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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
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State of the Art and Practice in the
Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil
Liquefaction and Its Consequences

Committee on State of the Art and Practice in Earthquake Induced Soil
Liquefaction Assessment

Board on Earth Sciences and Resources

Division on Earth and Life Studies

A Consensus Study Report of

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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, DC
www.nap.edu

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001

This activity was supported by contracts between the American Society of Civil Engineers, an award from the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, an award from the Port of Long Beach, an award from the Port of Los Angeles, Grant No. R11AP81544 from the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Award No. DTFH6114P00075 from the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Federal Highway Administration, and Award No. NRC-HQ-12-G-04-0061 from the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of any organization or agency that provided support for the project.

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-44027-1
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-44027-0
Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.17226/23474

Additional copies of this publication are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360, Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313; http://www.nap.edu.

Copyright 2021 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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Suggested citation: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/23474.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×

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The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an Act of Congress, signed by President Lincoln, as a private, nongovernmental institution to advise the nation on issues related to science and technology. Members are elected by their peers for outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is president.

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Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine at www.nationalacademies.org.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×

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Consensus Study Reports published by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine document the evidence-based consensus on the study’s statement of task by an authoring committee of experts. Reports typically include findings, conclusions, and recommendations based on information gathered by the committee and the committee’s deliberations. Each report has been subjected to a rigorous and independent peer-review process and it represents the position of the National Academies on the statement of task.

Proceedings published by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine chronicle the presentations and discussions at a workshop, symposium, or other event convened by the National Academies. The statements and opinions contained in proceedings are those of the participants and are not endorsed by other participants, the planning committee, or the National Academies.

For information about other products and activities of the National Academies, please visit www.nationalacademies.org/about/whatwedo.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
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COMMITTEE ON STATE OF THE ART AND PRACTICE IN EARTHQUAKE INDUCED SOIL LIQUEFACTION ASSESSMENT1

EDWARD KAVAZANJIAN, JR. (NAE), Chair, Arizona State University, Tempe

JOSÉ E. ANDRADE, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena

KANDIAH “ARUL” ARULMOLI, Earth Mechanics, Inc., Fountain Valley, California

BRIAN F. ATWATER (NAS), U.S. Geological Survey and University of Washington, Seattle

JOHN T. CHRISTIAN (NAE), Independent Consultant, Burlington, Massachusetts

RUSSELL GREEN, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg

STEVEN L. KRAMER, University of Washington, Seattle

LELIO MEJIA, AECOM, Oakland, California

JAMES K. MITCHELL (NAS/NAE), Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Retired), Blacksburg

ELLEN RATHJE (NAS/NAE), The University of Texas at Austin

JAMES R. RICE, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts

YUMEI WANG, Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, Portland

The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Staff

SAMMANTHA MAGSINO, Study Director

COURTNEY R. GIBBS, Program Associate

___________________

1 Staff and affiliations current as of September 2015.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×

BOARD ON EARTH SCIENCES AND RESOURCES2

GENE WHITNEY, Chair, Congressional Research Service (Retired), Washington, DC

R. LYNDON (LYN) ARSCOTT, International Association of Oil & Gas Producers (Retired), Danville, California

CHRISTOPHER (SCOTT) CAMERON, GeoLogical Consulting, LLC, Houston, Texas

CAROL P. HARDEN, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville

T. MARK HARRISON, University of California, Los Angeles

ANN S. MAEST, Buka Environmental, Boulder, Colorado

DAVID R. MAIDMENT, The University of Texas at Austin

M. MEGHAN MILLER, UNAVCO, Inc., Boulder, Colorado

ISABEL P. MONTAÑEZ, University of California, Davis

HENRY N. POLLACK, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

MARY M. POULTON, University of Arizona, Tucson

JAMES M. ROBERTSON, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison

SHAOWEN WANG, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Staff

ELIZABETH A. EIDE, Director

ANNE M. LINN, Scholar

DEBORAH GLICKSON, Senior Program Officer

SAMMANTHA L. MAGSINO, Senior Program Officer

NICHOLAS D. ROGERS, Financial and Research Associate

COURTNEY R. GIBBS, Program Associate

ERIC J. EDKIN, Senior Program Assistant

RAYMOND M. CHAPPETTA, Program Assistant

___________________

2 Staff and affiliations current as of September 2015.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×

Acknowledgments

The committee relied on input from the geotechnical engineering community in addition to the expertise contained within the itself. Thoughtful input from many technical experts informed committee deliberations. We gratefully acknowledge the following individuals for giving presentations or serving on panels during the committee’s 2-day community workshop or during information-gathering sessions at committee meetings: Donald Anderson, CH2M Hill; Ronald Andrus, Clemson University; Pedro Arduino, University of Washington; Gregory Baecher, University of Maryland; Laurie Baise, Tufts University; Steven Bartlett, University of Utah; Michael Beaty, Beaty Engineering, LLC; Ronaldo Borja, Stanford University; Scott Brandenberg, University of California, Los Angeles; Giuseppe Buscarnera, Northwestern University; Misko Cubrinovski, University of Canterbury, New Zealand; Craig Davis, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power; Ricardo Dobry, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; David Gillette, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation; Antonio Gioiello, Port of Los Angeles; Leslie Harder, HDR, Inc.; Thomas Holzer, U.S. Geological Survey; Kenji Ishihara, Chuo University, Tokyo; Richard Iverson, U.S. Geological Survey; Robert Kayen, U.S. Geological Survey; Geoffrey Martin, University of Southern California; Milan Pavich, U.S. Geological Survey; Peter Robertson, Gregg Drilling and Testing, Inc.; Robert Schweinfurth, Geo-Institute/American Society of Civil Engineers; Jonathan Stewart, University of California, Los Angeles; Thomas Weaver, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission; and T. Les Youd, Brigham Young University (Emeritus).

Ross Boulanger, University of California, Davis; K. Önder Çetin; Middle East Technical University, Turkey; Izzat M. Idriss, University of California, Davis; and Raymond Seed, University of California, Berkeley, provided helpful written responses to questions from the committee.

The committee also thanks Tarek Abdoun, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Scott Anderson, U.S. Federal Highway Administration; Christopher Baxter, University of Rhode Island; Brady Cox, The University of Texas at Austin; Yannis Dafalias, University of California, Davis; Shideh Dashti, University of Colorado Boulder; Roupen Donikian, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Inc.; Kevin Franke, Brigham Young University; Ian Friedland, U.S. Federal Highway Administration; Daniel Gillins, Oregon State University; Youssef Hashash, University of Illinois; Jianping Hu, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power; Harold Magistrale, FM Global; Majid Manzari, George Washington University; Allen Marr, Geocomp Corporation; Neven Matasovic, Geosyntec Consultants; Jorge Meneses, Group Delta Consultants, Inc.; Yoshi Moriwaki, GeoPentech; Adam Perez, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power; Didier Perret, Natural Resources Canada; Daniel Pradel, University of California, Los Angeles; Michael Riemer, University of California, Berkeley; Curt Scheyhing, Group Delta Consultants, Inc.; Thomas Shantz, California Department of Transportation; Sabanayagam Thevanayagam, State University of New York at Buffalo; Kohji Tokimatsu, Toyko Institute of Technology, Japan; Sjoerd Van Ballegooy, Tonkin and Taylor; Rick Wentz, Wentz Pacific, LTD; Derek Wittwer, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation; and Zia Zafir, Kleinfelder, for contributing to meaningful discussions during meetings and the committee workshop. Many members of the technical community interacted with members of the committee throughout the conduct of this study. The committee is appreciative of all this input.

Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×

This Consensus Study Report was reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine in making each published report as sound as possible and to ensure that it meets the institutional standards for quality, objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process.

We thank the following individuals for their review of this report:

Although the reviewers listed above provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations of this report nor did they see the final draft before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Robin McGuire, Lettis Consultants International, Inc., and Andrew White, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. They were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with the standards of the National Academies and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content rests entirely with the authoring committee and the National Academies.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Page R1
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Page R2
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Page R3
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Page R4
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Page R5
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Page R6
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Page R7
Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Page R8
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Page R9
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23474.
×
Page R10
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Earthquake-induced soil liquefaction (liquefaction) is a leading cause of earthquake damage worldwide. Liquefaction is often described in the literature as the phenomena of seismic generation of excess porewater pressures and consequent softening of granular soils. Many regions in the United States have been witness to liquefaction and its consequences, not just those in the west that people associate with earthquake hazards.

Past damage and destruction caused by liquefaction underline the importance of accurate assessments of where liquefaction is likely and of what the consequences of liquefaction may be. Such assessments are needed to protect life and safety and to mitigate economic, environmental, and societal impacts of liquefaction in a cost-effective manner. Assessment methods exist, but methods to assess the potential for liquefaction triggering are more mature than are those to predict liquefaction consequences, and the earthquake engineering community wrestles with the differences among the various assessment methods for both liquefaction triggering and consequences.

State of the Art and Practice in the Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction and Its Consequences evaluates these various methods, focusing on those developed within the past 20 years, and recommends strategies to minimize uncertainties in the short term and to develop improved methods to assess liquefaction and its consequences in the long term. This report represents a first attempt within the geotechnical earthquake engineering community to consider, in such a manner, the various methods to assess liquefaction consequences.

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