) have begun doing so as well. Although official policies of source countries discourage this trend,4 it may well continue as opportunities in South Africa decline further.

In the past, international migration among southern African nations has been overshadowed by the dominant flows to South Africa, but this too may change in future. In Swaziland, migrants already comprised more than 5 percent of the total population by the 1976 census, with most from South Africa and Mozambique. In Botswana, migrants were only 1.7 percent of the total population in 1981, but the range of source countries suggests the potential patterns of future migration: Migrants come from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Lesotho, Angola, Malawi, Swaziland, and—in smaller numbers—from Nigeria and Ghana.

Generally in southern Africa, the female labor force is growing faster than the male labor force (3.0 versus 2.6 percent per year), and there is evidence of growing international migration for employment among women, linked to rising levels of female education, the elimination of legal restrictions on female migration, and changing norms in rural areas. The extent to which changing demand factors may have contributed to increasing female migration is not documented. In a 1978 survey of migrants in Lesotho, 23 percent of respondents who had worked in South Africa were women (Wilkinson in Momsen and Townsend, 1987), a finding roughly consistent with results of both the 1976 and the 1986 Lesotho censuses, in which females were about 18 percent of nationals absent at the time of enumeration. There is also evidence of primary female migration from Zambia and Tanzania and in western Africa (Russell et al., 1990).

The proportion of all sub-Saharan African refugees hosted by southern African countries has declined slightly, from 6.6 percent in 1988 to 5.3 percent in 1990 (see Table 8–9), largely as a result of the repatriation of Namibians prior to that country’s attainment of independence from South Africa in March 1990. Southern Africa produces less than 1 percent of all sub-Saharan African refugees. South Africa, with less than 4 percent of all

4  

Other African governments view creation of the homeland areas as a manifestation of South Africa’s apartheid system that they do not wish to legitimize by encouraging migration. As noted earlier, several countries (Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi) have in the past imposed outright restrictions on migration to South Africa in protest against that country’s apartheid policies.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
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sub-Saharan African refugees (see Table 8–17), remains the major asylum country in the region, hosting an estimated 201,000—nearly all from Mozambique (see Tables 8–13 and 8–14, note g). However, South Africa itself is also the subregion’s largest source of refugees, although their numbers declined from 24,900 in 1988 to 20,000 in 1990, as some returned from Angola and Swaziland. (See Tables 8–13, 8–14, and 8–16.)

MIGRATION OF THE HIGHLY SKILLED AND EMIGRATION FROM THE CONTINENT

In view of the importance to development in Africa of trained manpower, concern has been expressed about migration of the highly skilled. However, attitudes toward such movements have shifted over time, and have depended on the composition and destinations of skilled migrants. Emigration of trained Africans to developed countries of Western Europe and North America (the principal destinations until the late 1970s) has generally been characterized as “brain drain,” a term implying exploitation of poor countries by rich ones.5 However, skilled migration to other developing countries, which has emerged since the late 1970s, is more often described in international forums as “reverse technology transfer” or “cooperative exchange of skills between developing countries.”

There is only fragmentary evidence as to the numbers of highly skilled Africans who have left the continent. As of 1987, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development estimated that about 70,000 (30 percent of the high-level manpower stock6 within the continent) officially resided in European Community (EC) countries (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 1988); this figure is undoubtedly an underestimate, however: more than 110,000 skilled Nigerians alone took jobs abroad between 1987 and 1989 (Adegbola, 1990).

Since the mid-1970s, there has been increasing migration of highly skilled Africans to destinations within Africa, although their aggregate numbers

5  

Generally, the term “brain drain” has not been applied to the emigration of skilled non-African (or expatriate) workers that occurred in many countries following independence, especially in the mid-1970s. In some cases, these numbers were large: Angola lost 90 percent of its European immigrants with the exodus of 300,000 settlers to Portugal by March 1975, while 230,000 Portuguese left Mozambique between 1974 and 1976. By 1979, Equatorial Guinea had lost almost half its population through emigration of Spaniards and others; about 120,000 Europeans (who controlled more than 80 percent of commercial production) left Zaire at independence (Russell et al., 1990:50).

6  

High-level manpower stock is defined by education, training, or by skill level (e.g., managerial and administrative and professional, technical, and kindred occupations).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
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remain to be estimated. Gould (1985) has identified three principal reasons for this trend: (1) The opportunities for migration to developed countries declined, and (with the exception of selected source countries7) there has been relatively little African migration to the Middle East. (2) There has been increased economic differentiation among African countries. (3) Educational output has expanded faster than the economies of many countries, leading to disparities between the supply of and demand for skilled workers and to the out-migration of those unable to find work at home.

Although migration of the highly skilled (to any destination) does not necessarily have negative effects on source countries, it can do so if the scale is large and critical sectors of the economy are affected. Skills short-ages have been reported in Ethiopia, as the result of insufficient output from higher education and the exodus of trained workers at the time of the revolution, and they are likely to have occurred in Somalia. Uganda lost more than half its high-level manpower during the regime of President Amin. Following the decline of oil revenues and the adoption of a structural adjustment program in the mid-1980s, Nigeria experienced significant emigration of skilled personnel, affecting particularly medicine, universities, and airlines. Similarly, as the result of economic crisis, poor working conditions, and more attractive salaries elsewhere, Zambia has lost a substantial number of university lecturers and public sector physicians, mainly to other countries of southern Africa.

In recent years, sub-Saharan Africans have become increasingly visible among growing numbers of official and undocumented migrants to Europe and among asylum seekers in member states of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Although even aggregate data are virtually nonexistent8 and skill composition is unknown, selected evidence confirms their presence. Of registered non-European foreign residents in Italy in 1990, nearly 12 percent (75,152) were from sub-Saharan Africa (SOPEMI, 1991:22, Tables 8,9). The share of sub-Saharan Africans among Italy’s estimated 1.2 million illegal migrants in 1990 was also thought to be high. Growing numbers of migrants from all over the world are seeking to gain entrance to Europe, North America, and Australia by means of the asylum process, and those from sub-Saharan Africa are no exception.

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Sudan has been the major source of migrants to the Middle East, although Somalia, Djibouti, Mali, Mauritania, Ghana, and Nigeria have also been represented. As noted earlier, Sudanese emigrants included a large proportion of the country’s skilled manpower.

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With the exception of Italy, as of 1990 the OECD’s Continuous Reporting System on Migration, SOPEMI, did not distinguish sub-Saharan Africans from the large category of “other” non-EC migrants in either cross-national or individual country data.

9  

The six are Somalia, Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, Zaire, and Senegal.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
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The number of asylum seekers from the six principal sub-Saharan African source countries9 rose from 23,500 in 1988 to 62,450 in 1991. In 1991, sub-Saharan African countries (notably Somalia, Ethiopia, and Zaire) ranked among the top four or five sources of asylum seekers in nine out of sixteen reporting countries (Inter-governmental Consultations on Asylum, Refugee and Migration Policies in Europe, North America and Australia, personal communication, 1992).

EFFECTS OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION ON AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTIONS

Data on the age and sex distributions of resident, absent, and foreign-born or foreign national populations are available only for selected countries, and discerning the effects of international migration on these aspects of population structure is further confounded by systematic misreporting of age and underenumeration of men in African census results (P.Rowe, personal communication, 1991). The limited data available illustrate migration’s effects on age and sex distributions in one country with high emigration (Lesotho), one with low immigration (Mauritania), and two with moderate immigration (Malawi and Congo).

Lesotho

In the case of Lesotho, relatively high, predominantly male emigration has affected both the sex ratio of the population and the reported growth rates. Results from Lesotho’s 1986 census do not contain age distributions by sex except for absentees, but do disaggregate total de jure and de facto10 populations by sex for both the 1976 and the 1986 enumerations. As can be seen in Table 8–18, 12.5 percent of the total population was absent from the country at the time of the 1976 census. The sex ratio (males per female) of the de jure population was 0.93, whereas that of the de facto population was 0.76, reflecting substantial male migration to South African mine work. Indeed, the sex ratio of absentees was 5.48.

In 1986, by which time opportunities for labor migration to South Africa had contracted even more rapidly for males than for females, only 8.5 percent of the de jure population was absent. While the de jure sex ratio

10  

De jure population includes those present at the time of enumeration, plus those residents who were temporarily outside the country; de facto population includes only those present at enumeration. The difference between the two is the number of absentees, who are defined as persons away from Lesotho continuously for less than five years (Lesotho, 1987:1,2).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

FIGURE 8–1 Age-sex distribution of absentees. SOURCE: Government of Lesotho (1989).

remained constant, that of the de facto population rose slightly to 0.81, and the sex ratio of absentees declined slightly to 5.29. The age and sex distribution of absentees shown in Figure 8–1 is characteristic of countries with high male emigration.

Changes in levels of emigration may also affect population growth rates. In Lesotho, the intercensal growth rate of the de jure population rose from 2.29 to 2.63 between 1976 and 1986, a pattern that the census report of preliminary results speculates “could be attributed to constant fertility over time, coupled with declining mortality” (Lesotho, 1987:3). However, although the reported total fertility rate (TFR) changed little between 1965 and 1988 (from 5.8 to 5.7), and infant mortality decreased (from 142 to 98 per 1,000 live births) (World Bank, 1990:230,232), the contribution of declining male migration to maintaining high fertility cannot be ruled out without further analysis. It is clear that published rates of population growth should be interpreted with caution in cases of substantial emigration. Calculations conducted for this chapter indicate that the de facto (i.e., resident) population alone grew at the rate of 3.1 percent per year; however, it is the de jure rate of growth (2.6 percent per year) that is published (Lesotho, 1987; World Bank, 1990:228).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

Mauritania

Foreign nationals11 were a relatively low proportion of Mauritania’s total resident population (2.1 percent), and their effects on aggregate sex and age distributions were correspondingly small. As shown in Table 8–19, the foreign population was predominantly male in all but the 0- to 14-year-old group, reflecting the migration of men (some with families) who came principally from Senegal, Mali, and Guinea for work in Mauritania’s urban areas. As is typical for countries with male labor immigration, the sex ratio was highest (1.73) among foreigners aged 15–59, substantially higher than among Mauritanians of the same age (0.89). However, because of their small numbers, migrants had little effect on the sex ratio of the total population, raising it only by 0.01 point in any age group.

For people under 60, there were notable differences in age distribution between foreign nationals and Mauritanians. Children aged 0–14 years were 32 percent of the foreign population, but 44 percent of the native born. Relatedly, adults 15–59 years of age were more than 65 percent of the former group, but slightly less than 50 percent of the latter. These differences were reflected most sharply in the dependency ratios,12 which were 53.2 and 100.6 in the foreign and national populations, respectively. The presence of foreign nationals had little demonstrable effect on the age distribution of Mauritania’s total population. The preponderance of working-age migrants raised the proportion of all residents 15–59 years by only 0.3 percentage point. However, migrants did serve to lower the dependency ratio of the total population by 1.3.

Malawi

Malawi had a moderately high proportion of foreign born in the total population (5.2 percent) as of the 1977 census, although this proportion fell from 7.3 percent in the 1966 census, a decline that coincided with a deceleration of the country’s average annual per capita GNP growth rate (World Bank, 1989:221). The case of Malawi illustrates that the effects of migration on sex and age distributions will depend greatly on the composition of

11  

Foreign national, rather than foreign-born, population is recorded in Mauritania’s 1977 census results, which published data on foreign and Mauritanian nationals by sex only for broad age groups.

12  

The dependency ratio is usually calculated as the number of persons in the “dependent” ages (less than 15 and more than 64), divided by the number of persons in the “economically productive” ages (15 to 64 years), multiplied by 100. Because Mauritania, Malawi, and Congo aggregate data by broad age groups, the dependency ratios shown in Tables 8–19 through 8–21 are calculated in a slightly different manner.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

that migration. In contrast to Mauritania (and with the exception of those over 60 years of age), the sex ratios of Malawi’s native and foreign-born populations (Table 8–20) differed from one another only slightly in 1977, reflecting substantial female immigration or the systematic underenumeration of men in both the native and the foreign-born populations. These sex ratios were virtually unchanged from their 1966 values, although the proportion of migrants originating from adjacent countries declined and the share from other African countries increased (Malawi, 1984:29). This observation runs counter to the frequently heard proposition that longer-distance migration is predominantly male.

The preponderance of males among the foreign born aged 60 years and over is unexplained but could result from a combination of age underreporting by female migrants and male predominance among earlier migrants, long resident in Malawi by 1977. In any case, although the presence of the foreign born had no effect on the overall sex ratio of the total population, the preponderance of foreign males aged 60 and over was sufficient to raise the sex ratio of the total population in this age group by 0.03.

Malawi’s foreign-born population in 1977 was notably concentrated in the older age groups, more so than Mauritania’s foreign nationals. Nearly 36 percent of the Malawi-born population was under the age of 10, whereas the corresponding figure for the foreign born was less than 10 percent. This difference was sufficient to lower the proportion of the total population in the 0–9 age group by 1.4 percentage points. Available age data do not permit calculation of dependency ratios by the standard age classifications, but dividing the numbers aged 0–9 and 60+ years by those aged 10–59 yields approximate dependency ratios of 42.4 and 70.5 for the foreign and national populations, respectively. This differential is less than that observed for Mauritania in the same year, again because of the substantially greater proportion of Malawi’s foreign population (both male and female) who were over age 60.

Congo

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Congo’s moderately high rates of economic growth associated with oil exports and growth in manufacturing attracted increasing numbers of migrants. The proportion of foreign born in the country’s total resident population rose from 4.1 percent in 1974 to 5.1 percent in 1984—a proportion comparable to that observed in Malawi in 1977.

In contrast to Malawi, where female migrants outnumbered males in virtually all age groups, males exceeded females among foreigners in the Congo in all age groups 30 and over (Table 8–21). Once again, however, the predominance of males had little effect on the sex ratio of the total

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

population, raising it by only 0.01; in no age group did the effect exceed 0.02.

As in other migrant-receiving countries, foreign nationals present in 1984 were less concentrated in the younger age groups: 23 percent of foreigners were below age 10, compared with 32 percent of Congolese. The concentration of foreign nationals between the ages of 20 and 39 (47 percent) was even more pronounced than in Malawi (30 percent), possibly because migrants to the Congo were relatively more recent than those to Malawi. Their numbers were sufficient to raise the Congo’s total population in these age groups taken together by slightly more than 1 percentage point.

As in Malawi, available data do not permit calculation of dependency ratios by the standard age classifications, but the 0–9 and 60-and-over dependency ratios were 35.7 and 60.8 for the foreign and Congolese populations, respectively, and the relatively small number of foreigners in the dependent ages was sufficient to lower the dependency ratio in the total population by 1.4.

CONCLUSION

Based on analysis of available census data for 35 (out of 48) sub-Saharan African countries, international migrants are estimated to average 3.6 percent of the total population, comparable to the proportion of foreigners in EC countries (4 percent). The actual proportion of migrants in sub-Saharan Africa is quite possibly higher, however, given the prevalence of clandestine movements. In any case, the “true” figure is undoubtedly different: International migration flows in Africa, as elsewhere, are notably volatile, unpredictable, and hard to measure.

Eastern Africa has been most affected by refugee flows (principally from Mozambique, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Somalia), whereas migration for employment (in some cases accompanied by family members) has been the major type of movement in middle, western, and southern Africa. The highest concentration of migrants is found in western Africa, a region that has also recently experienced an increase in refugee flows. Migration in southern Africa has been largely temporary and oscillatory, and is still dominated by movements to South Africa, despite that country’s reduced reliance on foreign mine workers. These aggregate data mask a number of country-level variations. Analyses for this chapter have suggested that the type and the composition of international migration, as well as the duration of stay, can vary considerably by both nationality of origin and country of destination.

Fragmentary evidence suggests that since the late 1970s, migration of highly skilled workers within Africa is increasing, as the result of rising

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

levels of education, deepening disparities among African countries, and limited opportunities outside the continent. The number of sub-Saharan Africans seeking asylum in developed countries of the North is growing, however.

Given the limited number of cases for which data are available, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions about the effects of migration on population age and sex distributions. At best, one can put forward some observations to be examined in further research. The case of Lesotho suggests that when emigration exceeds 8 percent of total population and is heavily dominated by one sex, there are demonstrable effects on the sex ratios and differential rates of growth in de jure and de facto populations.

In those migrant-receiving countries such as Mauritania, Malawi, and the Congo, in which foreigners are a small-to-moderate proportion of total population, the effects of migration are evident largely in intergroup differences, notably in the age distributions and dependency ratios. In keeping with conventional wisdom, foreigners are more concentrated than nationals in the economically active age groups, with relatively smaller proportions in the dependent age groups. Correspondingly, dependency ratios are significantly lower among the foreign populations—by as much as 47 per 100 in Mauritania. Nonetheless, these differences appear to have little overall effect on the age distributions or dependency ratios of the total population. At most, the presence of a small-to-moderate proportion of foreigners changes the distribution of population in a given age group by 1.4 percentage points, and changes the overall dependency ratio by no more than 1.7 per 100.

Summary observations as to the effects of small-to-moderate proportions of foreigners on sex ratios are more difficult to make because of variability in the sex composition of foreign populations. In the case of Malawi, there was virtually no difference in the sex ratios of foreign and national populations in any age group or overall. In the Congo and Mauritania, there were substantial differences between foreigners’ and nationals’ sex ratios within given age groups; but only in the case of Mauritania was the sex ratio of the total foreign population significantly higher than that of nationals. In both countries, these differentials had little effect on the sex ratio of the total population; in no case was the latter figure changed by more than 0.02. However, these results might well have been different in cases such as The Gambia or Côte d’Ivoire, where foreigners are a relatively high proportion of total population and males predominate.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–1 Summary of Population and Migrant Stock

 

Immigrants

Destinationa

Country Categoryb

Census Datec

Data Classd

Africane,f

Non-Africang

Western

 

Benin

OLI

1979

N

Burkina Faso

LISA

1975

B

107,517

13,275

Côte d’Ivoire

MIOI

1975

N

1,437,319

37,124

The Gambia

LISA

1973

B

53,300

1,254

Ghana

OLI

1970

N

547,149

14,983

Guinea-Bissau

OLI

1979

B

12,043

888

Guinea

OLI

n.a.

 

Liberia

MIOI

1974

B

47,654

11,804

Mali

LISA

1976

B

72,365

4,549

Mauritania

MIOI

1977

N

23,007

5,161

Niger

LISA

n.a.

 

Nigeria

MIOE

n.a.

Senegal

MIOI

1976

N

93,072

25,710

Sierra Leone

OLI

1974

N

67,164

8,826

Togo

OLI

1970

B

 

Middle

 

Angola

MIOE

1993

B

7,892

7,338

Cameroon

MIOE

1976

B

185,558

14,630

Central African Republic

OLI

1975

B

41,362

3,221

Chad

LISA

n.a.

 

Congo

MIOE

1984

B

45,703

5,464

Gabon

MIOE

n.a.

 

Zaire

OLI

1984k

B

Eastern

 

Burundi

OLI

1979

B

79,902

2,820

Ethiopia

OLI

n.a.

 

Kenya

OLI

1979k

B

Madagascar

OLI

1975

B

1,078

52,237

Malawi

OLI

1977

B

281,806

6,938

Mozambique

OLI

1980

N

Rwanda

OLI

1978

N

36,789

5,122

Somalia

LISA

n.a.

 

Tanzania

OLI

1978k

N

Uganda

OLI

1969

B

486,300

56,114

Zambia

MIOI

1980

B

184,742

46,612

Zimbabwe

MIOI

n.a.

 

Southern

 

Botswana

MIOI

1981

N

8,471

6,886

Lesotho

MIOI

n.a.

 

Namibia

MIOI

n.a.

Swaziland

MIOI

1976

B

21,946

4,212

South Africa

UMI

1985

B

1,404,975

462,084

Northern

 

Sudan

OLI

1973k

B

Other Africaf

 

20,581

42,264

Total

5,267,695

839,516

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

Totalh

Non-immigrants

Not Stated

Total Population

Immigrants (% total population)

41,284

3,286,937

2,779

3,331,000

1.2

110,681

5,517,411

10,000

5,638,092

2.0

1,474,469

5,203,580

31,951

6,710,000

22.0

54,554

437,636

1,309

493,499

11.1

562,132

7,997,181

8,559,313

6.6

12,931

755,069

768,000

1.7

6,200,000i

 

59,458

1,443,910

1,503,368

4.0

146,089

6,248,829

6,394,918

2.3

28,168

1,310,832

1,339,000

2.1

6,700,000i

 

105,400,000i

118,782

4,879,103

4,997,885

2.4

79,414

2,655,745

724

2,735,883

2.9

143,620

1,807,380

1,951,000

7.4

15,230

8,184,770

8,200,000f

0.2

218,069

6,914,889

7,132,958

3.1

44,583

1,699,451

36,995

1,781,029

2.5

5,200,000i

 

96,639

1,260,055

552,306

1,909,000

5.1

1,200,000i

 

637,605

29,033,802

29,671,407

2.1

82,851

3,945,569

129

4,028,549

2.1

43,900,000i

 

157,371

15,169,560

130

15,327,061

1.0

53,315

7,549,710

765

7,603,790

0.7

288,744

5,257,554

1,162

5,547,460

5.2

39,142

11,634,858

11,674,000

0.3

41,911

4,788,569

1,047

4,831,527

0.9

7,800,000i

 

415,684

17,096,927

17,512,611

2.4

542,414

8,998,319

2,812

9,543,545

5.7

231,354

5,430,646

5,662,000

4.1

9,000,000i

 

15,619

925,381

941.000j

1.7

1,600,000i

 

1,100,000i

26,460

468,074

466

495,000

5.3

1,862,192

23,386,000f

8.0

227,906

12,015,614

1,870,480

14,114,000

1.6

35,272

1,825,339

4,673

1,860,611

1.9

7,863,943

183,742,700

 

215,643,506

3.6l

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

   

NOTE: —: data unavailable.

a  

Region classifications from Adepoju (1988).

b  

Country categories from World Bank (1986): LISA=low income semi-arid; OLI=other low income; MIOE=middle income oil exporting; MIOI=middle income oil importing; UMI =upper middle income; SP=small population (<500,000).

c  

n.a.: not available.

d  

N=foreign national; B=foreign born.

e  

Includes all of North Africa.

f  

Unknown foreign born classified as “Other Africa.” Includes eight countries of Comoros, Mauritius, Reunion, São Tomé and Principe, Seychelles, Cape Verde, Equitorial Guinea, and Djibouti.

g  

Includes United Kingdom, Belgium, France, Portugal, and other Europe, Asia (excluding countries of the former USSR); Middle Eastern countries, United States, Canada, and other Western Hemisphere. May include African immigrants classified as “undetermined foreigners” by some countries’ censuses.

h  

Figures for total immigrants derive either from the sum of African and non-African immigrants or from the total foreign-born population figures in Table 8–5. Discrepancies between these two sources are reflected in the column “Unspecified origin or residual” in Table 8–8.

i  

Figures from Haub and Kent (1986).

j  

Total population figures from World Bank (1986) for mid-1973.

k  

Data on immigrants by country are not yet available.

l  

This figure does not include countries for which immigrant data are not available.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–2 Stocks of Migrants by Source and Destination: Western Africa

Destination Country and Population Abroad

Source Country

Benin

Burkina Faso

Côte d’Ivoire

The Gambia

Ghana

Destinationc

 

Burkina Faso

1,544

49,141

19,162

Côte d’Ivoire

38,403

774,099

47,431

The Gambia

Ghana

33,447

159,299

18,301

Guinea Bissau

Liberia

51

1,770

8,068

Mali

23,259

3,917

322

Mauritania

Senegal

3,095

Sierra Leone

4,539

1,346

Other Africaa

Total population

3,331,000

5,638,092

6,710,000

493,499

8,559,313

Population abroadb

 

Number

75,957

956,657

73,129

7,634

76,917

Percent

2.3

17.0

1.1

1.5

0.9

NOTES: For country category, date of survey, and data class, see Table 8–1; regional classification from Adepoju (1988); —: no recorded migration.

aUnknown foreign born classified as “Other Africa.” Category includes the eight countries of Comoros, Mauritius, Reunion, São Tomé and Principe, Seychelles, Cape Verde, Equitorial Guinea, and Djibouti, and all of North Africa except Sudan.

bFigures include interregional migration as well as the intraregional migration shown on this table.

cCountries not listed had no recorded immigration.

dData not available.

eFigures from Haub and Kent (1986).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

Destination Country and Population Abroad

Source Country

Guinea-Bissau

Guinea

Liberia

Mali

Mauritania

Destinationc

 

Burkina Faso

23,984

Côte d’Ivoire

99,476

3,824

353,448

The Gambia

7,176

10,442

5,478

1,779

Ghana

4,584

13,412

Guinea Bissau

5,675

Liberia

26,337

1,597

Mali

19,394

9,464

Mauritania

1,555

3,461

Senegal

23,805

38,821

8,872

11,294

Sierra Leone

44,504

3,213

Other Africaa

35

Total population

768,000

6,200,000e

1,503,368

6,394,918

1,339,000

Population abroadb

 

Number

31,016

246,325

11,621

413,975

22,967

Percent

4.0

4.0

0.8

6.5

1.7

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

Niger

Nigeria

Senegal

Sierra Leone

Togo

Other Africaa

Totalb

4,515

2,122

2,300

3,169

1,580

107,517

33,552

42,415

20,288

12,830

11,553

1,437,319

27,177

582

666

53,300

15,787

55,539

244,735

2,045

547,149

6,368

12,043

1,940

197

6,440

203

1,051

47,654

3,816

3,615

8,578

72,365

17,624

367

23,007

7,185

93,072

8,209

5,353

67,164

d

d

6,700,000e

105,000,000e

4,997,885

2,735,883

1,951,000

 

59,316

245,620

81,265

7,022

262,082

0.9

2.3

1.6

0.3

13.4

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–3 Stocks of Migrants by Source and Destination: Middle Africa

Destination Country and Population Abroad

Source Country

Angola

Cameroon

Central African Republic

Chad

Destinationc

 

Angola

Cameroon

12,431

28,063

Central African Republic

8,609

17,845

Congo

6,218

1,361

7,101

702

Other Africaa

965

Total population

8,200,000

7,132,958

1,781,029

5,200,000e

Population abroadb

 

Number

38,458

9,970

19,532

46,610

Percent

0.5

0.1

1.1

0.9

NOTE: For country category, date of survey, and data class, see Table 8–1; regional classification from Adepoju (1988); —: no recorded migration.

aUnknown foreign born classified as “Other Africa.” Category includes the eight countries of Comoros, Mauritius, Reunion, São Tomé and Principe, Seychelles, Cape Verde, Equatorial Guinea, and Djibouti, and all of North Africa except Sudan.

bFigures include interregional migration as well as the intraregional migration shown on this table.

cCountries not listed had no recorded immigration.

dData not available.

eFigures from Haub and Kent (1986).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

Congo

Gabon

Zaire

Other Africaa

Totalb

354

1,296

5,886

7,892

1,502

729

211

2,730

185,558

2,774

195

8,998

1,867

41,362

476

20,912

1,081

45,703

4

9

d

d

1,909,000

1,200,000e

29,671,407

 

71,786

1,409

79,774

3.8

0.1

0.3

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–4 Stock of Migrants by Source and Destination: Eastern Africa and Sudan

Destination Country and Population Abroad

Source Country

Burundi

Kenya

Madagascar

Malawi

Mozambique

Destinationc

 

Burundi

Madagascar

Malawi

Rwanda

25,609

Uganda

40,024

119,614

Zambia

27,089

2,904

Other Africaa

77

12,997

197

Total population

4,028,549

15,327,061

7,603,790

5,547,460

11,647,000

Population abroadb

 

Number

65,633

127,071

13,701

57,940

76,449

Percent

1.6

0.8

0.2

1.0

0.7

NOTES: For country category, date of survey, and data class, see Table 8–1; regional classification from Adepoju (1988); —: no recorded migration.

aUnknown foreign born classified as “Other Africa.” Category includes the eight countries of Comoros, Mauritius, Reunion, São Tomé and Principe, Seychelles, Cape Verde, Equitorial Guinea, and Djibouti, and all of North Africa except Sudan.

bFigures include interregional migration as well as the intraregional migration shown on this table.

cCountries not listed has no recorded immigration.

dData not available.

eFigures from Haub and Kent (1986).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

Rwanda

Somalia

Sudan

Tanzania

Uganda

47,750

5

13,018

1,825

1,104

2,593

161,953

65,240

34,398

16,493

215

4,831,527

7,800,000e

14,114,000

17,512,611

9,543,545

209,703

5

65,959

68,416

4,900

4.3

0.0

0.5

0.4

0.1

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

Destination Country and Population Abroad

Source Country

Zambia

Zimbabwe

Other Africaa

Totalb

Destinationc

 

Burundi

294

79,902

Madagascar

1,078

1,078

Malawi

281,806

281,806

Rwanda

253

36,789

Uganda

1,073

486,300

Zambia

48,111

10,220

184,742

Other Africaa

24

d

d

Total population

5,662,000

9,000,000e

 

Population abroadb

 

Number

21,168

147,370

 

Percent

0.4

1.6

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–5 Stocks of Migrants by Source and Destination: Southern Africa

Destination Country and Population Abroad

Source Countries

Botswana

Lesotho

Namibia

South Africa

Swaziland

Other Africaa

Totalb

Destinationc

 

Botswana

464

521

3,807

125

350

8,471

South Africa

28,924

136,911

51,619

34,524

913,085

1,404,975

Swaziland

18,678

1,213

21,946

Other Africaa

341

d

d

Total population

941,000

1,600,000e

1,100,000e

23,386,000

495,000

 

Population abroadb

 

Number

57,745

137,375

52,709

22,829

34,649

 

Percent

6.1

8.6

4.8

0.1

7.0

NOTE: For country category, date of survey, and data class, see Table 8–1; regional classification from Adepoju (1988); —: no recorded migration.

aUnknown foreign born classified as “Other Africa.” Category includes the eight countries of Comoros, Mauritius, Reunion, São Tomé and Principe, Seychelles, Cape Verde, Equitorial Guinea, and Djibouti, and all of North Africa except Sudan.

bFigures include interregional migration as well as the intraregional migration shown on this table.

cCountries not listed had no recorded immigration.

dData not available.

eFigures from Haub and Kent (1986).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–6 Stocks of Migrants in Sub-Saharan Africa by Source and Destination: Interregional Migration

 

Source Region

Destination Region

Western

Middle

Eastern and Sudan

Southern

Total

Western

0

0

0

0

Middle

148,212a

906

56

149,174

Eastern and Sudan

357

138,469b

29,337c

168,163

Southern

687

8,315d

236,169e

245,171

Total

149,256

146,784

237,075

29,393

562,508

NOTES: For country category, date of survey, and data class, see Table 8–1. See Tables 8–2 through 8–5 for intraregional migration. Cell totals include all interregional migration; country-to-country migrations of more than 2,000 people are detailed in the footnotes.

aIncludes 135,296 from Nigeria to Cameroon; 2,850 from Mali to Congo; and 2,817 from Senegal to Congo.

bIncludes 27,682 from Angola to Zambia; 63,998 from Congo to Uganda; 16,653 from Zaire to Burundi; 7,230 from Zaire to Rwanda; and 22,906 from Zaire to Zambia.

cIncludes 28,821 from Botswana to Zambia.

dIncludes 3,190 from Angola to South Africa; and 3,154 from Congo to South Africa.

eIncludes 7,380 from Kenya to South Africa; 30,617 from Malawi to South Africa; 2,055 from Mozambique to Swaziland; 71,209 from Mozambique to South Africa; 3,188 from Tanzania to South Africa; 21,041 from Zambia to South Africa; 2,375 from Zimbabwe to Botswana; and 96,884 from Zimbabwe to South Africa.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–7 Stocks of Migrants in Africa by Source and Destination: Non-African Immigrants

 

Source

Destination

Former USSR

Europea

Middle East and Asiab

Americasc

Undetermined and Other Countriesd

Total Non-African

Western

 

Benin

Burkina Faso

2,560

259

10,456

13,275

Côte d’Ivoire

30,247

5,902

975

37,124

The Gambia

1,254

1,254

Ghana

7,584

4,926

2,473

14,983

Guinea Bissau

888

888

Liberia

4,101

4,643

2,808

252

11,804

Mali

836

3,054

301

228

130

4,549

Mauritania

3,045

308

1,808

5,161

Senegal

15,125

6,914

1,183

2,488

25,710

Sierra Leone

30

2,054

5,979

763

8,826

Togo

Middle

 

Angola

6,063

118

846

311

7,338

Cameroon

12,552

1,067

1,011

14,630

Central African Republic

3,221

3,221

Congo

5,071

393

5,464

Zaire

Eastern

 

Burundi

2,284

392

141

3

2,820

Kenya

Madagascar

38,310

10,447

278

3,202

52,237

Malawi

6,938

6,938

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

 

Source

Destination

Former USSR

Europea

Middle East and Asiab

Americasc

Undetermined and Other Countriesd

Total Non-African

Eastern

 

Mozambique

Rwanda

3,121

1,568

433

5,122

Tanzania

Uganda

45,073

10,009

1,032

56,114

Zambia

12,744

12,989

4,351

16,528

46,612

Zimbabwe

Southern

 

Botswana

4,985

946

776

179

6,886

South Africa

5,341

405,798

25,879

10,347

14,719

462,084

Swaziland

4,212

4,212

Northern

 

Sudan

Other Africa

21

24,236

1,210

142

16,655

42,264

Total

6,228

628,007

92,482

25,245

87,554

839,516

NOTE: —: unknown.

aIncludes United Kingdom, Belgium, France, Portugal, and other Europe.

bIncludes Asia, China, India, Pakistan, Southeast Asia, Japan and Middle Eastern countries.

cIncludes United States, Canada, and other Western Hemisphere countries.

dMay include African immigrants classified as “undetermined foreigners” by some countries’ censuses.

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–8 Stocks of Migrants in Africa by Destination: Summary

Destination

Total Immigrantsa

Non-Immigrants

Not Stated

Total Population

Immigrants as Percent of Total Population

Sub-Saharan African Immigrants as Percent of Populationb

Unspecified Origin or Residuala

Western

 

Benin

41,284

3,286,937

2,779

3,331,000

1.2

41,284

Burkina Faso

110,681

5,517,411

10,000

5,638,092

2.0

1.9

(10,111)

Côte d’Ivoire

1,474,469

5,203,580

31,951

6,710,000

22.0

21.4

26

The Gambia

54,554

437,636

1,309

493,499

11.1

10.8

Ghana

562,132

7,997,181

8,559,313

6.6

6.4

Guinea Bissau

12,931

755,069

768,000

1.7

1.6

Liberia

59,458

1,443,910

1,503,368

4.0

3.2

Mali

146,089

6,248,829

6,394,918

2.3

1.1

69,175

Mauritania

28,168

1,310,832

1,339,000

2.1

1.7

Senegal

118,782

4,879,103

4,997,885

2.4

1.9

Sierra Leone

79,414

2,655,745

724

2,735,883

2.9

2.5

3,424

Togo

143,620

1,807,380

1,951,000

7.4

143,620

Middle

 

Angola

15,230

8,184,770

8,200,000c

0.2

0.1

Cameroon

218,069

6,914,889

7,132,958

3.1

2.6

17,881

Central African Republic

44,583

1,699,451

36,995

1,781,029

2.5

2.3

Congo

96,639

1,260,055

552,306

1,909,000

5.1

2.4

45,472

Zaire

637,605

29,033,802

29,671,407

2.1

637,605

Eastern

 

Burundi

82,851

3,945,569

129

4,028,549

2.1

2.0

129

Kenya

157,371

15,169,560

130

15,327,061

1.0

157,371

Madagascar

53,315

7,549,710

765

7,603,790

0.7

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

Destination

Total Immigrantsa

Non-Immigrants

Not Stated

Total Population

Immigrants as Percent of Total Population

Sub-Saharan African Immigrants as Percent of Populationb

Unspecified Origin or Residuala

Eastern

 

Malawi

288,744

5,257,554

1,162

5,547,460

5.2

5.1

Mozambique

39,142

11,634,858

11,674,000

0.3

39,142

Rwanda

41,911

4,788,569

1,047

4,831,527

0.9

0.8

Tanzania

415,684

17,096,927

17,512,611

2.4

 

415,684

Uganda

542,414

8,998,319

2,812

9,543,545

5.7

5.1

Zambia

231,354

5,430,646

5,662,000

4.1

3.3

Southern

 

Botswana

15,619

925,381

941,000c

1.7

0.9

262

South Africa

1,862,192

23,386,000c

8.0

6.0

(4,867)

Swaziland

26,460

468,074

466

495,000

5.3

4.4

302

Northern

 

Sudan

227,906

12,015,614

1,870,480

14,114,000

1.6

227,906

Other Africa

35,272

1,825,339

4,673

1,860,611

1.9

1.1

(27,573)

Total

7,863,943

183,742,700

 

215,643,506

3.6

 

1,756,732

NOTE: Parentheses indicate negative numbers.

aFigures for total immigrants derive either from the sum of African and non-African immigrants (Tables 8–2, 8–3, 8–4, 8–5, and 8–7) or from the total foreign-born population figures in Table 8–15. Discrepancies between these two sources are reflected in the column “Unspecified origin or residual.”

bBecause several countries in the table do not distinguish African from non-African immigrants, this percentage cannot be calculated for all countries.

cTotal population figures are World Bank estimates for mid-1973 from Population Growth and Policies (1986).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–9 Refugees, by Asylum Country, 1987, 1988, 1990

Asylum Country

1987

1988

1990a

Western

 

Benin

3,700

3,000

800

Burkina Faso

180

200

300

Côte d’Ivoire

600

800

270,500

The Gambia

800

Ghana

140

100

8,000

Guinea Bissau

1,600

Guinea

325,000

Liberia

110

200

Mali

10,600

Mauritania

22,000

Niger

800

Nigeria

4,800

5,100

5,300

Senegal

5,600

5,200

55,300

Sierra Leone

200

100

125,000

Togo

1,700

500

Middle

 

Angola

92,000

95,700

11,900

Cameroon

7,300

4,700

6,900

Central African Republic

5,100

3,000

6,300

Chad

100

Congo

1,200

2,100

3,400

Gabon

100

100

800

Zaire

338,000

325,700

370,900

Eastern and Sudan

 

Burundi

76,000

76,000

90,700

Djibouti

13,500

2,000

67,400

Ethiopia

220,000

700,500

783,000

Kenya

9,000

10,600

14,400

Malawi

420,000

630,000

909,000

Mozambique

500

400

700

Rwanda

19,000

20,600

21,500

Somalia

430,000

365,000

358,500

Sudan

817,000

693,600

726,500

Tanzania

266,000

266,200

266,200

Uganda

120,400

125,500

156,000

Zambia

151,500

149,000

133,950

Zimbabwe

150,500

171,500

186,000

Southern

 

Botswana

5,200

2,700

1,000

Lesotho

2,000

4,000

1,000

Namibia

25,000

South Africa

180,000

180,000

201,000

Swaziland

67,000

70,700

47,200

Total

3,408,430

3,914,800

5,215,250

NOTE: —: no refugees reported.

aIncludes 6,500 that are not accounted for in Tables 8–10 through 8–13 because their source countries are unknown.

SOURCE: Data from U.S. Committee for Refugees (1988; 1989; 1991).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–10 Refugees, by Source and Asylum Countries, 1990: Western Africa

 

Source Country

Asylum Country

Guinea Bissau

Liberia

Mauritania

Niger

Senegal

Côte d’Ivoire

 

270,000

 

The Gambia

 

800

Ghana

8,000

 

Guinea-Bissau

 

1,600

Guinea

325,000

 

Mali

100

10,000

500

 

Mauritania

 

22,000

Nigeria

1,700

 

Senegal

5,000

 

50,100

 

Sierra Leone

 

125,000

 

NOTE: These figures exclude interregional refugees and refugees from unknown source countries. See Table 8-14.

SOURCE: Data from U.S. Committee for Refugees (1991).

TABLE 8–11 Refugees, by Source and Asylum Countries, 1990: Middle Africa

 

Source Country

Asylum Country

Angola

Central African Republic

Chad

Zaire

Angola

 

9,500

Cameroon

 

6,500

 

Central African Republic

1,200

Congo

 

300

2,300

400

Zaire

312,700

 

NOTE: These figures exclude interregional refugees and refugees from unknown source countries. See Table 8–14.

SOURCE: Data from U.S. Committee for Refugees (1991).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–12 Refugees, by Source and Asylum Countries, 1990: Eastern Africa and Sudan

 

Source Country

Asylum Country

Burundi

Ethiopia

Kenya

Malawi

Mozambique

Rwanda

Somalia

Sudan

Uganda

Burundi

 

80,600

100

 

Djibouti

 

6,400

 

61,000

 

Ethiopia

 

385,000

398,000

 

Kenya

 

3,000

 

2,000

1,000

 

5,100

Malawi

 

909,000

 

Rwanda

21,500

 

Somalia

 

355,000

3,500

 

Sudan

700,000

 

2,000

Tanzania

154,700

 

72,000

22,300

 

Uganda

 

87,000

1,500

64,000

 

Zambia

 

250

22,000

 

1,200

Zimbabwe

 

185,000

 

NOTE: These figures exclude interregional refugees and refugees from unknown source countries. See Table 8–14.

SOURCE: Data from U.S. Committee for Refugees (1991).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–13 Refugees, by Source and Asylum Countries, 1990: Southern Africa

 

Source Country

Asylum Country

Lesotho

South Africa

Botswana

 

1,000

Lesotho

1,000

South Africa

1,000

 

Swaziland

 

7,700

NOTE: These figures exclude interregional refugees and refugees from unknown source countries. See Table 8–14.

SOURCE: Data from U.S. Committee for Refugees (1991).

TABLE 8–14 Interregional Refugees in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1990

 

Source Region

Asylum Region

Western

Middle

Eastern and Sudan

Southern

Western

5,200a

0

0

Middle

0

63,100b

2,400c

Eastern and Sudan

0

158,800d

8,200e

Southern

0

25,000f

239,500g

Total

0

189,000

302,600

10,600

NOTE: Cell totals include all interregional migration; country-to-country migrations of 2,000 or more refugees are detailed in the footnotes.

aIncludes 3,300 from Chad to Nigeria.

bIncludes 5,100 from Sudan to Central African Republic; 10,000 from Burundi to Zaire; 12,000 from Rwanda to Zaire; 32,000 from Sudan to Zaire; and 4,000 from Uganda to Zaire.

cIncludes 2,100 from South Africa to Angola.

dIncludes 10,000 from Zaire to Burundi; 16,000 from Zaire to Tanzania; 98,000 from Angola to Zambia; 9,000 from Zaire to Zambia; 20,000 from Chad to Sudan; and 4,500 from Zaire to Sudan.

eIncludes 2,000 from South Africa to Uganda and 3,500 from South Africa to Zambia.

fAll of these refugees are from Angola to Namibia.

gIncludes 200,000 from Mozambique to South Africa and 39,500 from Mozambique to Swaziland.

SOURCE: Data from U.S. Committee for Refugees (1991).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–15 Foreign-Born Population in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries

 

Foreign-Born Population

Country or Area

Reference Date

Total Population

Total

Proportion of Total Population

Male

Female

Sex Ratio Male to Female

Western

 

Benin

1979

3,331,000

41,284a

1.2

21,268

20,016

1.06

Burkina Faso

1975

5,638,000

110,681

2.0

52,854

57,827

0.91

Côte d’Ivoire

1975

6,710,000

1,474,469a

22.0

874,073

600,396

1.46

The Gambia

1973

493,000

54,554

11.1

33,334

21,220

1.57

Ghana

1970

8,559,000

562,132a

6.6

323,978

238,154

1.36

Guinea-Bissau

1979

768,000

12,931

1.7

6,471

6,460

1.00

Liberia

1974

1,503,000

59,458

4.0

35,759

23,699

1.51

Mali

1976

6,395,000

146,089

2.3

73,458

72,631

1.01

Mauritania

1977

1,339,000

28,168a

2.1

16,488

11,680

1.41

Sierra Leone

1974

2,735,000

79,414a

2.9

48,336

31,078

1.56

Togo

1970

1,951,000

143,620

7.4

69,294

74,326

0.93

Middle

 

Cameroon

1976

7,132,000

218,069

3.1

120,442

97,627

1.23

Central African Republic

1975

1,781,000

44,583

2.5

21,844

22,739

0.96

Congo

1984

1,909,000

96,639

5.1

47,797

48,842

0.98

Eastern

 

Burundi

1979

4,028,000

82,851

2.1

42,147

40,704

1.04

Kenya

1979

15,327,000

157,371

1.0

82,298

75,073

1.10

Malawi

1977

5,547,000

288,744

5.2

140,421

148,323

0.95

Mozambique

1980

11,674,000

39,142a

0.3

19,759

19,383

1.02

Rwanda

1978

4,832,000

41,911a

0.9

21,411

20,500

1.04

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

 

Foreign-Born Population

Country or Area

Reference Date

Total Population

Total

Proportion of Total Population

Male

Female

Sex Ratio Male to Female

Eastern

 

Tanzania

1978

17,513,000

415,684

2.4

219,188

196,496

1.12

Zambia

1980

5,662,000

231,354

4.1

121,436

109,918

1.10

Southern

 

Botswana

1981

941,000

15,619a

1.7

8,788

6,831

1.29

South Africa

1985

23,386,000

1,862,192

8.0

1,209,967

652,225

1.86

Swaziland

1976

495,000

26,460

5.4

12,554

13,906

0.90

Northern

 

Sudan

1973

14,114,000

227,906

1.6

113,028

114,878

0.98

aClassified as foreign nationals, not foreign born.

SOURCE: Data from United Nations (1989a).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–16 Sub-Saharan African Source Countries, 1990, Ranked by Refugee Stocks

Source Country

Region

Number

Percent of Total

Cumululative Percentage

Mozambique

Eastern

1,427,500

27.4

27.4

Ethiopia

Eastern

1,064,400

20.4

47.8

Liberia

Western

729,800

14.0

61.8

Sudan

Northern

499,100

9.6

71.3

Somalia

Eastern

448,600

8.6

79.9

Angola

Middle

435,700

8.4

88.3

Rwanda

Eastern

203,900

3.9

92.2

Burundi

Eastern

186,200

3.6

95.8

Mauritania

Western

60,100

1.2

96.9

Zaire

Middle

50,700

1.0

97.9

Chad

Middle

35,200

0.7

98.6

Senegal

Western

24,400

0.5

99.0

South Africa

Southern

20,000

0.4

99.4

Uganda

Eastern

12,300

0.2

99.7

Guinea-Bissau

Western

5,000

0.1

99.9

Kenya

Eastern

3,500

0.1

100.0

Lesotho

Southern

1,000

0.0

100.0

Niger

Western

500

0.0

100.0

Namibia

Southern

300

0.0

100.0

Central African Republic

Middle

300

0.0

100.0

Malawi

Eastern

250

0.0

100.0

Othera

 

6,500

 

Total refugee population

5,215,250

aSource country not specified.

SOURCE: Data from U.S. Committee for Refugees (1991).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–17 Sub-Saharan African Asylum Countries, 1990, Ranked by Refugee Stocks

Asylum Country

Region

Number

Percent of Total

Cumululative Percentage

Malawi

Eastern

909,000

17.43

17.43

Ethiopia

Eastern

783,000

15.01

32.44

Sudan

Northern

726,500

13.93

46.37

Zaire

Middle

370,900

7.11

53.49

Somalia

Eastern

358,500

6.87

60.36

Guinea

Western

325,000

6.23

66.59

Côte d’Ivoire

Western

270,500

5.19

71.78

Tanzania

Eastern

266,200

5.10

76.88

South Africa

Southern

201,000

3.85

80.74

Zimbabwe

Eastern

186,000

3.57

84.30

Uganda

Eastern

156,000

2.99

87.29

Zambia

Eastern

133,950

2.57

89.86

Sierra Leone

Western

125,000

2.40

92.26

Burundi

Eastern

90,700

1.74

94.00

Djibouti

Eastern

67,400

1.29

95.29

Senegal

Western

55,300

1.06

96.35

Swaziland

Southern

47,200

0.91

97.26

Namibia

Southern

25,000

0.48

97.74

Mauritania

Western

22,000

0.42

98.16

Rwanda

Eastern

21,500

0.41

98.57

Kenya

Eastern

14,400

0.28

98.85

Angola

Middle

11,900

0.23

99.07

Mali

Western

10,600

0.20

99.28

Ghana

Western

8,000

0.15

99.43

Cameroon

Middle

6,900

0.13

99.56

Central African Republic

Middle

6,300

0.12

99.68

Nigeria

Western

5,300

0.10

99.79

Congo

Middle

3,400

0.07

99.85

Guinea-Bissau

Western

1,600

0.03

99.88

Lesotho

Southern

1,000

0.02

99.90

Botswana

Southern

1,000

0.02

99.92

Benin

Western

800

0.02

99.93

The Gambia

Western

800

0.02

99.95

Niger

Western

800

0.02

99.97

Gabon

Middle

800

0.02

99.98

Mozambique

Eastern

700

0.01

99.99

Burkina Faso

Western

300

0.01

100.00

Total asylum population

5,215,250

 

 

SOURCE: Data from U.S. Committee for Refugees (1991).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–18 Lesotho Population: 1976 and 1986 Censuses

Characteristics

1976

1986

1976–1986

De jure population

 

Total

1,216,815

1,577,536

 

Male

587,348

760,472

Female

629,467

817,064

De facto population

 

Total

1,064,188

1,443,853

Male

458,260

648,021

Female

605,928

795,832

Sex ratio (male to female)

 

De jure

0.93

0.93

De facto

0.76

0.81

Absentees

 

Total

152,627

133,683

Male

129,088

112,451

Female

23,539

21,232

Percentage of total de jure population

12.5

8.5

Intercensal growth rate

 

De jure

 

2.6

De facto

3.1

 

SOURCE: Data from Lesotho (1987).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–19 Mauritania Population: 1977 Census

 

Foreign Nationals

Mauritanians

Total

Age

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Number

 

0–14

4,440

4,592

9,032

300,797

278,909

579,706

305,237

283,501

588,738

15–59

11,642

6,745

18,387

307,481

346,015

653,496

319,123

352,760

671,883

60+

406

343

749

33,553

43,907

77,460

33,959

44,250

78,209

All ages

16,488

11,680

28,168

641,831

668,831

1,310,662

658,319

680,511

1,338,830

Percentage

 

0–14

15.8

16.3

32.1

23.0

21.3

44.2

22.8

21.2

44.0

15–59

41.3

23.9

65.3

23.5

26.4

49.9

23.8

26.3

50.2

60+

1.4

1.2

2.7

2.6

3.4

5.9

2.5

3.3

5.8

All ages

58.5

41.5

100.0

49.0

51.0

100.0

49.2

50.8

100.0

Dependency ratioa

 

53.2

 

100.6

 

99.3

Sex ratio (male to female)

 

 

 

0–14

0.97

1.08

1.08

15–59

1.73

0.89

0.90

60+

1.18

0.76

0.77

All ages

1.41

0.96

0.97

aCalculated using 0–14 and 60+ as dependent age groups.

SOURCE: Data from République Islamique de Mauritanie (no date).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–20 Malawi Population: 1977 Census

 

Foreign Born

Malawian

Total

Age

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Number

 

0–9

13,635

13,928

27,562

925,587

955,477

1,881,063

939,221

969,404

1,908,626

10–19

27,242

26,461

53,702

528,545

531,002

1,059,547

555,786

557,463

1,113,249

20–29

23,184

27,410

50,594

376,265

460,438

836,703

399,449

487,848

887,297

30–39

17,075

19,519

36,595

260,218

286,888

547,107

277,293

306,408

583,701

40–49

15,222

17,725

32,946

185,219

204,881

390,100

200,440

222,606

423,046

50–59

13,803

15,159

28,962

116,807

132,955

249,762

130,610

148,113

278,724

60+

30,261

28,122

58,383

141,131

152,844

293,975

171,392

180,966

352,357

All ages

140,421

148,323

288,744

2,533,771

2,724,485

5,258,256

2,674,192

2,872,808

5,547,000

Percentage

 

0–9

9.7

9.4

9.5

36.5

35.1

35.8

35.1

33.7

34.4

10–19

19.4

17.8

18.6

20.9

19.5

20.2

20.8

19.4

20.1

20–29

16.5

18.5

17.5

14.9

16.9

15.9

14.9

17.0

16.0

30–39

12.2

13.2

12.7

10.3

10.5

10.4

10.4

10.7

10.5

40–49

10.8

12.0

11.4

7.3

7.5

7.4

7.5

7.7

7.6

50–59

9.8

10.2

10.0

4.6

4.9

4.7

4.9

5.2

5.0

60+

21.6

19.0

20.2

5.6

5.6

5.6

6.4

6.3

6.4

All ages

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

 

Foreign Born

Malawian

Total

Age

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Dependency ratioa

 

42.4

 

70.5

 

68.8

Sex ratio (male to female)

 

 

 

0–9

0.98

0.97

0.97

10–19

1.03

1.00

1.00

20–29

0.85

0.82

0.82

30–39

0.87

0.91

0.90

40–49

0.86

0.90

0.90

50–59

0.91

0.88

0.88

60+

1.08

0.92

0.95

All ages

0.95

0.93

0.93

aCalculated using 0–9 and 60+ as dependent age group.

SOURCE: Data from Malawi (1984).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

TABLE 8–21 Congo 1984 Census Results

 

Foreign Born

Congolese

Total de Jure Population

Age

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Number

 

0–9

10,279

10,646

20,925

294,671

292,358

587,029

304,950

303,004

607,954

10–19

5,615

7,265

12,880

219,249

224,341

443,590

224,864

231,606

456,470

20–29

13,031

13,379

26,410

136,757

145,582

282,339

149,788

158,961

308,749

30–39

8,638

7,302

15,940

79,776

89,774

169,550

88,414

97,076

185,490

40–49

3,965

3,275

7,240

61,977

67,420

129,397

65,942

70,695

136,637

50–59

2,236

1,708

3,944

44,480

55,998

100,478

46,716

57,706

104,422

60–69

1,062

839

1,901

28,701

37,428

66,129

29,763

38,267

68,030

70+

478

399

877

14,057

17,526

31,583

14,535

17,925

32,460

Undetermined

555

476

1,031

3,575

4,430

8,005

4,130

4,906

9,036

Total

45,859

45,289

91,148

883,243

934,857

1,818,100

929,102

980,146

1,909,248

Percentage

 

0–9

22.4

23.5

23.0

33.4

31.3

32.3

32.8

30.9

31.8

10–19

12.2

16.0

14.1

24.8

24.0

24.4

24.2

23.6

23.9

20–29

28.4

29.5

29.0

15.5

15.6

15.5

16.1

16.2

16.2

30–39

18.8

16.1

17.5

9.0

9.6

9.3

9.5

9.9

9.7

40–49

8.6

7.2

7.9

7.0

7.2

7.1

7.1

7.2

7.2

50–59

4.9

3.8

4.3

5.0

6.0

5.5

5.0

5.9

5.5

60–69

2.3

1.9

2.1

3.2

4.0

3.6

3.2

3.9

3.6

70+

1.0

0.9

1.0

1.6

1.9

1.7

1.6

1.8

1.7

Undetermined

1.2

1.1

1.1

0.4

0.5

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.5

Total

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

 

Foreign Born

Congolese

Total de Jure Population

Age

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Dependency ratioa

 

35.7

 

60.8

 

59.4

Sex ratio (male to female)

 

 

 

0–9

0.97

1.01

1.01

10–19

0.77

0.98

0.97

20–29

0.97

0.94

0.94

30–39

1.18

0.89

0.91

40–49

1.21

0.92

0.93

50–59

1.31

0.79

0.81

60–69

1.27

0.77

0.78

70+

1.20

0.80

0.81

Undetermined

1.17

0.81

0.84

Total

1.01

0.94

0.95

aCalculated using 0–9 and 60 and over as dependent age groups.

SOURCE: République Populaire du Congo (1984: Tables 203, 204).

Suggested Citation:"8 International Migration." National Research Council. 1993. Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2207.
×

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×

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×

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This overview includes chapters on child mortality, adult mortality, fertility, proximate determinants, marriage, internal migration, international migration, and the demographic impact of AIDS.

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