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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
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Index

A

Accelerometers, 193

Accretionary environments, 73-74

Acid mine drainage, 18

Acoustic caliper, 210

Acoustic emission methods

doppler flowmeter, 171

fluid flow monitoring, 219

geothermal reservoir characterization, 200, 487-492

logging methods, 133, 169, 212-217, 227

principles, 44, 169, 199-200

televiewer image logs, 174-175, 208-211

Acoustic fluidization, 93

Adsorption, solute, 274-275

Advection in fractured rocks, 273, 282, 284, 286, 378, 384-385, 425

Aeromagnetic surveys, 490

Aitkokan, Canada, 457

Alkalinity, and groundwater age, 465-467

Alterant tomography, 192

Anisotropic systems, heterogeneous, 27

Anisotropy

aligned fractures and, 176

azimuthal, 174, 188

and detection of fractures, 172, 174

effective stress and, 410

and fluid flows, 128-129, 266-267

fracture orientation and, 133, 172

in permeability, 118, 270, 320, 410, 422

reservoir, 15

surface roughness and, 118

transmission tomography and, 192

Ankerite, 86

Anticracks, 30

Apache Leap research site, Arizona, 377-378, 458

Apertures

arithmetic average, 141

deformation, 407-413

dilatancy and, 118

distributions, 127

effective stress and, 406

epoxy castings, 108-109

and fluid flow, 48, 87, 121, 124, 129, 275, 406, 407-413

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

hydraulic, 122, 126

local, 106, 107-108, 111, 121, 124, 128, 141, 504

measurements, 121, 201

mechanical, 121, 122, 123, 124, 142

and permeability, 128

power spectrum of, 108, 109

tortuosity and, 145-146

Appalachian Mountains, 35, 74

Aquifers, 17, 18, 22, 27, 41, 74, 179, 253, 262, 262, 269-270, 276 , 280, 282, 300-301, 430

Aquitards, 378

Aragonite, 442

Arches National Park, Utah, 57, 67, 68

Archie's law, 139

Artifical fractures, 18, 177.

See also Hydrofracturing

Asperities.

See also Roughness

deformation of, 112, 114, 115, 117, 124-125

and pressure solution, 126

Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, Underground Research Laboratory, 20-21, 390-392, 479-487, 517

Austin Chalk fields, Texas, 70, 71, 173

Autocorrelation function, 103

B

Baecher disk model, 337, 339, 340

Basaltic rock, 46, 61, 149-152

Bedded rocks

orientation of fractures in, 172

research recommendations, 6

salt formation, 20

volcanic tufts, 19-20

Bedding-plane surfaces, 106, 118

Blob flow, 132, 512

Borehole televiewer imaging logs, 169, 174-175, 206, 208-211, 226, 229, 230, 231, 232, 461, 476

Boreholes

acoustic measurements, 169, 199-200, 212-217

advantages of, 186

combined measurements, 508

cross-hole measurements, 149-152, 168, 188-196, 218, 219, 461, 469

cross-hole tests, 264-272, 288-291, 509

dilution test, 280-282

drainage, 448

flowmeter measurements, 217-219

heat mining through, 16

hydraulic testing in, 245-272, 288-291

imaging logs, 174-175, 206-212

open, 246, 265

oriented, 15

premeability, 263-264

radar methods, 185, 221-222, 224-225

reflection methods, 170, 196-199

rugosity, 227

single, 196, 245-264, 469, 470, 507-508

transmission tomography, 188-192, 198-199

vertical seismic profiling, 187-188

well logs, 2, 202-206, 507

Box-counting method, 80-81

Breccia zones, 42

Brine-filled rock, 134, 175, 198

Bruggeman-Hanai-Sen equation, 139

Buckled plates, 34

Byerlee's law, 92

Byron Salvage Yard, 27

C

Calaveras fault, 77

Calcite, 55, 85, 86, 87

Canadian Shield, 20, 390-392, 479

Capture zones, 18

Carbonate formations, 86

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

Caverns, 23

Cellular automata, 131

Chalk formations, fractured

hydrocarbon reservoirs. 86

tracer tests in, 292-293

Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories, Ontario, Canada, 290-291

Chanels, fracture, 73, 273-274, 284-285, 383, 512

Chemical potential, 429, 441

Chemical processes.

See also Mineralization;

Solute transport

and clay mobilization, 439-440

dissolution and precipitation, 440-442

in fluid flow, 14, 125-126, 428-429

modeling, 382-384

research recommendations, 10, 442, 500, 520-521, 523

and stress/flow/temperature relationships, 10, 523

thermodynamic, 428-429, 440-441, 490-491

and void geometry, 439-443

Chert/shale, 86

Clastic rocks, 56, 62

Clay cake, experiments in, 61, 64, 70

Clays

chemical mobilization and swelling of, 125-126, 439-440

detection of fractures in, 178, 184, 198

electrical conductivity, 222

grouts, 432-433, 436, 438

mineral alteration and infilling, 191, 226, 506

overburden, 182

surface conduction, 139, 178

Claystone, 121, 122

Clear Lake Volcanic field, 490

Coal, 49, 204

Colloidal suspensions, 442-443

Colorado Plateau, 56, 70

Columbia Resin, 40

Composite topography, 107, 108

Computer simulations

channelized transport, 275

rock heterogeneity and flow/transport, 282-283

tomographic image reconstruction, 297

Conjugate shear fractures, 34-35

Conoco Borehole Test Facility, Oklahoma, 188

Conservation of volume constraint, 124, 142

Construction, drainage methods, 448-450

Continuous-wave electromagnetic systems, 194

Contractional steps/structures, 76

Continuum simulation models. See Equivalent continuum simulation models

Cordilleran thrust belt, 88

Core analysis, 140, 144, 201-202

Crack aspect ratio, 177

Creep, 119

Cretaceous

Mesaverde group, 476

Niobrara formation, 234-235

Western Interior Seaway, 88

Critical path analysis, 147

Crystalline rocks.

See also Stripa Project;

Underground Research Laboratory

conceptual models, 519

core analysis, 201

experimental facilities, 19, 20-21, 513-514

fracture zones in, 6, 187, 479-487, 514

hydraulic tests in, 266

hysteresis, 112, 114

in situ research facilities, 510

power spectral density, 106

stress concentrators, 40

strike-slip faults in, 78

transmission tomography, 191, 193, 222

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

vertical seismic profiling, 187

well logging, 227, 228, 231

waste repositories in, 19

CSRIO Hollow Inclusion Cell, 470

Cubic law, 120-121, 123, 124, 146-147

Cutoffs, 434, 448

D

Dams, 23, 125, 222, 412, 415, 420, 421, 434, 436, 438

Darcy's law, 140, 217, 407

Data processing,

See also Computer simulation

image enhancement techniques, 210-212

inversion programs, 224-225, 272

seismic reflection information, 173

stacking, 173

type curve analysis, 261

Dead zones, 156, 159

Decollement, 73

Defense Nuclear Agency, 5

Deformation and failure of fractures

aperture size and, 24, 407-413

asperities, 112

bedding planes, 74

bulk, 411

dilatancy and, 116-118

elasticity and, 114, 119, 124, 219

electrical properties and, 142

fault interaction and, 52

faulting in porous sandstone and, 42-43

and fluid flow, 112, 142, 407-413, 419

hydraulic fracturing and, 416

hysteresis effect, 112, 114

modeling, 115-116, 419, 422

narrow zones of, 43

and permeability, 9-10, 43, 503-504

plane-strain, 70, 71

at plate boundaries, 41

pore fluids and, 92

rates, 112

shear, 9-10, 116-117, 118, 420, 422, 514

single fractures, 123

sliding, 422, 423

stress and, 104, 111-112, 411, 419-420

temperature of the rock and, 125, 422-424

toppling, 422, 423

types of, 406-407

voids, 124

volumetric, 115

Density of fractures, 105-106, 132, 176-177, 334, 343, 393

Dershowitz polygonal model, 342

Detection of fractures, 418.

See also specific methods and devices

borehole methods, 186-200, 224-229

core inspection, 201-202

coupled methods, 168, 180, 186, 192, 193-194, 198-199, 412, 419, 506-507

differential methods, 168

distances and, 222

elastic methods, 168-169

electrical methods, 169, 178-180

electromagnetic methods, 169, 180-185

flowmeter case studies, 230-232

fluid-flow monitoring, 219-222, 223

fracture properties useful for, 503-505

geological observations, 170-171, 186

hydraulically conductive fractures, 205, 216, 501-510

inferences from, 223

interpretation of data, 223

inversion of data, 189, 191-192, 195-196, 198-199

limitation of methods, 501

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

overburden and, 180, 182, 184, 185, 186

principles, 2-3, 12

properties of interest, 222, 503-505

radar methods, 169-170, 224-225

research recommendations, 8-9, 505-507

resolution of methods, 2, 167, 175, 180, 192, 198, 220, 222

single-hole methods, 174-175, 200-219

surface methods, 172-178

types of methods, 2, 12, 167, 168-171

water-filled, 178

well logs, conventional, 170

Diagenesis

and fracture permeability, 84-87

and sequential fracturing, 67

Difference tomography, 192, 221-222, 462-463, 469, 507

Diffraction tomography, 198-199

Digital borehold scanner, 206-207

Digital optical imaging systems, 212, 213

Dikes, 34, 60

Dilatancy, 116-118, 124-125

Dilating fractures. See Joints

Dipmeter, 211

Directional sounding, 180, 224-225

Discontinuum models. See Discrete network simulation models

Discrete fracture models, 13, 373-375, 378, 475, 515

Discrete network simulation models

applications, 346-347, 350-351, 388-389

assessment of, 347-351, 373-375

clustering of fractures, 362-363, 461

concerns about, 358, 360

connectivity, 126-127, 349, 395

in continuum approximations, 351-358

equivalent discontinuum, 271, 319, 332, 367-370, 438

flow and transport models, 124, 366-367, 411

fractal approximation, 370-371, 373

fracture density component, 334, 343

fracture-mechanics-based, 363-366

fracture orientation component, 343-344

fracture size component, 344-345

geometric, 361-367, 388

geological issues in statistical representations, 336-337, 358-360

high-porosity matrix, 346-347

hydraulic behavior condition, 367-373

inverse methods, 373

iterated function system, 371-372, 374, 516

limitations, 389

orthogonal models and extensions, 338-339

parameters, 317, 340-346

percolation theory, 393-394

Poisson plane, 339-340, 363, 395

principles, 332-336, 386, 388

scale-dependent, 358-375

spatial relationships between neighboring fractures, 349, 361-367, 387

stochastic, 337-340

transmissivity of individual fractures, 345-346, 388

types, 335-336, 388

Dispersion in fractured rocks, 273, 324

Displacement.

See also Seismic displacement discontinuities

discontinuities, overprinted, 30

shear, 118, 137

Dissolution of solids in fractures, 440-442

Dolomite, 27, 86, 226, 327-328

Drainage, 438, 448-450

Drawdowns

and fracture conductivity, 409-410

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

and fracture permeability, 87

in pressure-sensitive formations, 411

Underground Research Laboratory experiment, 390-392

Drainage

methods in construction, 448-450

of underground structures, 24

E

Earthquakes, 415

East Bull Lake, Canada, 456

Effective medium theory, 147

Effective stress

and anisotropy, 410

defined, 111

and deformation/failure of fractures, 111, 112, 419-420

determining, 410-411

distribution, 420-422

and fluid flow, 4, 119-120, 407-410, 500, 522

fluid pressure and, 14

in hydrofracture, 111, 122

and permeability, 9-10, 16-17, 87, 111, 123, 128, 407-409, 414, 420 -422, 470

sensitivity tests, 416-418

temperature and, 125, 522

and void geometry, 4, 406-425

Ekofisk field oil reservoir, North Sea, 86, 315, 420

Elastic properties

and deformation of fractures, 114, 119, 124

and permeability, 503-504

and seismic wave propagation, 133, 138, 172-178, 504

stiffness, 135-137, 138, 504-505

Electrical detection methods

applications, 178, 179-180

for fluid flow, 220

imaging systems, 169, 205, 211

principles, 178-180

resistivity tomography, 169

resolution, 220

types, 169, 179

Electrical properties

borehole enlargement/alteration, 227-229

bulk, 138-140

and detection of fractures, 178-180, 191

hydraulic properties and, 140-146, 148, 220, 504

measurement, 142-143, 169, 178-180

and porosity, 138-140, 148, 220

Electromagnetic methods

costs, 181

flowmeter, 171

principles, 180-182, 220

profiling and sounding, 169, 181

resolution, 220

tomography, 169, 286

Engineered structures, stress-flow coupling and, 9-10

Engineering uncertainties, 443-445

Equivalent continuum simulation models

applications, 390-392, 514

assessment of, 331-332

continuum approximations, 310, 319-322, 351-356, 379, 380, 384, 385 , 387-388, 391-392

discrete network models in, 351-358, 367-370, 386, 412, 514

dual-porosity, 324-328, 380-381, 411, 517

fluid flow component, 322-323, 324-327, 351-356

limitations, 387

parameters, 317

percolation theory, 354-356, 395, 517

principles, 514, 516

single-porosity in deterministic framework, 322-324, 386, 411, 412

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

solute transport component, 323-324, 327-328, 356-358, 517-518

stochastic continuum, 328-331, 386, 387-388, 412, 514

types, 321

Underground Research Laboratory Drawdown Experiment, 390-392

Excavations

and deformation of fractures, 19-20, 407

drainage, 448

foundation, 434, 436, 438

underground, 24

Explosives, 193, 22

Extensional steps/structures, 55-56, 75, 76, 77, 476

Extraction of fluids, 4, 14, 16-17, 407

F

Fanay-Augeres mine, France, 337, 352-353, 354

Faulted joints, 30, 32

Faults.

See also Jointed faults;

specific faults

bedding interface, 75

detachment, 70-71, 73

at dikes, 60

dilational wave propagation, 93

domains, 77

en-echelon, 52, 54-56, 74-76

extensional steps, 55-56

flaws and, 59

fluid flow and transport in, 73-74

friction on, 44, 55, 73, 92

formation, 42-43, 50-51, 62, 74

geometry, 48, 52, 70, 72-73, 361

in granite, 43-44, 51, 59-60, 61, 62, 63

hydraulic properties, 61-62, 72, 73

identification and measurement, 48, 195

imbricate, 73

interaction and linkage, 42, 52-56, 71-72, 74-77

at joints, 51, 60

listric, 70-71

in massive rocks, 61

in metamorphic rock, 59-60

modeling, 52, 54, 70

networks, 70-71, 74

nonconductive (sealing), 62, 389

normal, 70-72, 74

paleomagnetic analysis, 71

permeability, 55-56, 62, 484-487

propagation, 42, 44

reverse movement, 55

rotation, 72

San Francisco Bay Area, 77, 79

in sandstone, 42-43, 60-62

in sedimentary rock, 59, 60-61

semihorizontal, 187

sets, 49-51, 70-77, 175

single small, 48

slip-direction record, 32

slip on, 42, 44, 49-50

spacing, 71-72, 74

stepover zones, 52, 54, 74

stress fields, 32-33, 40-41, 59

strike-slip, 41, 51, 74-77, 78

subhorizontal, 73

through going surfaces, 31-32

thrust, 72-74, 88, 483, 485-486

tunneling through, 24

vertical seismic profiling, 187

in volcanic rock, 60

zones, 24, 48, 51, 58-63, 64, 74, 93, 187

Feeler guage, 121, 147

Felsite, 26, 488-489

Fenton Hill, New Mexico, 456

Fickian dispersion, 273, 282, 284, 286

Field tests/methods.

See also Hydraulic tests;

Tracer tests;

specific case studies

design, 3, 518

in fault zones, 62

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

of hydrocarbon productive capacity, 477-478

and model parameterization, 3, 518

research recommendations, 506, 518, 521-523

tracer tests, 276-282

Filtration, for proppants and grouting, 431

Fingers/fingering, 130, 131, 132, 154, 155

Finnsjön fracture zone project, 303-304, 457

Flaws

and fault zones, 59

and fracture initiation, 35-42, 44

and tensile stresses, 42

Flocculating agents, 432-433

Flow. See Fluid flow in fractures

Flow and transport models.

See also Discrete network simulation models;

Equivalent continuum simulation models

applications, 13-14

analysis of, 257-261, 309

calibrations, 318

capture zone boundaries, 18

channelization, 139, 141, 143-144, 284-285, 383-384

chemical processes, 382-384, 441-442

classification of, 316-317

complex hydrogeological systems, 375-385, 412

conservation of volume constraint, 124

contaminant transport, 7, 311

coupled flow-deformation, 419

coupled heat-flow-stress, 425-426, 523-524

coupled stress-flow, 9

development process, 307-319

dispersivity of rock mass, 324, 356-358

dissolution and precipitation of solids, 441-442

double porosity, 259, 300, 309, 327-328, 384, 491-492

electric current transport, 141

field measurements and, 303-304, 308-309

flow geometry, 252-259, 383-384, 474

fractal-like concepts in, 77, 141, 256-257, 259, 317, 361

geothermal reservoirs, 492-493

in granular media, 6

grouting, 438-439

hierarchical structure of fractures in, 361, 363-364, 365-367, 389 , 516, 517

hydraulic effects, 138, 508

hydraulic tests in boreholes, 244, 252-261, 269-272, 290-291, 508-509

hydrofracturing, 122, 418-419

hydrogeological simulation, 307-319, 412

hydromechanical, 412, 413

inferences about fractures, 311-315

laboratory, 311

local-scale, 391-392, 460-463

multiphase, 7, 380-382, 512-513, 517

multiple boreholes, 269-272, 303-304

network, 124

parallel-plate, 126, 141, 512

parameter estimation, 13, 259-261

percolation, 111, 124, 128-131, 393-394, 517

permeability, 121, 143-144, 322, 351-354, 380-381, 512

phase structure, 128-129

regional-scale, 391-392, 464-468

research recommendations, 6-7, 9, 285-286, 508, 510-514, 517-519

single boreholes, 252-261

in single fractures (cubic law), 120-121, 123, 124, 283

single-phase, 317

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

single porosity transport, 323-324, 463

subsurface flow, 411-413

tracer test analysis, 244, 282, 284, 293, 312, 324

uncertainty, 318

unsaturated zones, 376-380

volume averaging, 321, 331-332, 384, 387

wells, 310, 412, 413

Flowmeters

acoustic doppler, 171

electromagnetic, 171

heat pulse, 171, 217, 218, 230-232

high-resolution, 217-219

in hydraulic tests, 246

impeller, 205

permeability measurements, 226

surveys, 230-232, 461

Fluid conductivity log, 170, 205

Fluid flow in fractures.

See also Flow and transport models;

Hydraulic properties;

Permeability

aperture of fractures and, 48, 87

characterization, 2, 12

chemistry of, 14, 125-126

in clays, 121, 122

contact areas, 383-384

continuum properties, 351-356

critical necks, 115, 120, 124, 126, 512

deformation and, 112, 114, 419

diagenesis and, 87

dynamic conditions, 130-132

effective stress and, 119-120, 407-410, 500

elasticity and, 114-115

faults, 73-74

in fractured porous medium, 259, 292-293

friction factor, 121-122

geometry, 252-259, 260-263, 383-384

in granular media, 6

gravity-driven, 130-132, 153-155, 430

infiltration, 153-155

interaction zones and, 54

interface changes, 429-430

irreducible, 120

isothermal, 384

issues, 500

laminar, 121, 134

linear, 252, 253-254, 256, 257, 258

linear-radial, 256

measurement, 121

monitoring methods, 219-222, 223, 230-232, 465

multiphase, 7, 376, 380-382, 426, 512-513, 517

normal stress conditions, 118-124

numerical models, 9, 13-14, 18

one-dimensional, 254

oscillatory behavior, 378, 513

percolation theory, 354-356, 393-394, 395

phase changes, 376-377, 426-429, 442, 512-513

phase displacement, 512-513

pressure gradient, 122-123

pulsation, 132

radial, 252, 253, 254, 255-256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 262, 263, 292-293

radial-spherical, 254-255, 260

repositories, 20

Reynold's equation for, 140

shear stress conditions, 124-125

single-phase, 118-126, 147, 317, 384, 511-512

spherical, 252, 255, 257, 258, 261

static and quasi-static conditions, 127-130

steady state, 321, 378

stress and, 9-10, 118-126, 411-413

thermal effects on, 125-126

thermoelasticity and, 424-426

three-dimensional, 353

tortuosity and, 119-120, 121-122,

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

123, 124, 126-127, 144, 145-146, 156

transient, 323

two-dimensional, 253, 259

two-phase, 7, 127-132, 378, 517

in unsaturated zones, 376-380

viscous drag, 121, 407

void geometry and, 2, 12, 112, 120, 121, 147, 500

Fluid pressures

and aperture changes, 130, 407-413

capillary, 380

density of fractures and, 177

and effective stress, 14

and fracture initiation and growth, 415-416

gradients, 122-123

and rate of flow, 122-123

reservoir, 23

stress sensitivity tests, 416-418

thrust faults and, 73

Fluid replacement log, 170

Fluid storage structures, underground, 24-25

Fluids.

See also Pore fluids

Folded rock layers, 35

Formation microscanner, 169, 205, 211

Formation of fractures.

See also Hydraulic fracturing;

Hydrofractures

basin subsidence and, 88, 89

crustal, 446-447

fault zones and, 60, 62

flaws and, 35-42

fluid pressures and, 413-426

growth, 414, 415-416

initiation, 35-42, 313, 364, 415-416

internal structures and, 42-44

mechanisms, 1, 2, 11, 33-35, 501-503

models, 364, 418-419

networks, 52-56

propagation, 35, 40, 42-44, 66, 413, 414, 418-419, 446-447

in sandstone, 62, 88-91

sets of fractures and, 63-77

shear zones, 502

slow burial and88

stress concentration and, 35-42

Fractal analysis, 77, 80-81, 82, 108, 141, 361, 373

Fractal geometry, 106, 256-257, 287, 361, 370-371

Fracture formation. See Formation of fractures

Fracture-mechanics.

See also Formation of fractures

geometric models based on, 363-366

in hydraulically significant fractures, 501-503

Fracture networks/systems

blocks, 367, 368

connectivity, 126-127, 349, 395, 410

faults, 70-71, 74

formation, 52-56

hydraulically conductive, 2, 11-14, 315, 381, 501-510

induced changes to, 405-406

see also Deformation;

Effective stress;

Extraction of fluids;

Hydraulic fracturing;

Hydrofracturing;

Injection;

Mineralization models, 4, 7, 81, 83, 381

see also Discrete network simulation models

multiphase flow in, 381

multiple-joint, 67

origin and development, 7-8, 11

permeability, 177

prediction and control of changes, 4, 14, 519-524

research recommendations, 7-8

semihorizontal, 179-180

shear zones, 360-361

stochastic, 286

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

Fracture patterns

cross-cutting, 64

defined, 12

extrapolation of, 77-81

in Frontier Formation sandstones, 88-91

hydraulically significant, 502

mechanical analyses, 34

multiple-fault, 70-77

multiple-joint, 63-70

polygonal, 64-66, 311, 337, 339-340, 341, 342, 263

Fracture properties.

See also specific properties

detection-related, 222, 503-505

fluid pressures and, 413-426

models, 418-419

scale-dependent, 360-361

scaling up of, 10, 77-81, 287, 503

Fracture Research Investigation, 296-302

Fracture sets

faults, 49-51, 175

in Frontier Formation sandstones, 88-91

modeling, 361

multiple-fault patterns, 70-77

multiple-joint patterns, 63-70

physical characteristics, 48-51, 63-77

Fracture zones

alternating permeable/impermeable, 24

in crystalline rocks, 187, 479-487

cutoffs, 434

defined, 12, 471

detection of, 174-175, 187, 196

dip estimates, 180, 182

fault, 24, 48, 51, 58-63, 64, 74, 93

Finnsjön project, 303-304

index, 471-473, 508

joint, 56-58, 59, 60

low-dipping, 479-487

orientation, 196

semihorizontal, 182, 184

subhorizontal, 174-175, 215

subvertical, 17, 215, 482, 485-486

in topographic lows, 17

well tests, 13

Fractures.

See also Faults;

Fluid flows in fractures;

Joints;

other types of fractures

characterizing, 2, 501-510

classification, 30-33

data sets, 81

definition, 11, 30

engineering-related problems, 1, 14-25

importance of, 1, 11

interdisciplinary approach to study of, 500-501

locating, see Detection of fractures

parallel, see Fracture sets

size/scale, 1, 344-345

Frictional wear surfaces, 106

Frontier Formation, 44-45, 88-91

G

Geological observations, 170-171, 315

Geometry of fractures.

See also Fracture patterns;

Void geometry

apertures, 48, 67, 87, 407-413

clustering of fractures, 362-363

crack tips, 39, 40, 56, 58, 415

detection methods, 178, 508

faults, 48, 70-71, 72-73

and fluid flow, 381, 511

fluid pressure changes and, 407-413

hydrofracturing and, 10

inferences about, 313, 508

issues, 500

joints, 44-48, 52, 56, 63-64

models/modeling, 315-316, 364-366, 381, 418

orientation, 15, 67-70, 172, 185, 186, 343-344, 500

phase, 127-132

polygonal, 33-34

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

prediction methods, 41-42

rotation, 185

scaling of, 81, 287

spatial relationships between neighboring fractures, 361-367

stress effects, 52, 104-118, 503

surface observations, 186

surface roughness, 105-106

trace lengths, 46-48, 52, 80-81, 90, 91, 344-345, 363-366

Geophones, 188, 193

Geophysical methods.

See also individual methods

fluid flow monitoring, 219-222

limitations, 501

technology transfer, 8-9, 10

Geostatistical techniques, 77

Geothermal systems

hot dry rock systems, 16-17, 375, 425-427

models, 384

reservoirs, 16-17, 26, 200, 205-206, 380, 384, 422, 424, 487-492

self-sealing, 440

Geysers geothermal field, 26, 188, 457, 487-492, 514

Glass, en-echelon dilating fractures, 53

Gouge zones, 42, 58, 92, 118, 125

Grains, 40, 43

Granitic rock

batholith, 208

detection of fractures in, 184, 185, 193, 198, 207, 208, 209, 216, 219

electrical properties, 139

faults in, 51, 59-60, 61, 62, 63

flow in, 119, 288-289, 294-295

fracture formation in, 33-34, 43-44, 46-48, 53, 185

microcracks in, 143

pluton, 209

tracer experiment in, 221-222, 294-295

void geometry, 108, 110, 111

well logs in, 228

Gravity and fluid flows, 130-132

Graywacke, 26, 488-489

Green River Basin, 88

Grimsel Pass test site, Switzerland, 193, 194, 286, 296-302, 313, 315, 368, 417-418, 456, 513-514

Grooves, 32

Groundwater.

See also Fluid flow in fractures

advection of heat, 384-385

age, 465-467

chemistry, 465-468

contamination, 1, 17-22, 27, 230-231, 311, 380, 381-382, 429, 438

Drawdown Experiment, 390-392

flow equations, 319, 321

flow measurement, 217, 230-231, 280, 282, 470-471

fractures and, 1, 17-22

hydraulic tests, 244, 253, 262, 265

infiltration to, 465

large-scale movement, 459-460, 464-468

leakage, 270, 300-301

pressure, 419-420

tracer tests, 192, 276, 280, 282, 465-467

velocity, 468

Grouting/grout, 10, 222, 421, 431-439, 521, 522

H

Hackles, 90

Hanford waste site, 456

Hard Rock Laboratory, 517

Hayward/Roger Creek fault, 77

Hazardous wastes. See Toxic and hazardous wastes

Heat

''mining," 16

from radioactive waste, 19

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

transfer in fractured rock, 384-385, 425

Hertz contacts, 115

Hoop stress, 125, 424

Horizontal Loop Electromagnetic Method (HLEM), 182

Hot dry rock systems, 16-17, 375, 425-427

Hvorslev formula, 260

Hydraulic fracturing.

See also Hydrofracture(s);

Injection

applications, 414, 448

control of, 414

defined, 413

and earthquakes, 415

in fault zones, 72

flooding, 414, 424

fluid flow monitoring with, 219-220

geothermal reservoir creation, 16-17

hydraulic tests and, 247

and in situ leaching, 22

injection tests, 199-200, 217, 226

injection wells, 122, 414

natural mechanisms, 44

and petroleum production, 16, 414, 415-416, 424

principles, 413-414

research recommendations, 522

rock slope stability, 24-25, 415

solids addition, 430-439

stress tests with, 411, 414

technology, 10, 416

temperature and, 417, 424

water supply stimulation, 17

Hydraulic properties.

See also Fluid flow in fractures

conductivity, 62, 66-67, 70, 72, 188, 201, 205, 216, 220, 244-245, 261, 266-267, 315, 352-354, 379, 406, 501, 515

and detection of fractures, 191

electrical properties and, 140-146, 148, 504

of fault zones, 61-62

geophysical properties and, 501, 504-505, 506

inferring, 465

interpretation of, 223

of joint sets, 66-67, 70

measurement of, 501, 507

modeling, 367-373

quantitative interpretations, 506

scaling of, 81, 287

seismic properties and, 138

stress sensitivity, 104

transmissivity, 244-245, 247-251, 260, 261, 267

tube wave amplitude and, 216

Hydraulic tests

analysis of, 244, 255-256, 257-261, 282, 290-291, 296-302, 462-463

applications, 508, 515

conductance distribution measurements, 515

conductivity tensor of a rock mass, 288-289

constant-flow, 247, 248-249, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 264

constant-head, 247, 249, 258, 260, 261

diagnostic well test analysis, 296-302

drillstem, 252

flow geometry, 252-259, 261-264

inferences from, 508-509, 515

models of, 244, 252-261, 264, 269-272, 290-291, 322, 508-509

multiple boreholes, 264-272, 288-291, 371, 374-375, 389, 463, 483-484, 509

in open boreholes, 246, 265

with packers, 226, 244-245, 246, 249, 252, 262, 265, 463, 470, 483 , 507

pressure pulse tests, 247, 249-251, 265

principles, 243-244

procedures, 246-252, 265-269

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

research recommendations, 508, 509

single borehole, 245-264, 478, 507-508

sinusoidal pressure test, 265

skin effect, 261, 263-264

slug, 247, 249, 251, 261-263, 264, 411-412

steady-state analysis, 259-261

and storativity, 244, 261

transient analysis, 260, 261

and transmissivity, 244-245, 247-251, 260, 261, 267

wellbore storage effects, 245, 261-263

Hydraulically conductive fractures, identification, location, and

characterization, 315, 472-473, 501-510

Hydrocarbon.

See also Multiwell Experiment Site

production, 6, 15-16, 204-205, 222, 414, 475-479

reservoirs, 6, 15-16, 84, 86, 87, 144, 173, 315, 380, 415-416, 424 , 429

Hydrofracture(s).

See also Formation of fractures;

Hydraulic fracturing

acoustic emission analysis of, 199-200, 219

failure, 416

geometry of, 10, 122

modeling, 122

monitoring, 418

natural, 446-447

and stress, 111, 122

unintentional, 414

Hydrogeological systems, modeling, 375-385, 412-413

Hydrology of accretionary wedges, 73-74

Hydromechanical models, 412, 413

Hydrophone tube-wave analysis, 188

Hydrophones, 193

Hydrostatic gradient, 411

Hydrothermal processes, 118

Hysteresis effect, 112, 114, 119, 129

I

Igneous rocks, 33-34

Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, 27

Image space processing, 187, 196, 470

Imaging

differencing-based, 8

enhancement techniques, 210-211

logs, 174-175, 206-212

optical, 212, 503

In situ facilities.

See also Field tests;

specific facilities and programs

recommendations, 5-6, 286, 503, 505, 510, 514, 524

waste repositories, 19, 514

In situ leaching, 22

Injection

and aperture changes, 407

flooding, 414

of fluids, 16-17, 185, 199-200, 407

high pressure, 18

models, 412, 413

nitrogen, 409

petroleum production, 414, 415-416

phases, 415-416, 433

pressure determinations, 416-417

of solids, 430-439

tests, 199-200, 217, 226, 407-409

of wastes, 18

wells, 122, 407, 412, 413, 414

Interference tests, 478, 483-484

Interferometers, 177

Iron hydroxide, 86

Isotropic rocks, 64

J

Jointed faults, 30

Joints.

See also Faulted joints

composite, 45, 46

dike-parallel, 34

domains, 67-69

en-echelon, 56

faults originating in, 51, 60, 74

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

formation, 34, 44, 61

geometry, 44-48, 52, 56, 63-64

in granite, 46-48

hydraulic conductivity, 66-67, 70

interaction and linkage, 52, 67

in isotropic rock, 64

in layered rock, 44-45, 48

in massive rock, 46-48

modeling, 48, 60, 67, 33-36

in mud, 65

orientation, 64, 67-70

parent, 56

polygonal patterns, 64-66

propagation, 42, 56, 58, 66

in sandstone formations, 48, 56-58, 59, 70

sets, 48-49, 51, 52, 63-70

sheared, 118

single, 44-48

spacing of, 48-49, 50, 51, 56, 58, 66-67

strata-bound, 45

stress fields, 32-33, 41

surface features, 31-32, 33, 106

thermal stresses and, 64-66

trace lengths, 46-48, 52

zones, 56-58, 59, 60

in volcanic rocks, 45-46, 61, 65, 66

K

Karst, 406

Kelvin rheology, 137

L

Laboratory results, scaling up, 10, 287, 511-512

Lac du Bonnet batholith, 390-392, 479-487

Lava beds, 41, 46, 64-66

Layered rocks

faults in, 60

joints in, 44-45

Le Chatelier's principle, 441

Levy-Lee model, 361

Limestone formations, 86, 193

Linear flow method, 119

Little Coal Creek outcrop, 89

Loess, Quaternary, 27

Logs/logging.

See also Well logs

acoustic waveform methods, 133, 212-217

advantages and disadvantages, 200

applications, 200, 507

imaging, 206-212

induction, 220

fluid-replacement, 218-219

M

Malpasset Dam, 415

Mapping of fractures, 460-461

Massive rocks/formations, 46, 61, 447, 469

Mathematical models. See Discrete network simulation models;

Equivalent continuum simulation models;

Models/modeling

Maxwell rheology, 137

Mechanical analyses, fracture prediction with, 41

Metal injection tests, 108, 110, 111

Metamorphic foliations, 60

Methatetical-precipitation-type solutions, 433

Microcracks, en-echelon dilating, 43-44

Microresistivity logs, 204-205

Mineralization.

See also Chemical processes

cement bridges, 87

fillings, 31, 33-34, 54, 55, 118, 484

and fluid flows, 383, 512

modeling, 383, 441-442

and permeability, 84-87, 125, 500

precipitation and dissolution in fractures, 14, 17, 24, 58, 74, 389 , 440-441, 500

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

research recommendations, 500, 521

temperature and, 440-441

and void geometry, 118, 126, 500

Mining/mines, 18, 22-23, 125, 220, 420, 440

Mirror Lake, New Hampshire, research site, 456, 459-469, 514, 517

Mismatch length scale, 108, 111, 118, 119

Mixed-mode fractures, 30

Model I fractures. See Joints

Models/modeling.

See also Discrete network simulation models;

Equivalent continuum simulation models;

other specific models

applications, 7, 9, 13-14, 310-311

asperity, 115

assessment of, 412-413, 523-524

averaging properties in, 321, 331-332, 380, 383, 387

boundary-element based, 419

calibration of, 318, 323

cellular, 418-419

classification, 316-317, 386

computational requirements, 515

conceptual models, 3, 4, 6-7, 13-14, 141, 307-309, 310-316, 367-368, 375-377, 380-382, 385-386, 391-392, 425, 474-475, 508, 510-514, 516 , 517, 518-519

coupled deformation-flow, 419

coupled heat-flow-stress, 425-426, 523-524

data collection requirements, 516

deformation and failure, 115-116, 419, 422

development, 3, 4, 14, 385-386, 510-511

errors, 13, 260-261, 511

faults, 70

fracture networks, 81, 83

geomechanical, 112, 310

geometry of fractures, 315-316

geostatistical, 387-388

heat transfer in fractured rocks, 384-385

heuristic, 364

hybrid, 351-358

in situ experiments and, 518

inverse methods, 272, 373, 516

inversion techniques, 189, 191-192, 195-196, 198-199, 369-370

iterated function systems, 516

joints, 48, 56, 58, 67, 336

kinetic, 383

Levy-Lee, 362

linear exchange, 383

lumping/equivalencing in, 418, 419, 515-516

mathematical constructs, 3, 9, 13, 257-258, 307-309, 316-319, 351-358, 373-375, 514, 516, 523-524

multiple continuum models, 514-515

nearest-neighbor, 362

neural network, 373

numerical, 6-7, 9, 13-14, 18, 56, 58, 70, 118, 126, 128-129, 180, 270-272, 290-291, 321, 379, 386-387, 393-394, 475, 514-519

overburden effects, 180

parameter estimation, 3, 259-261, 271-272, 472, 517

parent-daughter, 362

pipe, 335-336

principles, 307-309

recommendations, 6, 9, 285-286, 379, 387-388, 512, 513, 519-519

research issues in, 81, 83

resolution of detection methods, 180

San Andreas fault zone, 92-93

scaling relationships, 310, 358-375, 381, 383, 394

seismic properties of fractures, 132, 133-134, 150-152

shear displacement, 118

single fractures, 6, 13, 282-284, 373-375, 511-512, 515, 517

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

skin effects, 264

stepover zones, 77

stress fields, 52, 54, 125

terranes, 67

tomographic data, 189, 191-192, 195-196, 198-199

uncertainty in, 318, 439

validation, 518

voids, 111

war zone, 362

wave propagation, 217

well logs and, 203, 204, 324-325, 371

wellbore storage, 264

Mohr-Coulomb faulting theory, 92

Monterey formation, 442

Montmorillonite gouge, 92

Monzonitic gneiss, 290-291

Moye formula, 260

Mud, 65, 414, 478-479

Mudcake, 204-205

Multiwell Experiment Site, Colorado, 87, 407-409, 457, 475-479

N

Network simulation models. See Discrete network simulation models

Nevada Test Site, 457

Niagara Falls, New York, 457

Nuclear Energy Association, 469

Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 5

Nuclear waste, 18-21, 193, 375, 376, 390, 422, 424, 428, 442-443, 479, 513, 514

Numerical models/modeling. See Models/modeling

O

Oceanic crust, 53

Ohm's law, 140

Oil-filled rocks, 175

Opening-mode fractures, 34-35, 42, 52, 58, 67.

See also Joints

Optical methods, 105, 212, 503

Oracle site, Arizona, 288-289, 329-330, 456

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 469

Overburden

and detection of fractures, 180, 182, 184, 185, 186

mapping of, 185

pressure, 410-411

P

Packer(s)

equipment, 286, 470

placement, 296, 298

sleeve, 434

tests, 185, 217, 218, 226, 244-245, 246, 262, 265, 367, 461, 463, 483, 507

Paleomagnetic techniques, 71

Pelitic rocks, fault zones in, 64

Perched zone, 378

Percolation

fracture connectivity and, 410

invasion, 129, 130

modeling, 111, 124, 129-131, 517

theory, 128, 354-356, 393-394, 395

two-dimensional network, 128

Permeability, matrix, 111, 500, 512, 517

Permeability of fractures.

See also Fluid flow in fractures

anisotropy in, 118, 270, 320, 410, 422

aperture of fractures and, 67

clay-fluid interactions and, 125-126

compressional regions, 55-56

density and, 177

deformation and, 9-10, 43, 503-504

at depth, 84

diagenesis and, 84-87

dilatancy and, 124-125

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

drawdown behavior and, 87, 463

effective stress and, 9-10, 16-17, 87, 111, 123, 128, 407-409, 412 , 414, 420-422, 470

fault zones, 62, 484-487

and formation factor, 143-144, 145

interaction of faults and, 54-56

large-scale, 352-353

in lava beds, 67

measurement of, 119-120, 144, 226

mechanisms promoting, 84

mineralization and, 84-87, 125, 440, 500

models/modeling, 84, 121, 143-144, 322, 351-354, 380-381, 512

networks, 177

and petroleum reservoirs, 15

phase changes and, 428

seismic properties and, 12, 92, 138

of single fractures, 119

skin effects, 261, 263-264, 417

structures and, 156-159

thermal gradients and, 125

tube waves and, 216

void geometry and, 119, 500

Petroleum reservoirs. See Hydrocarbon reservoirs

Photoelectric transformers, 206

Piceance Basin, 475-479

Pierre Shale, South Dakota, 457

Piping, 23

Planar fractures, 376-377

Plate boundaries, deformation along, 41

Plumose texture, 31-32, 33

Plutons, 67, 209

Pore fluids, in San Andreas fault, 92-93

Pore pressures, 15-16, 22-23, 87, 92, 185, 407, 410, 411, 415

Poroelasticity, 407

Porosity of fractures

defined, 144

for discontinuous systems, 357

electrical conductivity and, 138-140, 148, 178

fracture density and, 177

and hydraulic conductivity, 67, 357

indicators, 86

modeling, 322-328, 357

Porous medium behavior, 322-328, 380, 383, 502

Power spectral density, 106

Power spectrum for texture, 105-106, 108, 109, 118

Precipitation of solids in fractures, 440-442

Pressure. See Fluid pressures;

Pore pressures

Pressure solution surfaces, 30, 126

Probability density function for heights, 105-106

Process zone, 219

Profilometry, 105, 503

Propagation of fractures. See Fracture formation

Proppants/propping, 416, 431, 448

Pull-aparts, 31, 74

Pyrite, 85, 86, 139

Q

Quadrant flow method, 119

Quartz, 86, 126

R

Radar

acoustic doppler flowmeter, 171

borehole, 8, 170, 193-194, 196-198, 224-225, 469

directional, 224-225, 461, 469

fracture detection with, 182-185, 193-194, 196-198

ground-penetrating, 169, 182-185

Site Characterization and Validation Project, 469-475

tomography, 193-194, 221-222, 469, 506-507

Radial flow method, 119

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

Radio imaging methods, 194-195

Radioactive waste. See Nuclear waste

Red Gate Woods, Illinois, 456

Reflection seismology

azimuthal amplitude variation with offset, 176

costs, 177-178

cross-hole, 168, 188, 196

dim spots, 173-174

oil industry applications, 173, 175, 234-235

P-wave, 168, 172, 173-176, 187, 505

principles, 172-173, 225, 505

research recommendations, 505-506

S-wave, 168, 172, 174, 176-178, 188

single-hole methods, 8

surveys, 8, 173, 175, 176, 177, 461

tomographic inversion and, 198-199, 462, 505

Reflectivity.

See also Radar;

Reflection seismology

transmission tomography and, 198-199

Reliability and risk analysis, 443-444

Relief fractures, 477

Remote compressive loads, 42

Remote sensing methods, 175, 186-200, 220.

See also specific methods

Research recommendations

chemical processes in fractures, 10, 500, 520-521, 523

conceptual models, 6-7, 511-513, 518-519

continuum approximations, 332

detection of fractures, 8-9, 505-507

electromagnetic surveys, 505

field tests, 506, 518, 521-523

fluid flow and transport, 6-7, 9-10, 378, 379, 502, 512, 513

fracture zone indices, 508

geophysical methods, 444, 505-507

heat transfer, 385

hydraulic tests, 509

hydrofracturing, 522

geostatistical models, 387-388

grout injection in fracture systems, 522-523

in situ facilities/experiments, 5-6, 503, 505, 510, 514, 518, 521-522, 524

induced changes to fracture systems, 444

joints, 58

laboratory studies, 520-521

logging devices, 507

mathematical models, 523-524

mineralization in fractures, 444, 523

numerical models, 9, 379, 516-519, 523-524

origin and development of fracture sytems, 7-8, 44, 502-503

oscillatory flow behavior, 378, 513

permeability of fractures, 520

properties of fractures and matrix, 504

reflection seismography, 505

seismic surveys, 505

shear-wave propagation, 504, 505

solute transport, 285-286, 332, 517-519

stress-flow relationships, 9-10, 520, 521-522

target agencies and groups, 5

tracer tests, 285-286, 509, 517

unsaturated fractured rocks, 379

void geometry characterization, 503-504

waste isolution and treatment, 10

Reservoirs, fractured

characterization of, 41-42, 173, 205-206, 430, 475-479, 487-492

and earthquakes, 415

fluid flows, 309, 407-410, 411-412, 491-492

fluid production in, 420

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

geothermal, 16-17, 26, 200, 205-206, 380, 384, 422, 424, 426-428, 487-492

grout curtains and blankets, 436

hydraulic fracturing in, 415-416

hydrocarbon, 6, 15-16, 84, 86, 87, 144, 173, 315, 380, 407-409, 415 , 422, 426, 428, 429-430, 475-479

idealization/simulation of, 325-327, 384

mineralization in, 84, 86, 490-491

models, 309

permeability, 87

phase changes in, 426-427

pore pressures, 87

shear-wave anisotropy in, 188, 233-235

slope stability, 23, 420

surface storage, 23

water coning, 429-430

water-supply, 17, 23

Resistive formations, 193, 195

Reynold's equation for fluid flow, 140

Rock slopes, natural and artificially cut

dam abutment, 415, 420, 438

failure modes, 419-420

flow under, 412

fractures in, 22-23

stability, 25

Roughness, fracture surface

and anisotropy, 118

and deformation, 112

and fluid flows, 121-122, 124

friction factor, 121-122

measurements, 105, 107, 111

and solute transport, 126

Rubblized zones, 201

S

Safety factor design, 443

Salt formations, 20, 67, 68, 193, 198

Saltwater intrusion, 430

San Andreas fault, 77, 79, 92-93

San Francisco Bay Area fault patterns, 77, 79

San Gregorio-Hosgri faults, 77

Sandbox experiments, 70, 72

Sandstones

Entrada, 40, 57

fault formation in, 42-43, 60-61, 62

fracture patterns in, 40, 88-91

Frontier Formation, 88-91

gas reservoir, 407-409

hydrocarbon reservoirs in, 86, 475-479

joint formation in, 48, 56-58, 59, 70

mineralization of fractures in, 85, 86

porous, 40, 42-43, 62, 143, 198

stress concentrators, 40

Satellite imaging, 186

Saturation/pressure relationships, 129

Scale/scaling issues

in discrete network simulation models, 358-375, 394

fracture properties, 10, 77-81, 287, 360-361, 503

geometry of fractures, 81, 287

hydraulic properties, 81, 287

in hydrogeological simulation models, 385, 412-413

laboratory results, 10, 287, 511-512

relationships in models, 358-375, 381, 383

size/scale of fractures, 1, 344-345

universal scaling law, 394

Schist, fluid flow and transport in, see Mirror Lake

Schlumberger sounding, 179-180

Schmidt net, 343-344

Seams, 31

Sedimentary rocks

clay-bearing, 114, 119

density of fractures, 177

detrital, 40

faults in, 59

flow in, 119

fracture growth in, 415, 418-419

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

hydrocarbon production from, 177, 475-479

hydraulic tests in, 266

hysteresis effect, 114

in situ research facilities, 510

joints in, 44, 46

power spectral density, 106

stress concentrators, 40

transmission tomography, 191

Seepage stresses, 22, 407

Seismic displacement discontinuity

model, 134-135, 137-138, 504

theory, 149-152, 504

Seismic properties.

See also Shear waves

attenuation, 134, 147-148, 188

discrete effects, 134-138, 148

and hydraulic properties, 138

media models, 132, 133-134

and permeability, 12, 92

predictive capabilities, 469-475

propagation of energy, 2, 12, 15, 504

velocity, 132, 133, 135, 137, 147-148, 188

Seismic survey methods.

See also Reflection seismology

in hydrocarbon exploration, 15

passive, 490

tomography, 193, 194, 462, 507

vertical seismic profiling, 134, 168, 187-188, 462

Vibroseis method, 490

Self-similar systems theory, 139

Sellafield, England, 458

Semivariogram analysis, 77

Serpentine formations, 86

Shale, 15, 27, 45, 53, 86

Shear fractures. See Faults

Shear stress

and dam failure, 415

and deformation, 111, 112, 415

displacement, 116

and fluid flow in fractures, 124-125

shear displacement under, 137

and void geometry, 116-118

Shear waves

anisotropy, 188, 233-235

attenuation, 188

logging tools, 217, 223

propagation, 8, 233-234

reflection seismology and, 168, 172, 174, 176-178

shadow zone, 219-220

splitting, 188, 217, 223, 234-235, 504

velocity, 188

Shear zones

formation of, 313, 502-503

similarity of, 360-361

Shearing-mode fractures, 42, 58

Sierpinski gasket (modified), 287, 370-371

Sierra, Nevada, California, 46-48, 51, 185

Silo field, 234

Siltstone-sandstone beds, 44, 45

Simplon Tunnel, 24

Simulated annealing, 369-370

Site Characterization and Validation Project. See Stripa Project

Skin depth measures, 182

Skin effects, 261, 263-264, 296, 299, 417

Slant-Hole Completion Test, 476, 477

Slickensides. See Striations

SLINGRAM, 182

Slip

and formation of faults, 42, 44, 71

hydraulic fracturing and, 418

length of faults and, 50

pore fluids and, 92

shear heating during, 93

spacing of faults and, 49-50

Slopes. See Rock slopes

Snell's law, 191

Spalling, 208

Solids.

See also Grouting;

Proppants

added to fractures, 430-439

alteration of, 442

colloidal suspensions, 442-443

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

dissolution and precipitation, 440-442

phase changes, 442

redistribution by chemical processes, 439-443

Solute transport.

See also Chemical processes;

Flow and transport models

adsorption, 274-275, 282, 284

advection, 273, 378

channelized, 273-274, 284-285

dispersion, 273, 324

flux approach, 286, 319-321, 380

fracture channels, 273-274

multiphase flow, 156-159, 380-382

nonaqueous-phase liquids (NAPL), 381-382, 429

processes of interest, 272-275, 382

radionuclides, 443

research recommendations, 517-518

tracer tests, 272-275, 282, 284-285

in unsaturated zones, 376-380

velocity, 511

void geometry and, 126-127

Stacking, 173

Statistical modeling

continuum transport, 359

of void geometry, 108, 111, 146

Stepover zones, 52, 74, 77

Stiff loading frames, 44

Stiffness, fracture, 135-137, 138, 504

Stochastic methods, 81, 321, 328-331, 337-340, 387-388, 475, 514, 515

Stoneley waves, 138, 214-215

Strain gauges, 417-418

Stress concentration/distribution

en-echelon fractures, 54-56

at fault zones, 59

at flaws, 35-42

fracture geometry and, 52, 54, 104-118, 185, 503

and fracture initation, 35-42

fracture origin and, 118

at plate boundaries, 41

and pressure solution, 126

Stress.

See also Effective stress;

Shear stress

and deformation, 104, 419-420

in faults, 32-33, 52, 54

and fluid flow in fractures, 9-10, 118-126

and geometric properties of fractures, 104-118

and hydrological properties, 104

intensity factor, 39, 42, 415

in joints, 32-33, 52

measurement, 414, 470

modeling, 52, 54

normal, 112, 117, 118-124, 137, 420

origin of, 1

regional fields, 40

seepage, 22, 407

tensile, 35-36, 42

thermal, 4, 14, 33

and void geometry, 4, 112-116, 146-147

Striations, 32, 33, 118, 476

Stripa Project, Sweden, 187, 190, 196, 198, 225, 294-295, 313, 314 , 335, 337, 339, 341, 367, 368-369, 370, 371, 428, 456, 469-475, 508, 513

Structures.

See also Engineered structures;

Transport structures;

Underground structures;

specific types of structures

and fracture permeability, 156-159

fractures and, 1, 22-25

and solute transport, 156-159

two-phase, 156-159

Stylolites. See Pressure solution surfaces

Subsurface fluid compartments, 177

Superfund sites, 27

Surface.

See also Roughness

conduction, 139

fracture orientation observations, 186

Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company, 517

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

Sweet spots, 15, 173

Synclines, 88

T

Technology.

See also Geophysical technologies

Tectonic events, and fracture formation, 35, 41, 73

Temperature

hydraulic fracturing and, 417, 424

hydraulic tests and, 245

log, 170, 205

and mineralization, 440-441

and stress, 125, 424

Terranes, 67

Tests.

See also Field tests;

Hydraulic tests;

Tracer tests

stress sensitivity, 416-418

Theim formula, 260

Thermal

gradients, 125

shrinkage, 17

stresses, 33, 45-46, 64-66

Thermodynamic equilibrium, 129

Thermoelasticity, and hydrofracture, 424-426

Thrust sheet, 74

Till, 27

Tiltmeters, 185, 219, 418

Tomography.

See also Transmission tomography

applications, 193, 219-220

electric resistivity, 169

electromagnetic, 169, 286

inversion methods, 189, 191-192, 195-196, 198-199

P-wave, 168

resolution, 192, 220-221

sources, 193, 195, 505

three-dimensional, 189, 505

two-dimensional, 198, 505

Topographic lows, 17

Topography of rough surfaces, 105, 107, 140

Tortuosity, 119-120, 121-122, 123, 124, 126-127, 144, 145-146, 156

Toughness, fracture, 42

Toxic and hazardous wastes, 1, 17-18, 311, 375, 383, 513

Tracer tests

applications, 2, 12, 220, 221-222, 465

adsorption, 274-275

analysis of, 282-285, 293, 469

borehole dilution, 280, 282

in chalk formation (fractured), 292-293

channelized transport, 273-274, 284-285

convergent flow, 279-280, 292-293

diffusion into stagnant water and rock matrix, 274, 284-285

divergent flow, 278-279

in granite, 294-295

groundwater flow paths, 192, 276, 465-467, 492

interpretation of, 509

large-scale flow, 294-295

methodology, 276-282

models/modeling, 244, 282, 284, 293, 312

natural gradient, 276-277

with packers, 277

principles, 243-244

saline, 192, 193-194, 220, 221-222

research needs, 285-286, 509, 517

reservoir characterization, 478, 492

shear fractures, 127

solute transport processes, 126, 127, 272-275, 282

and tomography, 192, 193-194, 507

two-well, 280, 281

Transmission tomography

borehole measurements, 188-196, 221-222

electric resistivity, 195-196

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

electromagnetic, 194-195, 462

limitations, 505-506

principles, 188-192, 220-221, 505

radar, 193-194, 221-222, 507

and reflection data, 198-199

research recommendations, 505

resolution, 462-463

seismic velocity, 193, 194

Transmissivity, fracture, 16, 244-245, 247, 345-346, 388, 470

Transport structures, underground, 24-25

Travis Peak, Texas, 457

Tribology, 105

Tube waves, 138, 188, 214-216

Tunnels, 23, 24, 125, 185, 186, 196, 378, 434, 437, 438

Type curves, 261, 411

U

Uncertainty in engineering, 443-445

Underground Research Laboratory, Manitoba, 20-21, 184, 187, 209, 313, 315, 390-392, 417-418, 456, 479-487, 513, 517

Underground structures.

See also Caverns;

Tunnels

dewatering, 22, 23-24

fluid storage, 24-25

fractures and, 23-25

openings, 125, 420

stability, 22

transport, 24-25

University of Waterloo, 456

Unsaturated fractured rock, flow and transport in, 376-380

Uplifts, 77

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 5

U.S. Department of Energy, 5, 376, 407-409, 475-479

U.S. Department of the Interior, 5

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 5, 27

U.S. Geological Survey, 5, 27, 459-469, 517

V

Vadose zone, 377-379, 381

Veins, 31, 40-41, 54, 74, 75

Velocity, seismic wave propagation, 133

Veneziano polygonal model, 337, 339-340, 341

Vertical fractures, 173, 177, 180, 185, 215, 253-254, 265, 270, 446 , 505

Vesicules, 67

Viscosity, 131-132, 134

Void geometry

apertures, 106-109, 111, 118, 126-127, 128

castings of, 107, 108, 109-111, 129-130

chemical processes and, 439-443

characterization techniques, 107-108, 503

closure, 112, 113, 120

deformation, 124

and detection of fractures, 2

effective stress and, 406-426

elliptical, 121, 122-123

fluid flow, 2, 12, 112, 120, 121, 122-123, 124, 138, 147, 500

fracture surface roughness and, 107, 112

issues, 500, 503

mineral infilling and, 118, 126, 500

origin of fracture and, 118

parallel-plate, 121

and permeability, 119, 500

and solute transport, 126-127

statistical modeling, 111

stress effects on, 111-118, 124, 140, 146-147, 503

Volcanic rocks, 33-34, 45-46, 60, 379

W

Wake/Chatham, North Carolina, 457

Waste disposal sites, 74, 193, 376, 442-443

Waste isolation and treatment, 10

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
×

Waste Isolation Pilot Project, New Mexico, 20, 327-328, 457

Water.

See also Fluid flow in fractures;

Groundwater

coning, 429-430

infiltration, 58

Water supply reservoirs, 18

Well logs/logging, conventional

acoustic, 227

advantages and disadvantages, 202-203, 501

applications in fracture studies, 2, 3, 12, 13, 202, 203-204, 226-229

in boreholes, 202-206, 219

caliber log, 170, 227-228, 230, 231, 232

core analysis combined with, 202

density log, 170

fluid conductivity log, 170, 205

fluid replacement log, 170

gamma ray log, 170, 227, 228

models based on, 203, 204, 324-325, 371

neutron log, 170, 226, 227, 228

resolution, 204

resistivity measurements, 144, 170, 204-205, 226, 228

temperature log, 170, 205

Well test analysis, diagnostic, 296-302

Wellbore storage effects, 245, 261-263

Wells

drilling technology, 416, 476, 477

flow models, 310, 412, 413

in geothermal fields, 26

hydraulic stimulation of, 231-232

injection, 122, 412, 413, 414

oil, 426

orientation, 416

phase changes in, 426

recharge, 278

waste disposal, 18, 414

Whiteshell Research Area, 390

Wolff net, 343-344

Y

Yibal oil field, Oman, 175

Yucca Mountain, Nevada, 5, 6, 9, 19-20, 60, 80, 325-326, 376, 379

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2309.
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Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications Get This Book
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Scientific understanding of fluid flow in rock fractures—a process underlying contemporary earth science problems from the search for petroleum to the controversy over nuclear waste storage—has grown significantly in the past 20 years. This volume presents a comprehensive report on the state of the field, with an interdisciplinary viewpoint, case studies of fracture sites, illustrations, conclusions, and research recommendations.

The book addresses these questions: How can fractures that are significant hydraulic conductors be identified, located, and characterized? How do flow and transport occur in fracture systems? How can changes in fracture systems be predicted and controlled?

Among other topics, the committee provides a geomechanical understanding of fracture formation, reviews methods for detecting subsurface fractures, and looks at the use of hydraulic and tracer tests to investigate fluid flow. The volume examines the state of conceptual and mathematical modeling, and it provides a useful framework for understanding the complexity of fracture changes that occur during fluid pumping and other engineering practices.

With a practical and multidisciplinary outlook, this volume will be welcomed by geologists, petroleum geologists, geoengineers, geophysicists, hydrologists, researchers, educators and students in these fields, and public officials involved in geological projects.

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