Renewable Energy Guide for Highway Maintenance Facilities (2013)

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N A T I O N A L C O O P E R A T I V E H I G H W A Y R E S E A R C H P R O G R A M NCHRP REPORT 751 Renewable Energy Guide for Highway Maintenance Facilities Robert Lorand Joseph Cohen Science ApplicAtionS internAtionAl corporAtion McLean, VA and Jake Mello David Panich new weSt technologieS, llc Landover, MD Subscriber Categories Highways • Energy • Maintenance and Preservation TRANSPORTAT ION RESEARCH BOARD WASHINGTON, D.C. 2013 www.TRB.org Research sponsored by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials in cooperation with the Federal Highway Administration

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM Systematic, well-designed research provides the most effective approach to the solution of many problems facing highway administrators and engineers. Often, highway problems are of local interest and can best be studied by highway departments individually or in cooperation with their state universities and others. However, the accelerating growth of highway transportation develops increasingly complex problems of wide interest to highway authorities. These problems are best studied through a coordinated program of cooperative research. In recognition of these needs, the highway administrators of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials initiated in 1962 an objective national highway research program employing modern scientific techniques. This program is supported on a continuing basis by funds from participating member states of the Association and it receives the full cooperation and support of the Federal Highway Administration, United States Department of Transportation. The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies was requested by the Association to administer the research program because of the Board’s recognized objectivity and understanding of modern research practices. The Board is uniquely suited for this purpose as it maintains an extensive committee structure from which authorities on any highway transportation subject may be drawn; it possesses avenues of communications and cooperation with federal, state and local governmental agencies, universities, and industry; its relationship to the National Research Council is an insurance of objectivity; it maintains a full-time research correlation staff of specialists in highway transportation matters to bring the findings of research directly to those who are in a position to use them. The program is developed on the basis of research needs identified by chief administrators of the highway and transportation departments and by committees of AASHTO. Each year, specific areas of research needs to be included in the program are proposed to the National Research Council and the Board by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Research projects to fulfill these needs are defined by the Board, and qualified research agencies are selected from those that have submitted proposals. Administration and surveillance of research contracts are the responsibilities of the National Research Council and the Transportation Research Board. The needs for highway research are many, and the National Cooperative Highway Research Program can make significant contributions to the solution of highway transportation problems of mutual concern to many responsible groups. The program, however, is intended to complement rather than to substitute for or duplicate other highway research programs. Published reports of the NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM are available from: Transportation Research Board Business Office 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001 and can be ordered through the Internet at: http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore Printed in the United States of America NCHRP REPORT 751 Project 20-85 ISSN 0077-5614 ISBN 978-0-309-25911-8 Library of Congress Control Number 2013938379 © 2013 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. COPYRIGHT INFORMATION Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein. Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, FAA, FHWA, FMCSA, FTA, or Transit Development Corporation endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP. NOTICE The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the National Cooperative Highway Research Program, conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the approval of the Governing Board of the National Research Council. The members of the technical panel selected to monitor this project and to review this report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance. The report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council. The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council, or the program sponsors. The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, the National Research Council, and the sponsors of the National Cooperative Highway Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report.

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. On the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences. The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering. The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, on its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine. The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council. The Transportation Research Board is one of six major divisions of the National Research Council. The mission of the Transporta- tion Research Board is to provide leadership in transportation innovation and progress through research and information exchange, conducted within a setting that is objective, interdisciplinary, and multimodal. The Board’s varied activities annually engage about 7,000 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state transportation departments, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individu- als interested in the development of transportation. www.TRB.org www.national-academies.org

C O O P E R A T I V E R E S E A R C H P R O G R A M S AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This guide was prepared for the National Academy of Sciences/Transportation Research Board. The work was performed by Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) and its subcontractor New West Technologies, LLC. Robert Lorand was the SAIC principal investigator. Key contributors included Joseph Cohen of SAIC and Jake Mello and David Panich of New West. Special thanks are given to Emily Crego for her help in editing the document. We would like to thank the members of the NCHRP Project 20-85 panel for their help in reviewing the work under this project and providing valuable suggestions for the various activities under the project. CRP STAFF FOR NCHRP REPORT 751 Christopher W. Jenks, Director, Cooperative Research Programs Crawford F. Jencks, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs Edward T. Harrigan, Senior Program Officer Anthony P. Avery, Senior Program Assistant Eileen P. Delaney, Director of Publications Doug English, Editor NCHRP PROJECT 20-85 PANEL Special Projects James M. Sime, East Hartford, CT (Chair) H. John Foster, South Dakota DOT, Pierre, SD Elisabeth Kolb, New York State DOT, Albany, NY Lance Manuel, University of Texas–Austin, Austin, TX Robert Miller, Minnesota DOT, St. Paul, MN Douglas A. Record, Missouri DOT, Jefferson City, MO Tim L. Ularich, Utah DOT, Salt Lake City, UT Christopher M. Newman, FHWA Liaison Alex Weinandy, Ohio DOT Liaison Frank N. Lisle, TRB Liaison

This report presents a guide for the application of renewable energy technologies to the heating and cooling, lighting, and electrical power requirements of highway maintenance facilities. The guide will be of immediate interest to staff of state departments of transpor- tation responsible for the planning, design, construction, and operation of these facilities. NCHRP Project 20-85, “Renewable Energy Guide for Highway Maintenance Facilities,” was conducted by Science Applications International Corporation, McLean, Virginia, with participation by New West Technologies, LLC, Landover, Maryland. The objective of the project was to develop a guide for the planning, design, and opera- tion of new and retrofitted highway maintenance facilities that are sustainable and energy efficient over their service lives through the effective use of energy capture technologies. In this project, the term “highway maintenance facility” was defined as a building used to garage, repair, and maintain vehicles and equipment, with associated storage, shop, office, and other occupied spaces. The term “energy capture technology” refers to the use of both active, renewable (such as wind, solar, and ground-source) energy sources and passive (such as solar-thermal) building and site modifications. The development of the guide comprised several major tasks. The research team first conducted an extensive review of the worldwide literature on the use of renewable energy technologies to heat and cool, light, and provide electrical power for maintenance facili- ties operated by highway agencies as well as organizations such as transit agencies and the military. The literature review was supported by a survey of state, local, and municipal high- way agencies, organizations with similar missions, and technology vendors to determine (1) energy capture technologies currently employed at highway maintenance facilities, (2) existing or planned highway maintenance facilities where energy capture technologies can be effectively employed, and (3) strategies for financing projects incorporating renewable energy sources. Finally, the survey results were used to identify case studies of the use of renewable energy technologies in highway and non-highway maintenance facilities. The guide provides information specific to regional and facility-functional requirements and is suitable for possible adoption by AASHTO. It provides an extensive set of case stud- ies illustrative of the use, benefits, and costs of renewable energy technologies in a variety of geographic and climatic regions in the United States. The guide fully documents the results of the research and includes an appendix for esti- mating the costs and capabilities of several renewable energy sources and a glossary of terms. F O R E W O R D By Edward T. Harrigan Staff Officer Transportation Research Board

xi Abbreviations P A R T I Introduction to the Guide 3 Chapter 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Background and Goals of the Guide 3 1.2 Scope 4 1.3 Approach 4 1.4 Brief Overview of Each Section P A R T I I General Considerations 9 Chapter 2 Overview of Highway Maintenance Facilities 9 2.1 Overview 10 2.2 Building Functional Characteristics 13 2.3 Energy Use in Maintenance Facilities 18 Chapter 3 General Project Considerations 18 3.1 Why Use Renewable Energy? 22 3.2 The Process of Identifying Renewable Energy Options 23 3.3 Pathways to Incorporate Renewable Energy into Highway Maintenance Facilities 25 3.4 The Project Development Process 35 Chapter 4 Project Financing 35 4.1 Introduction 35 4.2 Direct Funding 35 4.3 Bonds 36 4.4 Public Benefit Fund 37 4.5 Revolving Loan Fund 37 4.6 Other State Funding Options 37 4.7 Third-Party Ownership 39 4.8 Energy Savings Performance Contract 40 4.9 Renewable Energy Certificates 41 4.10 Renewable Energy Incentives 43 Chapter 5 Applicability Guide 43 5.1 Renewable Energy Technology and Strategy Applicability Based on Region and Site Considerations 48 5.2 Economic Evaluation C O N T E N T S

P A R T I I I Renewable Energy Technologies and Strategies 55 Chapter 6 Energy Efficiency and Demand Reduction 55 6.1 Overview 56 6.2 Types of Systems and Strategies 59 6.3 Applications for Energy Efficiency and Demand Reduction 60 Chapter 7 Daylighting 60 7.1 Overview 60 7.2 Types of Systems and Strategies 62 7.3 Applications 66 7.4 Best Practices 69 Chapter 8 Passive Solar Heating 69 8.1 Overview 69 8.2 Types of Systems and Strategies 71 8.3 Applications 73 8.4 Best Practices 76 Chapter 9 Natural or Passive Cooling 76 9.1 Overview 76 9.2 Types of Systems and Strategies 77 9.3 Applications 78 9.4 Best Practices 80 Chapter 10 Active Solar Heating 80 10.1 Overview 83 10.2 Types of Active Solar Systems and Strategies 88 10.3 Applications 93 10.4 Active Solar Best Practices 95 Chapter 11 Photovoltaics 95 11.1 Overview 95 11.2 Types of Systems and Strategies 98 11.3 Applications 101 11.4 Best Practices 103 Chapter 12 Concentrating Solar Power 103 12.1 Overview 103 12.2 Types of Systems and Strategies 106 12.3 Applications 107 Chapter 13 Wind Energy 107 13.1 Overview 107 13.2 Types of Systems and Strategies 110 13.3 Applications 115 13.4 Best Practices 118 Chapter 14 Geothermal Energy 118 14.1 Overview 119 14.2 Types of Systems and Strategies 120 14.3 Applications 121 14.4 Best Practices

123 Chapter 15 Biomass 123 15.1 Overview 123 15.2 Types of Systems and Strategies 125 15.3 Applications 125 15.4 Best Practices 126 Chapter 16 Hydroelectric (Small Scale) 126 16.1 Overview 126 16.2 Types of Systems and Strategies 127 16.3 Applications 128 Chapter 17 Energy Storage 128 17.1 Overview 128 17.2 Types of Systems and Strategies 130 17.3 Applications 131 Chapter 18 Emerging and Alternative Energy Technologies 131 18.1 Combined Heat and Power 131 18.2 DC Distribution Systems 132 18.3 Microgrids 134 Chapter 19 General Best Practices for Implementing Renewable Energy Technologies and Strategies 134 19.1 Overview 134 19.2 Pre-Design 135 19.3 Design 135 19.4 Construction 136 19.5 Operation and Maintenance P A R T I V Case Studies 139 Chapter 20 Introduction 139 20.1 Background 139 20.2 Approach 141 Chapter 21 Summary of Case Studies 141 21.1 Overview of the Case Studies 146 21.2 Lessons Learned 148 Chapter 22 Individual Case Studies 148 22.1 Case Study: St. Clair, MO, Maintenance Facility Solar Thermal Systems 156 22.2 Case Study: Fort Drum, NY, Solar Ventilation Air Heating System on Maintenance Facilities 161 22.3 Case Study: Plattsburgh, NY, Solar Ventilation Air Heating System on Airport Facilities 168 22.4 Case Study: Coney Island, NY, Train Maintenance Facility Solar Water Heating System 174 22.5 Case Study: Denver, CO, Public Works Central Platte Campus 182 22.6 Case Study: South Bend, IN, Public Transportation Organization Maintenance Facility 189 22.7 Case Study: Caltrans Clean Renewable Energy Bonds Program, Sunrise Maintenance Facility Photovoltaic System

196 22.8 Case Study: Milford, UT, Highway Maintenance Station Wind Turbine 201 22.9 Case Study: Ohio Department of Transportation, Northwood Outpost Garage Wind Turbine 206 22.10 Case Study: Elm Creek Park Maintenance Facility (MN), Geothermal Heat Pump System 214 22.11 Case Study: Kilauea Military Camp, HI, Corrosion-Resistant Roof with Integrated Photovoltaic System 221 Appendix A 224 Glossary 237 References

AASHTO American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials AC alternating current ACH air changes per hour AGM absorptive glass matt ARRA American Recovery and Reinvestment Act ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials AWEA American Wind Energy Association BAS building automation system BIM building information model BRAC base realignment and closure BBtu billion Btu Btu British thermal unit Btu/h Btu per hour Caltrans California Department of Transportation CBECS Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey CDD cooling degree day CEC California Energy Commission CF capacity factor cf cubic feet cfm cubic feet per minute CHP combined heat and power CPI Consumer Price Index CO2 carbon dioxide CO2e carbon dioxide equivalent COP coefficient of performance CREB Clean renewable energy bond CSP concentrating solar power DC direct current DOE Department of Energy DOT Department of Transportation DSIRE Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency DX direct exchange ECIP Energy Conservation Investment Program EER energy efficiency ratio EIA Energy Information Administration ERDC-CERL Engineer Research and Development Center–Construction Engineering Research Laboratory ERV energy recovery ventilator ESCO energy services company ESPC energy savings performance contract A B B R E V I A T I O N S

EUI energy use intensity fc foot candle FEMP Federal Energy Management Program FHWA Federal Highway Administration FTA Federal Transit Administration GHG greenhouse gas GHP geothermal heat pump HDD heating degree day HDPE High-density polyethylene HID High-intensity discharge HRV heat recovery ventilator HVAC heating, ventilating, and air conditioning IBC International Building Code ICC International Code Council IGCC International Green Construction Code IGSHPA International Ground Source Heat Pump Association IRR internal rate of return ITC investment tax credit kBtu thousand Btu kW kilowatt LCCA life-cycle cost analysis LCOE levelized cost of energy LED light-emitting diode LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design MACRS Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System MMBtu million Btu MMBtu/h million Btu per hour m/s meter per second MW megawatt MTA Metropolitan Transit Authority NAS National Academy of Sciences NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program NFPA National Fire Protection Association NIBS National Institute of Building Sciences NIST National Institute of Science and Technology NPV net present value NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory NYPA New York Power Authority NYSERDA New York State Energy Research and Development Authority O&M operation and maintenance OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration PBF public benefit fund PV photovoltaic PTC PVUSA test condition PW present worth QECB Qualifying energy conservation bond RE renewable energy REC renewable energy certificate RFP request for proposals RLF revolving loan fund

RPS renewable portfolio standard SDHW solar domestic hot water SEER seasonal energy efficiency ratio SIR savings to investment ratio SRCC Solar Rating and Certification Corporation SREC solar renewable energy certificate SSMR standing seam metal roof STC standard test condition SWCC Small Wind Certification Council TDS total dissolved solids TEMF tactical equipment maintenance facility TMY typical meteorological year TRB Transportation Research Board TSC transpired solar collector UL Underwriters Laboratories UPS uninterruptible power supply VFD variable frequency drive VRLA valve-regulated lead acid