Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports (2012)

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Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports i CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES .........................................................................................................................v AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................ vii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...........................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 1: Background .....................................................................................................10 Airports and Air Quality ....................................................................................................10 Particulate Matter Ambient Standards ...............................................................................11 Non-Attainment Areas .......................................................................................................11 Implications for Airports ....................................................................................................14 Airports and Alternative Fuels ...........................................................................................14 CHAPTER 2: Literature Review ...........................................................................................15 Relevant Emissions Inventory and Dispersion Models .....................................................15 Ambient PM2.5 Monitoring Studies at Airports .................................................................16 Aircraft and APU Emissions ..............................................................................................16 Ground Support Equipment Emissions ..............................................................................18 Road Vehicle Emissions ....................................................................................................18 Other Emissions .................................................................................................................20 Dispersion Modeling at Airports .......................................................................................20 CHAPTER 3: Case Study Airports .......................................................................................22 Evaluation and Selection Process ......................................................................................22 Selected Case Study Airports .............................................................................................22 CHAPTER 4: Case Study Alternative Fuels .........................................................................24 Evaluation and Selection Process ......................................................................................24 Selected Case Study Alternative Fuels ..............................................................................28 CHAPTER 5: Methodology ....................................................................................................30 Emissions Inventory for Base Case ...................................................................................31 Emissions Inventory for Alternative Fuel Scenarios .........................................................32 Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling Analysis .....................................................................34 Sensitivities of Analysis .....................................................................................................35 CHAPTER 6: Results ..............................................................................................................36 Base Case ...........................................................................................................................36 Alternative Fuel Scenarios .................................................................................................38 CHAPTER 7: Conclusions and Recommendations ..............................................................51 Overview ............................................................................................................................51 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................51

Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports ii Key Recommendations ......................................................................................................52 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................54 ABBREVIATIONS and ACRONYMS ......................................................................................63 APPENDIX A: Literature Review ........................................................................................ A-1 Airport Sustainability Plans, Air Quality and Noise Management Reports ................... A-1 Monitoring of PM2.5 in the Vicinity of Airports ............................................................. A-2 Calculation of Emissions at Airports .............................................................................. A-2 Aircraft and APU Emissions ........................................................................................... A-2 Aircraft and APU Alternative Fuels ............................................................................... A-7 Ground Support Equipment (GSE) Emissions ............................................................. A-13 GSE Alternative Fuels .................................................................................................. A-14 Road Vehicle Emissions ............................................................................................... A-16 Road Vehicle Alternative Fuels .................................................................................... A-18 Other Emission Sources ................................................................................................ A-20 Dispersion Modeling at Airports .................................................................................. A-22 APPENDIX B: Case Study Airports .....................................................................................B-1 Evaluation Criteria ...........................................................................................................B-1 Airport Activity Levels ....................................................................................................B-1 Availability and Appropriateness of Data ........................................................................B-1 Data Rating Index ............................................................................................................B-3 Primary Evaluation Criteria .............................................................................................B-5 Secondary Evaluation Criteria .........................................................................................B-6 APPENDIX C: Case Study Alternative Fuels ..................................................................... C-1 Change in PM2.5 Emissions .............................................................................................C-1 Availability of Fuel ..........................................................................................................C-4 Availability of New Vehicles ...........................................................................................C-4 Cost to Convert Existing Vehicles ...................................................................................C-4 Drop-in Fuel for Existing Vehicles ..................................................................................C-5 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Life-Cycle Emissions ...............................................................C-5 Emission Data Source Reliability ....................................................................................C-5 Fuel Cost Relative to Conventional .................................................................................C-5 Vehicle Cost Compared with Conventional ....................................................................C-6 Additional Infrastructure Needed ....................................................................................C-6 Warranty Validity Issue ...................................................................................................C-7 APPENDIX D: Detailed Methodology ................................................................................. D-1 Emissions Inventory for Base Case ................................................................................ D-1 Emissions Inventory for Alternative Fuel Scenarios ...................................................... D-2 Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling Analysis .................................................................. D-5 Ambient Monitoring Data ............................................................................................... D-9 Sensitivities of Analysis ................................................................................................ D-15 APPENDIX E: Case Study Airport Results .........................................................................E-1 Base Case ......................................................................................................................... E-1

Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports iii Sensitivities of Analysis ................................................................................................. E-14 Alternative Fuel Scenarios ............................................................................................. E-16 APPENDIX F: Guidance Document ..................................................................................... F-1 Background ...................................................................................................................... F-1 Level of Analysis – A Tiered Approach .......................................................................... F-2 Tier 1 ................................................................................................................................ F-2 Tier 2 ................................................................................................................................ F-9 Tier 3 .............................................................................................................................. F-12

Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 – On-Airport Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by Source Category (kgs)................... 4  Figure 2 – Alternative Fuel Scenarios versus Base Case – Percentage Change of Total Airport Emissions ......................................................................................................... 7  Figure 3 – Alternative Fuel Scenarios versus Base Case – Percentage Change of Annual Influence Area ............................................................................................................... 8  Figure 4 – PM2.5 Non-Attainment Areas as of December 2010 (Annual Standard) ..................... 13  Figure 5 – PM2.5 Non-Attainment Areas as of April 2011 (24-hour Standard) ............................ 13  Figure 6 – Effect of Biodiesel Blends on Emissions of Particulate Matter from Road Vehicles....................................................................................................................... 19  Figure 7 – On-Airport Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by Source Category (kg) .................. 38  Figure 8 – Alternative Fuel Scenarios versus Base Case – Percentage Change of Total Airport Emissions ....................................................................................................... 43  Figure 9 – Alternative Fuel Scenarios versus Base Case – Percentage Change of Maximum Airport Annual Average Impact ................................................................................. 44  Figure 10 – Alternative Fuel Scenarios versus Base Case – Percentage Change of Maximum Airport 24-hour 98th Percentile Impact .................................................... 45  Figure 11 – Alternative Fuel Scenarios versus Base Case – Percentage Change of Annual ROI .............................................................................................................................. 46  Figure 12 – Alternative Fuel Scenarios versus Base Case – Percentage Change of 24-hour 98th Percentile ROI ..................................................................................................... 47  Figure 13 – Alternative Fuel Scenarios versus Base Case – Percentage Change of Annual Influence Area ............................................................................................................. 48  Figure 14 – Alternative Fuel Scenarios versus Base Case – Percentage Change of 24-hour 98th Percentile Influence Area .................................................................................... 49  Figure 15 – Alternative Fuel Scenarios versus Base Case – Percent Change of Annual Emissions for Aircraft Type........................................................................................ 50  Figure 16 – Candidate Case Study Airports ............................................................................... B-4  Figure 17 – Wind Roses for Five Case Study Airports .............................................................. D-8  Figure 18 – Aircraft Related Air Emissions Inventory (kg per LTO) ......................................... E-2  Figure 19 – PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by Aircraft Type (kg per LTO) ..................................... E-5  Figure 20 – Air Dispersion Modeling Results – Annual Concentration (µg/m3) by Distance (meters) .................................................................................................................... E-12  Figure 21 – Air Dispersion Modeling Results – Maximum 24-hour Concentration (µg/m3) by Distance (meters) ................................................................................................ E-13  Figure 22 – Tool Instruction Sheet .............................................................................................. F-9  Figure 23 – Tool Input Sheet ..................................................................................................... F-10  Figure 24 – Tool Results Sheet .................................................................................................. F-11  Figure 25 – Methodology Flow Chart ....................................................................................... F-13 

Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports v LIST OF TABLES Table 1 – National Ambient Air Quality Standards for PM2.5 ..................................................... 11 Table 2 – Airport and Regional Emissions ................................................................................... 12 Table 3 – Adjustment Factors for Particulate Matter Emissions from Alternative Fuels ............. 20 Table 4 – Alternative Fuels Matrix – Criteria and Definitions ..................................................... 26 Table 5 – Initial Fuel and Source Combinations .......................................................................... 28 Table 6 – Final Fuel and Source Combinations ............................................................................ 29 Table 7 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by Source Category (kg unless specified) ............ 37 Table 8 – Soot Emission Indices (mg/kg fuel) ............................................................................ A-6 Table 9 – Data to Support Alternative Aircraft Fuel Emission Factors .................................... A-10 Table 10 – Data Rating Index (DRI) ........................................................................................... B-3 Table 11 – Alternative Fuel Matrix ............................................................................................ C-7 Table 12 – Data Used in PM2.5 Emissions Inventories ............................................................... D-1 Table 13 – Alternative Fuel Emission Factors (AF) Ratios for Jet Turbines and Turbofan Aircraft (main engines and APU) ............................................................................. D-3 Table 14 – Alternative Fuel Emission Factors (AF) Ratios for other Aircraft Types ................ D-4 Table 15 – Alternative Fuel Emission Factors (AF) Ratios for GSE and Road Vehicles .......... D-4 Table 16 – Penetration Factor (P) ............................................................................................... D-5 Table 17 – Atmospheric Mixing Height (meters) ....................................................................... D-9 Table 18 – Ambient Monitoring Data (µg/m3 ) ......................................................................... D-12 Table 19 – Emission Changes and Application to Dispersion Source (Aircraft) ..................... D-14 Table 20 – Emission Changes and Application to Dispersion Source (Non-aircraft) .............. D-15 Table 21 – PM2.5 Emissions Inventory (kg per LTO) for Aircraft Related Sources ................... E-1 Table 22 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by Aircraft Mode (kg) ....................................... E-3 Table 23 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by Aircraft Type (kg) ........................................ E-4 Table 24 – PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by Aircraft Type (kg per LTO) ...................................... E-4 Table 25 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by GSE Fuel Type (kg) ..................................... E-5 Table 26 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory by GSE and Fuel Type (kg) .............................. E-6 Table 27 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory (kg) for APU ..................................................... E-7 Table 28 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory for Road Vehicles (kg) ..................................... E-8 Table 29 – Road vehicle PM2.5 Emissions Inventory – Emission Factors .................................. E-9 Table 30 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory (kg) for Stationary Sources and Fire Training ...................................................................................................................... E-9 Table 31 – Background Concentration (µg/m3 ) ........................................................................... E-9 Table 32 – PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results – Maximum Annual (µg/m3 ) ......................... E-10 Table 33 – PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results – Maximum Annual (µg/m3) by Distance (meters) .................................................................................................................... E-11 Table 34 – PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results – Maximum 24-hour (µg/m3 ) ......................... E-12 Table 35 – PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results – Maximum 24-hour (µg/m3) by Distance (meters) .................................................................................................................... E-13 Table 36 – PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results – Radius of Influence (meters) ....................... E-14 Table 37 – PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results – Influence Area (acres) ................................. E-14 Table 38 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory (kg) for Aircraft .............................................. E-15 Table 39 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory (percent emissions increase) for Aircraft ....... E-15 Table 40 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory (kg) for Aircraft by Mixing Height ................ E-16 Table 41 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (kg) .......................................................................................................... E-17

Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports vi Table 42 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory ... E-18 Table 43 – Maximum 24-hour PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (µg/m3 ) ......................................................................... E-19 Table 44 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Maximum 24-hour PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results ................................................................................... E-20 Table 45 – Annual PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (µg/m3 ) .................................................................................................... E-21 Table 46 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Annual PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results ...................................................................................................................... E-22 Table 47 – Maximum 24-hour ROI PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (m) ................................................................................ E-23 Table 48 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Maximum 24-hour ROI PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results ................................................................................... E-24 Table 49 – Annual ROI PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (m) ................................................................................................... E-25 Table 50 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Annual ROI PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results ..................................................................................................... E-26 Table 51 – Maximum 24-hour Influence Area PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (acres) ........................................................... E-27 Table 52 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Maximum 24-hour Influence Area PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results ......................................................................... E-28 Table 53 – Annual Influence Area PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results for Base Case and Alternative Fuel Scenarios (acres) ........................................................................... E-29 Table 54 – Alternative Fuel Scenario versus Base Case Annual Influence Area PM2.5 Dispersion Modeling Results ................................................................................... E-30 Table 55 – Annual PM2.5 Emissions Inventory (kg) for Turboprop and Piston-engine Aircraft ..................................................................................................................... E-31 Table 56 – Alternative Fuels – Criteria and Definitions .............................................................. F-3 Table 57 – Jet-fueled Aircraft Alternative Fuels ......................................................................... F-4 Table 58 – Piston-engine Aircraft Alternative Fuels ................................................................... F-5 Table 59 – APU Alternative Fuels ............................................................................................... F-6 Table 60 – GSE Alternative Fuels ............................................................................................... F-7 Table 61 – Road Vehicle Alternative Fuels ................................................................................. F-8 Table 62 – Typical Data Used in PM2.5 Emission Inventories .................................................. F-12

Airport Cooperative Research Program Project ACRP 02-23: Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Emissions at Airports vii AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research reported herein was performed under ACRP Project 02-23, Alternative Fuels as a Means to Reduce PM2.5 Dr. Hazel Peace, Knowledge Leader for Aviation at PPC/AEA, was the Project Technical Director and co-Principal Investigator and is the main author of the report. Damon Fordham of PPC/AEA is co-Principal Investigator and Project Manager for the overall research effort. Contributing authors of the report are Dr. Mark Broomfield, Jamie Beevor, Dr. John Norris, and Dr. Brian Underwood of PPC/AEA; Mike Kenney, Mike Ratte, and Paul Sanford of KB Environmental Sciences Inc.; Dr. Mary E. Johnson and David L. Stanley of Purdue University; Mary Vigilante of Synergy Consultants Inc.; and Richard Altman. Emissions at Airports, by PPC/AEA with sub-consultant support from KB Environmental Sciences Inc., Synergy Consultants Inc., the Department of Aviation Technology at Purdue University, and Richard Altman, President of RCB Altman Associates. PPC/AEA was the prime contractor for the ACRP 02-23 project. The PPC/AEA team would like to thank each of the ACRP Panel members, as well as Ralph Iovinelli of FAA, for their assistance and input to the project.