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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2012. Marine Highway Transport of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/22737.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2012. Marine Highway Transport of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/22737.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2012. Marine Highway Transport of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/22737.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2012. Marine Highway Transport of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/22737.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2012. Marine Highway Transport of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/22737.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2012. Marine Highway Transport of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/22737.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2012. Marine Highway Transport of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/22737.
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Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

N A T I O N A L C O O P E R A T I V E F R E I G H T R E S E A R C H P R O G R A M NCFRP REPORT 18 Subscriber Categories Marine Transportation Marine Highway Transport of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials C. James Kruse Center for Ports and WaterWays texas transPortation institute Houston, TX Annie Protopapas Leslie E. Olson MultiModal freight transPortation PrograMs texas transPortation institute College Station, TX Mike Donelan Private Consultant The Woodlands, TX Nathan Hutson CaMbridge systeMatiCs, inC. Bethesda, MD TRANSPORTAT ION RESEARCH BOARD WASHINGTON, D.C. 2012 www.TRB.org Research sponsored by the Research and Innovative Technology Administration

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE FREIGHT RESEARCH PROGRAM America’s freight transportation system makes critical contributions to the nation’s economy, security, and quality of life. The freight transportation system in the United States is a complex, decentralized, and dynamic network of private and public entities, involving all modes of transportation—trucking, rail, waterways, air, and pipelines. In recent years, the demand for freight transportation service has been increasing fueled by growth in international trade; however, bottlenecks or congestion points in the system are exposing the inadequacies of current infrastructure and operations to meet the growing demand for freight. Strategic operational and investment decisions by governments at all levels will be necessary to maintain freight system performance, and will in turn require sound technical guidance based on research. The National Cooperative Freight Research Program (NCFRP) is a cooperative research program sponsored by the Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA) under Grant No. DTOS59-06-G-00039 and administered by the Transportation Research Board (TRB). The program was authorized in 2005 with the passage of the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU). On September 6, 2006, a contract to begin work was executed between RITA and The National Academies. The NCFRP will carry out applied research on problems facing the freight industry that are not being adequately addressed by existing research programs. Program guidance is provided by an Oversight Committee comprised of a representative cross section of freight stakeholders appointed by the National Research Council of The National Academies. The NCFRP Oversight Committee meets annually to formulate the research program by identifying the highest priority projects and defining funding levels and expected products. Research problem statements recommending research needs for consideration by the Oversight Committee are solicited annually, but may be submitted to TRB at any time. Each selected project is assigned to a panel, appointed by TRB, which provides technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. Heavy emphasis is placed on including members representing the intended users of the research products. The NCFRP will produce a series of research reports and other products such as guidebooks for practitioners. Primary emphasis will be placed on disseminating NCFRP results to the intended end-users of the research: freight shippers and carriers, service providers, suppliers, and public officials. Published reports of the NATIONAL COOPERATIVE FREIGHT RESEARCH PROGRAM are available from: Transportation Research Board Business Office 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001 and can be ordered through the Internet at: http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore Printed in the United States of America NCFRP REPORT 18 Project NCFRP 17(01) ISSN 1947-5659 ISBN 978-0-309-25841-8 Library of Congress Control Number 2012943116 © 2012 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. COPYRIGHT INFORMATION Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein. Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, FAA, FHWA, FMCSA, FTA, RITA, or PHMSA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not- for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP. NOTICE The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the National Cooperative Freight Research Program, conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the approval of the Governing Board of the National Research Council. The members of the technical panel selected to monitor this project and to review this report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance. The report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council. The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council, or the program sponsors. The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, the National Research Council, and the sponsors of the National Cooperative Freight Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report.

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. On the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences. The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering. The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, on its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine. The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council. The Transportation Research Board is one of six major divisions of the National Research Council. The mission of the Transporta- tion Research Board is to provide leadership in transportation innovation and progress through research and information exchange, conducted within a setting that is objective, interdisciplinary, and multimodal. The Board’s varied activities annually engage about 7,000 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state transportation departments, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individu- als interested in the development of transportation. www.TRB.org www.national-academies.org

C O O P E R A T I V E R E S E A R C H P R O G R A M S AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research reported herein was performed under NCFRP Project 17(01) by the Center for Ports and Waterways at the Texas Transportation Institute (TTI), The Texas A&M University System. C. James Kruse was the Project Director and Principal Investigator. The other authors of the report are Annie Protopapas, Associate Research Scientist at TTI; Les Olson, Associate Research Scientist at TTI; Nathan Hutson, Freight Analyst at Cambridge Systematics, Inc.; and Michael Donelan, retired barge industry executive. CRP STAFF FOR NCFRP REPORT 18 Christopher W. Jenks, Director, Cooperative Research Programs Crawford F. Jencks, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs William C. Rogers, Senior Program Officer Charlotte Thomas, Senior Program Assistant Eileen P. Delaney, Director of Publications Ellen M. Chafee, Editor NCFRP PROJECT 17(01) PANEL Freight Research Projects Rodney Gregory, Department of Defense Comptroller, Reston, VA (Chair) Michael S. Bomba, Alliance Transportation Group, Austin, TX Kristin Decas, New Bedford Harbor Development Commission, New Bedford, MA John K. DeCrosta, American President Lines Limited, Washington, DC A.N. “Tassos” Perakis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI Brian G. Pfeifer, BEC Industries, Inc., Tallahassee, FL Craig Philip, Ingram Barge Company, Nashville, TN Roberta E. Weisbrod, Sustainable Ports, Brooklyn, NY Richard C. Bornhorst, US Coast Guard Liaison George R. Famini, US Department of Homeland Security Liaison Michael Gordon, US Maritime Administration Liaison Joedy W. Cambridge, TRB Liaison

F O R E W O R D NCFRP Report 18: Marine Highway Transport of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials examines the possibility of transporting greater volumes of chlorine and anhydrous ammonia shipments via the marine highway system than is currently shipped via water. At present, there is no coastwise and limited inland waterway activity related to either com- modity. By developing a business case, the research considers such issues as market definition, return on investment, obstacles, impacts on other modes and their likely reactions, labor issues, environmental concerns, risks, and lessons learned from international experience. Ammonia and chlorine are pervasive in daily life. Ammonia is the nation’s dominant commercial fertilizer and is used either directly in anhydrous form or indirectly in manu- factured fertilizer. Chlorine is an essential component appearing in 45 percent of all com- mercial products. Both substances are extremely toxic upon release and have unique prop- erties that must be accounted for in the design and operation of transportation and storage equipment. Ammonia and chlorine account for about 90 percent of all toxic inhalation hazard (TIH) materials shipped across all modes. A serious TIH release is considered a low- probability/high-consequence event: high-consequence because the release is not readily, if at all, containable, no matter how rapidly the response team reacts; low-probability because in the last 23 years only four major releases have occurred in the United States, two for each substance. All four releases occurred during rail shipment. Under NCFRP Project 17(01), the Texas Transportation Institute was asked to answer the following question: If the market favors marine transportation, why isn’t marine trans- portation of TIH materials already expanding? To answer this question the researchers (1) determined current volume of shipments by mode; (2) interviewed shippers and carriers; (3) reviewed international experiences; (4) defined the regulatory and security environ- ment; (5) defined vessel requirements; (6) defined the economic environment; (7) identi- fied obstacles; (8) defined and analyzed externalities; and (9) described various alternative courses of action. By William C. Rogers Staff Officer Transportation Research Board

C O N T E N T S 1 Summary 3 Chapter 1 Background 3 Nature of the Cargo 8 Volumes Produced and Shipped 8 Geography of Commodity Flows 13 Chapter 2 Motivation for Increasing Waterborne Shipments 13 Public Safety 15 Environmental Concerns 17 Issues with Shipment of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials by Railroad 19 Chapter 3 Current Operating Environment 19 Current Logistics Systems 21 Regulatory and Security Environment 24 Chapter 4 Movement of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials in Europe and Canada 24 Background 24 Regulatory and Security Environment 25 Market Description 27 Chlorine and Anhydrous Ammonia Production Strategies in Europe and Canada 30 Differences from the U.S. System 30 Conclusions 32 Chapter 5 Vessel Requirements 32 Existing Fleet—Inland 32 Existing Fleet—Coastwise 33 Rail and Truck Fleets 33 Functional Requirements 34 Conclusions on Vessel Requirements 36 Chapter 6 Economics of Expanded Operations 36 Market Conditions 36 Transportation Rate Pressure 38 Capital Requirements 40 Risk 41 Chapter 7 Obstacles 41 Geographical Dispersion 41 Financial Risk of Catastrophes 41 Operational 42 Regulatory 42 Market

42 Infrastructure Conditions 42 Externalities to Consider 45 Chapter 8 Potential Courses of Action 45 Background 45 Limit Risk to Carriers and Shippers—Institute Insurance Program 46 Require Safer Equipment and Technology 46 Dilute the Ammonia 46 Establish Incentives 47 Restrict Movements through High-Population Areas (High Threat Urban Areas) 47 Maintain and Improve the Infrastructure and Guarantee Its Condition 47 Encourage the Location of New Plants and Facilities Near Marine Terminals 47 Integrate the Value of Marine Transportation into National Planning 48 Chapter 9 Conclusions 48 Obstacles and Challenges 48 Alternatives 49 References 53 Appendix A Jones Act Tankers 55 Appendix B Articulated Tug/Barges (ATBs) 58 Appendix C Bibliography Note: Many of the photographs, figures, and tables in this report have been converted from color to grayscale for printing. The electronic version of the report (posted on the Web at www.trb.org) retains the color versions.

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TRB’s National Cooperative Freight Research Program (NCFRP) Report 18: Marine Highway Transport of Toxic Inhalation Hazard Materials examines the possibility of transporting greater volumes of chlorine and anhydrous ammonia shipments via the marine highway system.

At present, there is no coastwise and only limited inland waterway activity related to either commodity.

In developing a business case for increasing chlorine and anhydrous ammonia shipments via the marine highway system, the report addresses market definition, return on investment, obstacles, impacts on other modes and their likely reactions, labor issues, environmental concerns, risks, and lessons learned from international experience.

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