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46 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY The bibliography includes additional references regarded as being of high transit geographic information system content, as defined in Table 3, chapter two. Culp, L., âShort Range Transit Planning and Marketing Using Desktop Geographic Information Systems,â Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Washington, D.C., Dec. 1994 [Online]. Available: http://www.fta.dot.gov/library/planning/ CULP/CULP.html. The San Diego Association of Governments (SANDAG) is the regional planning agency and the metropolitan plan- ning organization for the San Diego region. A major em- phasis at SANDAG is on assisting the regionâs transit opera- tors in their planning and marketing activities by providing technical assistance and data, including geographic analysis, data collection and management, survey research, and trans- portation modeling. Currently, SANDAG and the regionâs op- erators are working together to design a desktop geographic information system application that staff from each individual operator can access directly to enhance regional transit plan- ning and marketing. The objective is to develop a tool that can be used directly by transit operator staff at a relatively low cost and with minimal training. Operators now have access to a variety of databases, including census data, passenger counts, and regional growth forecasts that can be integrated and displayed in map, table, or chart form. Planning and marketing efforts to enhance the current level of transit service and increase ridership in the region are benefiting from the coordination of this project between SANDAG and the transit operators. GeoGraphics Laboratory at Bridgewater State College, Bridgewater, Mass. [Online]. Available: http://geolab.bridgew. edu/home/. In 1994, the FTA moved to increase the potential power and scope of geographic information systems (GIS) in the transit industry through the Transit GIS Initiative, which was an integral part of the National Spatial Database Infra- structure Initiative. In doing so, the FTA made a commit- ment to the development of transit GIS databases, which provide essential information for the use of GIS software. By the Fall of 1996, 530 of the nationâs fixed-route bus services had been built into GIS route systems by students and staff of Bridgewater State College (BSC). By early 1999, all fixed-route bus services had been completed. In an effort to promote the use of GIS as an analytical tool within the transit industry, FTA and BSC have shared these internal GIS data products for planning and research pur- poses through the website. Hillman, R., âGIS-Based Innovations for Modelling Public Transport Accessibility,â Association for Geographic In- formation 97 Conference Proceedings: Geographic Infor- mationâExploiting the Benefits, Birmingham, England, 1997. An analysis of a public transportation networkâs access points, interchanges, and intended routes was done to de- velop sustainability in transport planning. Demographics and travel patterns were the primary variables. A geo- graphic information system was used to calculate accessi- bility indices, and the system added value to the entire transportation scheme studied. Huang, R. and P. Zhong-Ren, âObject-Oriented Geo- graphic Information System Data Model for Transit Trip- Planning Systems,â Transportation Research Record 1804, Transportation Research Board, National Research Coun- cil, Washington, D.C., 2002, pp. 205â211. The transit network has its unique characteristics, for ex- ample, multiple transit lines share the same street and stops, the same bus line runs on different streets during dif- ferent times of the day, and some express lines only run at certain times of the day. These characteristics make it more difficult to design a network model than the street network. The conventional EntityâRelation model could make the network topology and data structure very complex and re- dundant. This paper presents a network structure for a tran- sit network using Object-Oriented (OO) methods in which bus stops, timepoints, and vehicle routes, as well as the network are modeled as objects. Each object has spatial, temporal, and attributive properties, and can be created, transformed, and deleted. Therefore, the transit network can change based on the time. Routes, runs (services), timepoints, and stops that are not in service at the time of a trip are not presented in the dynamic topology. This OO model can reduce network and database redundancy and improve performance. The OO-based transit network model allows a more efficient network analysis and the shortest path search. Conceptual design of the model is conducted in the Unified Modeling Language (UML). The model was to be implemented in the on-line transit infor- mation services for Waukesha County, Wisconsin. Jia, W. and B. Ford, âTransit GIS Applications in Fairfax County, Virginia,â Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1999, pp. 41â59. The Fairfax County Department of Transportation (DOT) manages a fixed-route bus system (the Fairfax Connector)
47 with 58 routes. To better support the planning, operation, and marketing of this bus system, the Fairfax County DOT and the Fairfax County Department of Information Tech- nology formed a team to develop a pilot project of geo- graphic information systems transit applications. These ap- plications would serve as a demonstration to facilitate automation, analysis, accessing, and plotting of transit data. To be successful, the applications had to be cost- effective and match usersâ technical needs with their abili- ties. Paramount to the success of this project was having a transit database capable of supporting all the applications identified by the development team. More than 15 applica- tions were identified for 3 areas of transit management: planning, operation, and marketing. Planning applications focused on transit service improvement and route restruc- turing. They included routing adjustment, route demo- graphic and land-use analysis, and reporting of statistics required by the National Transit Database. Operation ap- plications were designed for daily service monitoring and consisted of route running times, loading at bus stops, and emergency service. Marketing applications emphasized functions for public outreach, which included creating spe- cialized route and stop maps and publishing route informa- tion on the Internet. Koncz, N. and J. Greenfeld, âGIS-Based Transit Informa- tion Bolsters Travel Options,â GIS World, Vol. 8, No. 7, 1995, pp. 62â64. This article reports on the variety of public transportation modes that exist in urban areas and how each of these modes has different methods for providing information to its potential users. Additionally, each mode uses several in- dependent carriers to execute the service. The results were more accurate and timely when there were efforts using a geographic information system to coordinate the supply of information. It was also proved that unless such informa- tion is supplied in a convenient and friendly form, potential users are less likely to use public transportation. Miller, H.J. and S. Shaw, Geographic Information Systems for Transportation: Principles and Applications, Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y., 2001. Geographic information system (GIS) data and tools are revolutionizing transportation research and decision mak- ing, allowing transportation analysts and professionals to understand and solve previously unsolvable, complex transportation problems. The book presents a comprehen- sive discussion of fundamental geographic science and the applications of these principles using GIS and other soft- ware tools. By providing thorough and accessible discus- sions of transportation analysis, including transit, within a GIS environment, this volume fills a critical niche in GIS for Transportation (GIS-T) and GIS literature. Miller, S.R. and T. Collins, âUsing GIS to Analyze Poten- tial Paratransit Fare and Zone Changes,â Proceedings of the Twenty-First Annual ESRI User Conference, San Diego, Calif., 2001. Two independently run public paratransit systems were used in Phoenix. As independent entities, the two systems differed in fares, hours, and zones. Consolidation was pro- posed, and a GIS was employed to find the best practices used in both transit systems so that the consolidation would be an easy transition for the previously divided group of users. The study also proved the effectiveness of GIS appli- cations in solving specialized transportation needs. National Transit Geographic Information System, Federal Transit Administration, Washington, D.C. [Online]. Available: http://www.fta.dot.gov/library/technology/GIS/nt_gis. htm. The FTA National Transit Geographic Information System is a representative inventory of the public transit assets of the country. Creation of this national system is an ongoing and collaborative effort on the part of many within the transportation industry. Use of these transit data will facili- tate the exchange of information within the U.S.DOT and throughout the transit industry. Locally, transit managers will have access to information that will allow them to bet- ter use resources and make more informed policy, opera- tions, and planning decisions. At the national level, this in- formation will represent the nationâs public transportation infrastructure throughout the country. It will also facilitate improved analysis of policy and planning decisions. National Transit GIS Data Standards, Guidelines, and Recommended Practices, Federal Transit Administration, Washington, D.C. [Online]. Available: http://www.fta.dot. gov/library/technology/GIS/ntgistds/NTGISTDS.HTM. The Standards, Guidelines, and Recommended Practices establishes a framework for maintaining the National Tran- sit Geographic Information System (NTG) database, and ensuring data integrity, interoperability, and consistency. The methods and quality control used in creating, storing, exchanging, and documenting the data in the NTG is known by recommending feature-type definitions, formats, file formats, update procedures, and other standards. The document outlines Feature Type Definitions and Descrip- tions, Addressing and Street Naming Conventions, Feature Type Automation and Conversion Guidelines, Transfer Formats, and Update and Maintenance Procedures.
48 Pulugurtha, S.S., S.S. Nambisan, and N. Srinivasan, âEvaluating Transit Market Potential and Selecting Loca- tions of Transit Service Facilities Using GIS,â Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1999, pp. 75â94. Accessibility to transit service facility (TSF) locations plays a significant role in the success of public transporta- tion systems. The ease with which the end-user can reach a TSF (e.g., bus stops, rail stations, or multimodal centers) plays prominently in the decision-making process of the individual. This article presents a working definition for transit market potential based on accessibility in terms of walking distance and walking time. Furthermore, a meas- ure is constructed to evaluate transit market potential for TSF locations for a transit system. The measure of transit potential is represented by an index value based on demo- graphic criteria such as employment, household size, vehi- cle ownership, etc. This index can be used to identify loca- tions of TSFs that increase a routeâs potential for ridership. A methodology is proposed to estimate the Index of Transit Potential for TSFs. This methodology involves (1) identify- ing the accessible network of streets around each TSF that is within an acceptable access threshold for a transit rider, and (2) estimating the transit market potential based on key demographic characteristics. The analytical and visualiza- tion capabilities of a geographic information systems pro- gram are used to help attain the objective. A case study is used to demonstrate the application of the methodology. In the case study, a portion of a route of the Las Vegas Citi- zens Area Transit system is analyzed and the Index of Transit Potential is estimated. The index values are then used to locate TSFs along the route. This is compared with the existing stop locations for the route. Rasmussen, T., âPublic TransportationâPlanning and Analysis Using GIS,â Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual ESRI User Conference, San Diego, Calif., July 26â30, 1999. Several cases of transportation companies are analyzed based on their information systems. Most are using geo- graphic information system tools such as ArcView to aid in the management of information about travel patterns and the planning that result in these patterns. A transportation company in Sweden, which does not currently use GIS tools (1999), is used as a case study to prove the effective- ness of implementing such a system. Sanchez, T.W., âA Transit Access Analysis of TANF Re- cipients in Portland, Oregon,â Journal of Public Transpor- tation, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1999, pp. 61â73. Little evidence exists regarding the relationship between transit service availability and the ability of welfare recipi- ents to find stable employment. Although policymakers continue to assert that increased public transit mobility can positively affect employment status, there is little empirical evidence to support this theory. It is generally assumed that public transit can effectively link unemployed, carless per- sons with appropriate job locations. From these assump- tions stems the common belief that if adequate transit were available, the likelihood of being employed would increase. Hence, the call for more transit services to assist in moving welfare recipients to gainful employment. Current available evidence is anecdotal, although general patterns of transit access and labor participation remain relatively unex- plored. This analysis examines whether transit access ser- vice is less available to Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) recipients in the city of Portland, Oregon. It uses disaggregate TANF recipient location data from the state of Oregon Department of Adult and Family Services, transit route and stop data from TriMet, block-group cen- sus data, and disaggregate employment location data within geographic information systems (GIS). GIS capa- bilities are essential in performing network accessibility analyses and for analyzing spatial patterns of TANF recipi- ent and employment locations. The results of this analysis provide an assessment of the availability and quality of transit service for TANF recipients. Shiffer, M.J., âSpatial Multimedia for Planning Support,â in Planning Support Systems, Paper 13, R.K. Brail and R.E. Klosterman (eds.), ESRI Press, Redlands, Calif., 2001. Collaborative community planning with extensive involve- ment has emerged as a central component of public policy. There are a variety of ways in which the public can share knowledge about their communities, and there are advantages and limitations to each of these approaches. Spatial multime- dia refers to the integration of video, sound, and text within a distributed environment. Within this general approach, the pa- per discusses spatial annotation, visual navigation aids, and devices for scenario construction. Implementing spatial multimedia can be done at different levelsâface-to-face and in both centralized and distributed contexts. Sirota, S. and V. Henry, âUsing GIS to Identify Locations with the Greatest Potential Increased Light Rail Ridership,â Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Symposium on Geo- graphic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T), Sparks, Nev., 1995, pp. 371â382. A geographic information system (GIS) was used in a marketing scheme for a light-rail company in Baltimore, thus furthering the versatility of GIS tools. Specific target markets were identified, combined with the spatial analysis of the GIS. In using the GIS, the light-rail management was able to identify specific transportation analysis zones; these zones provided the management with markets of new
49 ridership potential. The colorful maps supplied top man- agement with an easy-to-read interpretation of the data. Spear, B.D. and R.W. Weil, âAccess to Intercity Public Transportation Services from Small Communities: Geospa- tial Analysis,â Transportation Research Record 1666, Transportation Research Board, National Research Coun- cil, Washington, D.C., 1999, pp. 65â73. This study analyzes the political implications of public transportation needs and the role that the federal govern- ment should and should not play in those needs. Geo- graphic information system (GIS) technology provided spatial analyses. The results isolated areas that were under- served by public transportation and the correlative eco- nomic conditions that accompany them. The GIS then cre- ated buffers to identify areas that were beyond reasonable access to intercity transit systems. The study analyzed by the authors was done by the U.S.DOT and would not have been feasible without the use of GIS. Tornberg, J. and J. Bjurstrom, âVisualization and Anima- tion in Design of a New Transportation System in Existing Urban Environment Using GIS and Virtual Reality,â Pro- ceedings of the Twentieth Annual ESRI User Conference, San Diego, Calif., June 25â28, 2000. In an attempt to alleviate the increasing demand for public transportation in Gothenburg, a virtual city was built at Chalmers University to visualize what effects an aerial cableway would have on these demands. The 3-D model was developed using Arc/Info, ArcView, and TerraVista. The model made it possible to take a virtual tour of the cableway. The authors concur that GIS and virtual reality technology will be indispensable for transportation plan- ners in the future. Zhang, M., âAccessibility EnhancementâUnderstanding the Benefit of Rail Transit Systems,â URISA 97 Annual Conference Proceedings, Toronto, ON, Canada, 1997. This study examines the benefit of rail systems in transit- dependent populations. The author uses data from case studies done in Boston, Miami, and Atlanta. Accessibility of users is the key factor in the analysis. Arc/Info and other database management systems assist in visualizing the re- search results.