Guidance for Planning, Design, and Operations of Airport Communications Centers (2018)

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50 Guidance for Planning, Design, and Operations of Airport Communications Centers way to illustrate this process is to create an organizational chart, asset diagram, or hierarchy chart that will show how information will be received by the ACC and then disseminated throughout the airport and beyond to external organizations. 4.7.9 Organizational and Business Impact Incorporating a new ACC into an existing airport management’s structure will likely result in the modification of numerous functional interactions and physical interfaces outside of the ACC. Numerous policies and procedures are likely to change to reflect the new commu- nication flows. All airport stakeholders will be interested in how the new ACC will change their jobs, roles, and responsibilities. Management’s statement on how the new ACC will affect the rest of the organization is critical in assimilating the new structure into the existing airport organization. 4.7.10 Risks and Technology Readiness Assessment Creating a risk assessment that reflects the potential risk to the ongoing operation of the ACC ss essential in developing a CONOPS. Different from the project risk assessment, this assessment looks at the threats to ACC operations and focuses on how those threats can be eliminated or mitigated. Threats to managing the ACC must be considered as expansively as possible. Further, the actions taken in response to the risk assessment will include measures designed to increase the ability of the ACC to respond to an event or multiple simultaneous events, as well as provide increased safety and security measures as irregular operations evolve. Depending on the ACC, the immediate and long-term effects of an event that degrades, disables, or eliminates an ACC can be significant. Although this Guidebook is not intended to be a primer on conducting a formal risk assessment, the following guidance is offered to help an airport operator ask the proper questions as they specifically relate to an ACC. The key elements of an ACC Threat and Vulnerability Assessment should include the following: • Developing a clear perspective of the interrelationships between the ACC and the organization, and its systems, structures, business, information/data, and people. • Identifying threats and vulnerabilities and the risks associated with each. • Quantifying the probabilities associated with each of the identified risks. To the greatest extent possible, the probabilities should be based on factual data. Probabilities of risk can be gathered based on past airport experiences. • A review of the personnel necessary to resource the ACC during regular operations, irregular operations and emergencies. Although identifying risk is a crucial step, it is meaningless without taking steps to mitigate the most likely risks identified. Typically, addressing risks for an ACC project will result in one of three outcomes. The risk is “avoided” by taking alternative steps than originally considered, thereby eliminating the risk totally. For example, an identified risk concerns the location of the ACC in a particular building that does not meet certain earthquake standards. Rather, than deal- ing with the risk directly, the airport operator chooses to avoid the risk in its entirety by moving the ACC to a building that is compliant with local earthquake codes. Risk can also be “accepted.” A projected risk may be too small or too large to mitigate and also cannot be avoided. In this case, the airport management team accepts whatever probability and effect may come. Although this is not a desirable resolution, it occurs in extreme circumstances.

Concept of Operations (CONOPS) 51 The third response—“mitigation”—is the most likely. The project team and, where the situ- ation is integral to the success of the project, airport management, look at each identified risk and determine the best manner to (1) reduce the likelihood the risk will occur and (2) devise a response to the risk to lessen its effect, should it occur. The reduction effort and the response must be clearly documented, with a detailed description of the necessary steps to be taken and the responsibility of the airport personnel assigned to carry out the actions. Risk management and mitigation is a continual exercise as new risks are identified and new mitigation efforts required. 4.8 Situational Awareness Situational Awareness is the perception of events and activities in real or near-real time, seen by an individual or group, and their understanding of how those events and activities may be related. More simply stated, it is knowing what is going on from moment to moment so the ACC operator can react, if and when required. Situational Awareness is the first step toward the understanding and mastery of an event or situation. There are three levels of situational awareness: • Level 1—Perception. Being able to perceive your environment. This is achieved in many ways in modern command and control environments, including field communications, sensors and alarms, video surveillance, and direct observation. • Level 2—Comprehension. Understanding how the perceived information relates to the incident or threat as well as to other information. This can be extremely challenging in today’s command and control environment, with potentially thousands of individual data points reporting simultaneously in multiple systems. • Level 3—Projection. Being able to project from current information and events to anticipate future events and their implications. The level of situational awareness attained by the ACC staff depends on the inclusion of functions in the ACC. The more the ACC is responsible for controlling a situation or providing critical direction to others, the more likely it is to have direct receipt of operational intelligence and, subsequently, to operate effectively itself. For example, in a facility that is strictly a communication hub responsible for passing and sharing information from one party to another (rather than collecting the data and acting on it), situational awareness is less available and less critical to the ACC personnel, given that their primary role is communication for others to make decisions for action. In contrast, where ACC staff have more command and control responsibility, such staff will require more information to make critical decisions and provide direction to others accordingly. In this case, situational awareness is essential for the ACC staff to understand the conditions and act on them appropriately. 4.8.1 Delivery of Situational Awareness Situational awareness can be developed in different ways: • Direct observation of an event or situation. • Observation reported by third parties. • Observation through CCTV systems.

52 Guidance for Planning, Design, and Operations of Airport Communications Centers • Observation through sensing systems (e.g., fire alarms and security alarms). • Observation related by news and media outlets. Technology-based systems are an excellent means to enhance situational awareness by extending the depth and breadth of information available to the ACC operator. CCTV and remote-sensing systems, in conjunction with properly configured access to live radio and telephone links, multiply the data sources available for enhanced situational awareness. However, there can be too much information, particularly if much of it is irrelevant or dis- tracting from a critical event. This can be detrimental to effective decision-making by over- whelming the ACC operator’s ability to process it. There is significant evidence that shows an excess of information can place such a high demand on a human operator or responder that they cannot absorb or process it all and may miss or misinterpret critical points. This is not to suggest that available information should be limited. An ACC should have access to information where it is appropriate and useful to decision-making. Several approaches can be taken to avoid overloading the ACC without losing vital information: • Disperse blocks of information to different people or teams, who filter critical data to a manager or team charged with decision-making. • Establish levels of criticality for information or alarm conditions, so that more urgent concerns are elevated for attention sooner. • Provide a smaller number of points to focus on, while allowing different information streams to be viewed. An example is a video wall with a limited number of screens but a high number of video feeds, allowing the ACC operator to select and change their primary views as the situation develops. 4.8.2 Situational Assessment Situational awareness is knowing what is going on around you and what to do about it. Useful and relevant situational awareness demands a thorough level of knowledge of normal activity and a similar level of information flow about what is happening currently—sometimes in more than one area. This requires the operator to have the tools, skills, and capabilities to understand the differences among the events, along with the available options and consequences for each response. Situational assessment is dependent both on the quality of information and the capacity for the ACC staff to process that information and make decisions appropriately, including adapting or changing direction based on how an event unfolds from moment to moment. Key considerations and elements of effective situational awareness include • Good quality information delivered in a timely manner. • Where situational awareness drives organizational response to an event or activity, reliable bidirectional communications. • Flexibility to allow for changing conditions. • The information sources that need to be delivered. (These are driven by the level of situational awareness required of an ACC staff.) 4.8.3 Situational Awareness Templates To provide a structured approach to situational awareness, the airport operator should create a situational awareness template (see Appendix D) that outlines specific airport scenarios that may occur and identifies information inputs, metrics for identifying severity, and an approved

Concept of Operations (CONOPS) 53 response to each situation. For example, if the ACC manages airport automobile traffic and that traffic regularly causes conditions that require management action, a situational awareness outline can be developed listing the information suggested above. An airport operator can go one step further and identify situations that require regular review and establish a routine for inspecting, reviewing, or monitoring the situation. Using an automated situational awareness management tool, an airport operator could permanently record each review, the results, and any actions taken. The situational awareness template is a critical component of an ACC, if the ACC is used as a management arm in addition to being an information conduit.

54 S E C T I O N 5 Simple ACCs have a history dating back to the early part of the 20th century when air- ports started to become common throughout the world. During the early days of aviation, technology tools were relatively few—most airports’ communication technology toolkit consisted only of radios and telephones and airport staff typically had direct visual contact with passengers, aircraft, and airport facilities. As electronic security and operational sys- tems were adopted, airport security and operations staff migrated to a simplified version of what we now call an ACC, and operators were increasingly removed from direct visual contact with the operational environment. Although new technology tools provided greater functionality, they also removed the intuitive nature of direct observation and replaced it with information provided through electronic systems. Rather than being able to see actual conditions, staff was now required to visualize conditions through the “lens” of the systems they operated. Today’s ACC is technologically different from its predecessor—Operators have access to various technologies via computer interface, large-format video displays are common, and bulky consoles have been replaced by thinner, more streamlined consoles and electronic devices. More information is exchanged rapidly via electronic means, and multiple sites are connected electronically. Although these new technologies provide more capabilities, the increases in number of systems, size and complexity of today’s airports, and pace of technol- ogy evolution all challenge ACC staff to expand their grasp of information absorption and situational awareness. The ACC Design Phase translates the goals expressed in the CONOPS as defined by user requirements and subsequently refined in the planning documents into an organizational architecture composed of processes, procedures, functions, hardware, software, infrastructure, and facilities. Effective ACC design requires a balance of form and function. For an ACC, function tends to dominate—defining everything from the supporting spaces and infrastructure to the requirements of the engineered systems (e.g., mechanical, electrical, and fire protection). Depending on the functionality, ACCs may have the same needs as major data centers in regard to reliability and redundancy of heating, cooling, and power. The physical form of the ACC is almost as important as the activity being carried out. As with most specialized facilities, characteristics unique to the space must be accounted for in the design. Such characteristics include issues such as sightlines and lighting and a comfort- able physical environment designed to support collaboration without distractions in the workspace. Communications Center Design Concepts

Communications Center Design Concepts 55 5.1 A User-Centric Approach to Human Factors (HF) Design To ensure that human factors are sufficiently addressed in ACC design and operation, it is helpful to consider the perspective of the users in terms of the following four key elements of the user experience: • Access to Information. All users in the ACC need access to a wide array of information to perform their jobs. The source and types of information may vary widely, depending on the person’s role in the ACC, but such access is always necessary. Information may come from various sources (including both fixed and portable technology systems, individual or corpo- rate stakeholders, news feeds, government entities, and personal observations) and can be delivered via visual displays, audio, paper, or interpersonal communication. • Technology Tools. The various technology tools in use each have HF aspects that significantly affect user efficiency and effectiveness. • Interpersonal Collaboration. People must be able to interact effectively with one another within the ACC to achieve results. Many factors—technologies, space layout, organizational structures, personalities, and organizational cultures—affect interpersonal collaboration. • The Physical Environment. The space layout, environmental aspects (e.g., heating, cooling, lighting, and noise control), consoles, seats and furniture, and other physical characteristics all significantly affect users. These four elements relate to three zones: • The user’s immediate environment: This includes the equipment the user is operating, desks or consoles, seating, and people next to them. This zone has the greatest effect on the user and requires significant effort to ensure that it is conducive to a positive user experience. • Within the ACC: The next zone is the ACC environment just outside the immediate zone and includes the rest of the ACC environment. Although the user may not inhabit or interact with the rest of the ACC as much as their immediate zone, the user is affected by the space layout, location of staff, placement of large video displays, and other aspects of the overall ACC design. • Remote: Although not in the ACC, the user interacts with people, technology, information, and physical spaces in remote locations. Success in the design phase is dependent on engaging an architectural and engineering team that is aware of the functional issues and requirements of the space and capable of driving a design that supports these without sacrificing architectural amenities or good, comfortable space design. Further information on Facility Space Requirements and Layouts (Section 5.6), Ergonomics and Equipment, such as acoustics and lighting (Section 5.7), and incorporating Human Design Factors (Section 5.8) is presented below. 5.2 Human Factors Challenges in Information Absorption Although there has been significant technological innovation in recent decades, much of the human activity in ACCs today remains focused on tasks that have not fundamentally changed since the 1960s: • Operation of equipment at consoles or desks. • Telephone operation. • Interpersonal contact between individuals at their working posts, in meetings, and so forth. • Operation of video management systems and use of large-format visual displays.

56 Guidance for Planning, Design, and Operations of Airport Communications Centers • Printing, distribution, management, and storage of paper. • Maintaining normal operations during unusual events. Nevertheless, the challenges to information absorption and situational awareness caused by these activities have increased significantly as the number of systems that achieve these tasks has increased substantially and the speed with which they deliver information has grown pro- portionally greater. Factors that contribute to human fatigue and reduced performance include the following: • Equipment. The quality and performance of the equipment the operator uses significantly affect information absorption and situational awareness. For example, if electronic systems are poorly designed and difficult to use, or perform sluggishly, information absorption and situational awareness will suffer. Poor-quality computer monitors may prevent operators from fully comprehending information and can cause eye strain. • Access to Information. For operators to perform at peak efficiency, they need appropri- ate information delivered in a timely fashion. Information starts the operators’ workflow; when high-quality information is not available, information absorption and situational awareness suffer. • People. Operators need to interact with other staff in the ACC as well as with technology systems. If interaction is difficult because of poor space layout, inadequate electronic com- munications, or other data sharing factors, information absorption and situational awareness will suffer. • Environment. The ACC needs to be designed to be conducive to ACC activities and staff. Strict control of temperature, lighting, noise interference, and other factors can produce an environment that fosters effective information absorption and situational awareness. • Stress. The high-stress nature of the ACC environment, which includes critical situations requiring fast and effective action, can cause mental fatigue, thereby lowering information absorption and situational awareness. Long hours working at consoles can stress the human body, thus lowering information absorption and situational awareness. As technology continues to rapidly evolve, remember that technology is only a tool and peo- ple should remain the primary focus of the design and operation of ACCs. Application of an HF approach to communication and command and control center planning and design helps ensure the operator remains the primary focus. This user-centric focus on the requirements of the operator should result in greater operational efficiency and effectiveness. Human factors orientation requires a multi-dimensional approach to integrating people, processes, and technology. All aspects of the physical and logical environment need to be con- sidered. Moreover, the introduction of new technologies should be iterative, simultaneously aligning with and influencing people and processes. As people and processes interact with new technology, work capacity and efficiency should increase, thus allowing for changes in process and staffing, and ultimately laying the basis for the introduction of new technology as the cycle repeats itself. 5.3 Location and Physical Components of an ACC The last of the six “who”, “what”, “why” . . . questions is “where” and it is answered in the design phase. The answer to the “where” question depends on whether the ACC going to be a newly constructed facility or incorporated into an existing structure. Answering this question becomes more complex when the special considerations of an ACC are contemplated, such as • The relationship to the airport’s technology infrastructure—both primary and redundant. • The need/desirability to have access to the airfield.

Communications Center Design Concepts 57 • For locations with the potential for natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes or hurricanes), its ability to withstand those natural events. • Clean and uninterrupted power, with acceptable backup power. • Suitability of space (e.g., size, Americans with Disabilities Act [ADA] requirements, and envi- ronmental considerations). • Funding availability. The proposed location should also be discussed in terms of longevity. For example, an interim facility may be desirable while the airport plans for a permanent location. When determining the location, the following factors should be considered: • Geographic location is extremely important. Assess the geographical threat profile using data from FEMA and other sources to evaluate the possibility of threats (e.g., flooding and storms). An ACC facility should not be next to inherently risky areas (e.g., loading docks or parking structures). • Locating the ACC facility within a terminal or other building with public access can sig- nificantly impair survivability, cost, and usability. If possible, locate the ACC where it has the most physical protection from threats. In a basement or ground floor, the facility may be subject to flooding, while the highest floor of a building could be affected by storms or high winds. Avoid exterior walls and windows because of projectiles or explosions. If an exterior wall or window cannot be avoided, use wall-reinforcing techniques or window blast curtains. • An ACC facility will require a data center and/or a network operations center (NOC) that provide large-capacity utilities (e.g., power and cooling). Although the data center need not be immediately next to the ACC facility, greater distance creates greater costs for network and cabling connectivity and greater possibility of disruption. • Consider co-locating multiple ACC facility elements to leverage infrastructure and reduce overall cost. Having an EOC next to an AOC/SOC can provide definite advantages during emergencies. – Choose a site that has easy access during emergencies. Consider the difficulty of gaining access to ACCs inside the airport when the perimeter becomes locked down during emer- gencies. Those needing access may include first responders, outside staff, and parking and logistical space staff. – Plan for logistical support. During emergencies, it is common for staff to occupy the Com- mand and Control Facility for long periods of time. This may require food and water sup- plies and added computer or communications equipment. Ensure there is adequate power; IT bandwidth; space; access for deliveries and people; and, possibly, cooking, sleeping, and bathing facilities. • Ensuring survivability of systems in the event of system crashes, extreme weather, accident, or deliberate attack requires a structured approach to ensure the appropriate balance between robustness and cost control. To find the best balance, perform threat assessments (both physical and cyber) to determine the threat landscape and likely threats. • An additional consideration is the location of a backup facility, should the primary ACC expe- rience a catastrophic failure that renders it unavailable. Section 8.8 discusses considerations in developing a backup ACC. Examples of threats that may be encountered include the following: • Regional threats—weather, earthquakes, floods, population unrest, and other factors unique to the area where the ACC is located. Mitigation strategies include site selection to minimize threat exposure, facility hardening, and use of intelligence services and cooperation with local law enforcement to stay informed of emerging threats.

58 Guidance for Planning, Design, and Operations of Airport Communications Centers • Site threats—local utility grid reliability, nearby dangers (such as chemical plants and flam- mable materials next to the ACC). • Facility threats—structural integrity, perimeter security, and equipment reliability. The facility in which the ACC resides is an important part of survivability and deserves sig- nificant attention early in the design process. The ideal scenario is a robust structure capable of withstanding severe weather and some level of blast resistance. However, financial realities typically dictate that the ACC will be within an existing airport structure that may not have been designed with robust survivability in mind. When locating the ACC within an existing structure, be careful of threats imposed by the structure itself. For example, although basement space may be readily available and economical, it poses risks of flooding. Locations next to windows or on the top floor of a structure are subject to risks from storms or blast. The infrastructure of an ACC facility, although similar to those of commercial buildings, diverges significantly in a design process that determines adequate physical capacities, opera- tional capabilities, and other attributes. Basic physical components of an ACC are • The electrical infrastructure should have adequate capacity and conditioned backup power. Space for a generator should be allocated outside the facility, while space for an Uninter- ruptible Power Supply (UPS) and electrical switchgear should be allocated inside the facility. If possible, use a dual-fuel generator to provide greater alternatives for fuel sources during emergencies. When sizing the generator, the general rules used in normal commercial facili- ties (where the generator is usually sized only for the minimum capacity to facilitate evacu- ation of the building) do not apply to ACC facilities. Plan for extended operation using only generator power, and size the generator to support all the key systems that will be required (including HVAC and servers). The ACC should be able to operate even when local utilities are non-existent. • Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) will be one of the key needs for the ACC due to the number of electronic components contained within. Because HVAC is one of the costliest elements to retrofit after construction is completed, it is better to slightly overdesign (to accommodate future expansion) than to underdesign and lose that flexibility. Further, consider systems that provide positive air pressure if smoke or other air contamination may be an issue. • Structural attributes such as blast protection, high wind resistance, or earthquake criteria should be considered when designing new structures. When retrofitting existing structures, blast netting and other accommodations should be used. • Network/Internet access should be available from multiple sources to provide redundancy. Check with telephone carriers about the availability of dual, spatially separated feeds to the facility. Check with Internet Service Providers to secure connections from multiple sources, including possible satellite connectivity as a backup. • Envelope electromagnetic/lightning protection should be part of the design, and shielding from electromagnetic pulse (EMP) may be warranted in certain cases. • Wireless signal penetration is often an issue. Depending on the location, it may be desirable to enhance penetration of wireless signals from outside when they are part of your communi- cations network or to block them when signal interference is an issue. Wireless signals from cell phones, public safety radio systems, GPS, satellite, and other wireless communications should all be considered. To block wireless signals to prevent unauthorized communications, the use of a “Faraday Cage” technique is effective. By enclosing an area in a wire mesh, it is possible to block wireless signals. Wall coverings, ceiling tiles, and other building materials

Communications Center Design Concepts 59 with inherent wireless shielding are available. To enhance wireless reception inside the facility, wireless repeaters may be necessary when the building’s structure blocks signals. Multi-band repeaters that will work with all the wireless devices used should be considered. • Resupply and storage space for essential supplies, such as food, fuel for a generator, batteries, and office supplies, should be considered in the design. • Satellite dishes will require space on the roof and line-of-sight access to satellites. They will also need periodic maintenance. Plan roof layouts and access accordingly. 5.4 Basis of Design (BoD) The Project Management Plan explains the ideas, concepts, and criteria important to airport management and expressed in the project charter. The Basis of Design (BoD) documentation explains the processes and assumptions behind design decisions that are made to meet the design intent. The design intent evolves from more general descriptors to more specific descriptors during actual design, to in-depth and specific descriptors during the specifying stage. These last are finalized during the as-built phase. Under each area or building system is an outline of the building construction and operational requirements to meet the needs of the owner and the building occupants. The BoD document is a compilation of the specific criteria, codes, standards, guidelines, and specific project data and calculations that are the basic information that meets the own- er’s requirements. This information is used to develop the design and construction docu- ments. The BoD establishes the technical and facility requirements necessary to meet the CONOPS goals. The BoD is not a design itself, but a way for airport management and the ACC architect to define the parameters of the design by examining alternate ways of meeting functional require- ments. Each option is described in sufficient detail, including its advantages and disadvantages, along with estimated costs. A typical BoD document will include the following elements: • General facility description, including backup. • Facility location or a set of possible locations. • Space requirements and descriptions. • Adjacencies. • Regulatory and code requirements. • Requirements for redundancy, reliability, and recovery. • High-level descriptions of engineered systems (e.g., mechanical, electrical, and fire protection). • High-level descriptions of technology-based systems. Typically, the BoD will not describe operations and policies or procedures, although it will be influenced by these requirements. When the BoD has been completed, the design team will have a documented baseline of expectations and requirements from which to develop, design, and refine the facility and its supporting elements so as to produce documents suitable for construction. The BoD and the CONOPS must be synchronized to ensure that the functionality envisioned for the ACC in the CONOPS is reflected in the design documents. This synchronization is best achieved by the project manager of the ACC project and involves collaboration between the various entities participating on the project team throughout the design and construction effort. Although the CONOPS should be the guiding document, design constraints may affect

60 Guidance for Planning, Design, and Operations of Airport Communications Centers the CONOPS. In these cases, the project manager must elevate the issue to airport management, who must be included in decisions mitigating the effect or in revising the CONOPS. 5.5 Functional Design Objectives The design process should address the following performance and functional objectives and detail how such objectives are to be provided and validated: • Scalability. Scalability is a measure of the ease with which a facility, system, or elements of a system can be modified in size and capability to meet changing performance requirements. For an ACC, scalability means increasing the size of the facility as needs grow or expanding technology systems to support additional needs. • Reliability. Reliability refers to the ACC’s ability to continue to operate without a failure that compromises the integrity of the overall facility. Reliability is generally expressed as Mean-Time- Between-Failure (MTBF), which depends on equipment design and manufacturing processes. • Maintainability. Maintainability refers to the ACC’s ability to undergo normal preventive maintenance and corrective maintenance without the integrity of the overall system being compromised. Maintainability is generally expressed as Mean-Time-To-Repair, which is derived from equipment design and manufacturing processes. • Availability. Availability refers to the ACC’s ability to operate and perform normal functions, such as updates, backups, and recoveries, without compromising the integrity of the system. Availability extends Reliability and Maintainability to include equipment operation and duty cycle in the airport environment and the effects of operator training, support policies and programs (including servicing and spare parts replacement), and other factors that may not be intrinsic to equipment designed and manufacture, but affecting equipment performance. Availability also considers the redundancy of key systems, such as mechanical (cooling and heating), power (using normal/utility and emergency power sources), and networks and com- munications infrastructure. 5.6 Establishing the Design Process In planning facilities, recognizing the symbiotic relationship between design and construction is important. Design and construction processes are best viewed as an integrated system. Broadly speaking, design is creating the description of the ACC, usually represented by detailed plans and specifications, while construction planning is a process of identifying the activities and resources required to make the design a physical reality. Hence, construction is the implementation of a design envisioned by architects and engineers. In both design and construction, many inter- dependent tasks must be performed. In planning newly constructed ACCs, the following should be kept in mind from the beginning of the project: • Nearly every ACC is custom designed and constructed and needs an appropriate amount of time to complete. • Both the design and construction of a facility must satisfy the conditions peculiar to a specific site. • Because each project is site specific, its development is influenced by natural, logistical, and other locational conditions (e.g., access to the airfield and relationship to network and data center resources). • Given the long service life of an ACC, future requirements must be anticipated. • Because of technological complexity and new functions being added as the ACC concept evolves, changes of design plans during construction are not uncommon.

Communications Center Design Concepts 61 5.6.1 General Design Considerations In most ACC development processes, it may be necessary to use the services of a qualified design team composed of architects, engineers, and specialty consultants (possibly including audio/video designers, acoustical engineers, and lighting designers). Although many larger air- ports have internal resources with experience in some of these areas, few have extensive expe- rience designing these complete facilities. The components and requirements of ACCs are sufficiently complex and unique that specific expertise is essential. This is not to say that internal staff should not be engaged—architectural, engineering, and other design and operational professionals within the airport organization are the critical source of user requirements to the CONOPS and have the locally specific experience to offer significant support and historical perspective to the process. These individuals need to be involved from the early stages, as stakeholders, participants, and active contributors. In airports with existing ACCs (or similar centers), developing a new facility may result in out- ages and communication disruptions due to construction and cutover activities. Because many of the existing facilities support public safety operations, interruptions in service due to contractor activities must be prevented. During construction, all existing radio communications systems, telephone systems, and computer systems should remain fully operational during the installa- tion of the new system and until acceptance of the system by airport management. Where inter- ruptions in service are deemed necessary, coordination and communication among the parties is essential, and planning for alternate means of maintaining service must be developed. Finally, developing a new ACC does not happen in isolation. The new facility may be devel- oped over a multi-year period, often within a new or existing facility upgrade; therefore, it must integrate with existing or upgraded infrastructure. Coordination with other airport projects to avoid conflicts or unnecessary duplication of effort is essential and can prevent or mitigate issues such as inadequate power, conflicts for contractor access or logistical spaces, and integration issues due to network or other airport technology systems. 5.6.2 Using 3-D Modeling in ACC Design The use of 3-D modeling is invaluable in visualizing the finished ACC before construction begins. Although floor plans are sufficient to understand space layouts, they cannot convey the full experience of being “inside” a 3-D virtual model. Being able to “walk” through the space, “sit” in the seats, and see exactly what people will see inside the ACC is extremely valuable. 3-D modeling can also show design flaws not visible in floor plans. In one recent example, a large emergency management agency facility’s large-format video displays were originally designed to be mounted on the 40-ft-high walls of a huge room. A review of the design using a 3-D digital model of the space examined the sightlines and allowed “inhabiting” the virtual model and “sitting” in the virtual seats, which revealed that the placement on the walls was far too high to be usable. Catching this mistake before construction saved the client several hundred thousand dollars and prevented major time delays. 5.6.3 A Holistic Design Approach Technology is so interwoven in the fabric of the ACC that the design team should integrate architectural, engineering, human factors, and technology design into a single team. Although it is normally assumed that the design team will include architectural and engineering profession- als, the modern ACC is so complex that it warrants the involvement of additional professionals such as technology and human factors/ergonomics design specialists.

62 Guidance for Planning, Design, and Operations of Airport Communications Centers The technology and human factors/ergonomics designers should be involved from the begin- ning of the design process. Technology can affect architectural and engineering design significantly, sometimes in ways that only the technology designer can anticipate. Mistakes (e.g., undersizing technology spaces or HVAC capacity or putting consoles or video walls in the wrong places) can be costly to change later. Likewise, a human factors/ergonomics designer can influence the design in ways that may not be readily apparent to the other designers. Investing a small amount in these professionals initially will pay significant dividends in the end. 5.6.4 Accessibility as a Design Factor In addition to typical human factors concerns, the ACC must comply with the ADA and possibly other regulatory requirements, depending on individual staff members’ needs. Given that accessibility is a complex consideration, this Guidebook does not address details; however, ACC designers and managers should verify that basic ADA requirements are met and should determine if any staff require special accommodations due to disabilities. Some needs (such as those resulting from wheelchairs, braces, or crutches) are obvious, but not all disabilities are discernible. Human resources professionals should be involved so as to determine which staff have special needs. Challenges such as color blindness or hearing impairment may require special approaches above and beyond satisfying basic ADA requirements. For example, when there is a visual or hearing impairment, Section 508-compliant software can accommodate many needs (see http://www.section508.gov for more information). Keep visual and hear- ing impairments in mind when designing ACC equipment for communicating with the ACC staff (e.g., signage or video displays). For example, when color coding is used, add symbols to accommodate staff who are color blind. 5.7 Facility Space Requirements and Layouts In the optimum layout, system users should be arranged so that there is a balance of col- laboration and face-to-face communication, as well as a degree of privacy, isolation, and acoustic separation in performing activities. During day-to-day operations, certain events and the response to these events will call for console operators to consult with one another— this should be possible by turning in one’s seat to discuss a situation with an adjacent console operator. Space planning will need to address situations from accommodating immovable architectural obstructions to a free arrangement and ideal positioning of consoles, furniture, support hard- ware, and displays. The ceiling height and the beams in the ceiling directly affect how the space will be used, how the line of sight to shared displays will be accomplished, and how sounds will be perceived. It may be feasible to array consoles in an arc or circle, a cluster, or in a linear row- by-row fashion, providing adjacency for related functions. The following spaces typically are provided for airport ACCs: • Communication and dispatching operations areas. • EOC. • Break room/lounge area (with coffee machine, sink, microwave, dishwasher, and related facilities). • Kitchen and dining room. • Locker rooms. • Supervisor/management offices (to include computer access, telephones, radios, and faxes). • Storage rooms. • Space for bookshelves, file cabinets, printers, and fax machines.

Communications Center Design Concepts 63 • Conference rooms. • Server/Network Operation Center (NOC). Certain work groups benefit from an arrangement where everyone is facing a common central node or perhaps a center supervisor console. Other arrangements seek to reduce, as much as possible, the interaction with other console operators. In a public safety dispatch environment, a design that encourages interaction between dispatchers is usually preferred—The face-to-face collaboration between the dispatchers during peak periods or major incidents can be an invalu- able benefit of proper console arrangement. The overall look and feel of the space should be designed to be soft and subdued, using neu- tral colors and hues. Neutral tones allow displayed video and graphics to portray skin tones and other hues more accurately than if bright colors are anywhere near the field of view. Lighting should be subdued to reduce eyestrain during prolonged operations. Chairs are critical to users’ comfort, and the best possible ergonomically correct seating should be adopted for consoles. Absorptive materials on walls and in ceilings soften the acoustical environment and reduce stress and reverberation because they reduce noise bounced off hard surfaces and help to isolate the voice of a speaker within the console area. 5.7.1 Console Layout Console positioning significantly affects many aspects of ACC operation and user experience. Rather than using classroom-style rows, many airports use console configurations that support work groups—for example, small, communal tables are placed next to work groups to provide “mini-conference rooms,” thereby allowing collaboration without leaving the ACC. 5.7.2 Staff Grouping Assessing how people interact with one other and the layout of the space are important for opti- mal interpersonal efficiency. Grouping staff by functional area promotes efficiency, allowing staff who need to work together to collaborate without excessive movement or disrupting other staff. It may be necessary to separate some groups from one another to reduce noise transmission. For example, staff working in an EOC during an emergency may generate considerable noise, which would disturb operators answering 911 calls or maintaining normal operations. Glass partitions separate while maintaining visual connectivity among groups and among video displays. 5.7.3 Sightlines Ensure that staff have access to the visual resources they require (e.g., video walls and other large-format visual displays). Ensure that managers have unobstructed sightlines to staff they need to communicate with (a gesture or facial expression can be extremely valuable in com- municating during an emergency). At a minimum, perform sightline studies and conventional renderings, and, if possible, use 3-D digital models. 5.7.4 Adjacent Conference Areas and Executive Spaces Spaces next to the ACC, but not inside it, allow executive meetings without disturbing ACC operations. Some airports locate these spaces next to the ACC with a window or sliding glass door between the spaces. This allows a visual connection between the spaces, making better use of large-format video displays and allowing non-verbal visual communication. To ensure that occupants of these spaces can communicate with the rest of the ACC when necessary, audio intercoms should provide connectivity to the ACC operators as well as any other nearby spaces.