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Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview (2018)

Chapter: Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25115.
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73 A P P E N D I X B Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors ROUTE FACTOR No. 1 TVC Definitions and Sources Incident History and Escalation Threat Operator Assaults: For purposes of this report, overt physical and verbal acts by a passenger or fellow employee in a threatening manner and/or that interfere with the mission of a bus operator to complete his or her scheduled run safely and that adversely affect the safety of the operator and customers. Aggravated Assault: An unlawful attack by one person upon another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury (with a weapon). Aggravated assault is a felony that may result in a prison sentence. Recidivism: A person's relapse into criminal behavior, often after the person receives sanctions or undergoes intervention for a previous crime. Assault incidents are frequently not one-time occurrences. In an analysis of prisoners released from 30 states, 82.1% of property offenders and 71.3% of the violent offenders were arrested again within 5 years. Conflict incidents escalate unless the conditions change. Before aggravated assault, transit agencies have found there are often minor assaults and incidents such as fare evasion, intoxicated passenger, and youth-related violence. Operator demeanor can affect the level of conflict and escalation Transit Agencies have found that a significant number of assaults may have been instigated by the behavior or action of the bus operator, and may have been prevented by the operator as well (Nakanishi and Fleming, 2011). A majority of the workplace violence offenders (60%) either directly threatened the victim or communicated to third parties their violent intent. Generally a Type II (usually a former patron or client of the organization and often known by the victim) or Type III (currently or formerly employed by the organization or were involved in a personal relationship with one of the employees) assailant has either verbalized a threat or given some indication that they may become violent, prior to acting on the threat. “It has been suggested that, in the workplace, violence is rarely a spontaneous act but more often the culmination of escalating patterns of negative interaction between individuals” (Andersson et al. 1999, p. 454). Environmental Considerations Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

74 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: Research Overview Operators are at risk for conflict and assault. Bus Operators may be called upon to resolve difficult conflicts between other employees and passengers. This may prompt assertive action from either party in the conflict, increasing the likelihood of aggression, whether planned or spontaneous, by colleagues or passengers. Sources: Nakanishi, Y. J., and Fleming, W. C. (2011). TCRP Synthesis 93: Practices to Protect Bus Operators from Passenger Assault. National Institute of Justice (2014). Recidivism. Pulled on 7/14/14 from http://www.nij.gov/topics/corrections/recidivism/Pages/welcom e.aspx. Durose, M., Cooper, A., and Snyder, H. (2014). Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 30 States in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010. FTA. (2014). Roadmap to Excellence Operator Assault Overview. Available online at http://bussafety.fta.dot.gov/uploads/resource/4475_filename. Couto, M. T., Lawoko, S., and Svanström, L. (2009). Violence Against Drivers and Conductors in the Road Passenger Transport Sector in Maputo, Mozambique, African Safety Promotion Journal, Vol. 7, No. 2. Available online at http://www.ajol.info/index.php/asp/article/viewFile/70414/58762. AFSCME. (2006). Preventing Workplace Violence: A Union Representative’s Guidebook. Available online at http://www.afscme.org/news/publications/for-leaders/preventing- workplace-violence-a-union-representatives-guidebook. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2010). Crime in the United States: Aggravated Assault. Pulled on 8/11/14 from https://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2009/offenses/violent_crime/aggr avated_assault.html. ROUTE FACTOR No. 2 TVC Definitions and Sources Population Density Along the Route Vulnerability Urban Area: Generally surrounding a city, urban areas can be described as an increased density of human structures such as houses, commercial buildings, roads, bridges, and railways. Metropolitan Area: A region consisting of a densely populated urban core area and its less-populated surrounding territories (suburban areas), sharing industry, infrastructure, and housing. ROUTE FACTOR No. 1 TVC Definitions and Sources Records to review include complaints made by employees, contractors, citizens, or customers about violent or threatening incidents. Transit agencies may review documents prior to hiring an employee, such as police reports on violent incidents or suspicious activity in/around the workplace, employee shared grievances and arbitrations related to workplace violence such as harassment, assaults, security hazards or threats. Operator Supervisors may also review ongoing OSHA injury and illness logs, workers’ compensation records, employee medical records, reports by security personnel, etc. Region: An area or division, especially part of a country or the world having definable characteristics but not always fixed boundaries. The location within the United States, and density of population can effect the likelihood of operator assault. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 75 Of the 806,843 total aggravated assaults committed in 2009 that were analyzed: 701,454 (86.9%) occurred in metropolitan areas; 57,750 (7.2%) occurred in cities outside metropolitan areas; and 47,639 (5.9%) occurred in nonmetropolitan counties. Larger urban transit systems operating in high-crime urban areas generally experience more crime against patrons than smaller systems or those systems operating commuter-oriented service in suburban areas. Sources: U.S. DOT, Urban Mass Transportation Administration. (1984). Transit Security: A Description of Problems and Countermeasures. Weston, A. (2006). An Investigation of the Southern Subculture of Violence: Structural and Cultural Predictors of an Expanded Conceptualization of Violence. Pulled from http://etd.auburn.edu/bitstream/handle/10415/206/WESTON_A NDREA_31.pdf?sequence=1 on 7/10/14. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2010). Crime in the United States 2009. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Urban Area. Pulled on 7/17/14 from http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedi a/urban-area/?ar_a=1. Squires, G. (2002). Urban Sprawl: Causes, Consequences, and Policy Responses. The Urban Institute Press. ROUTE FACTOR No. 3 TVC Definitions and Sources Bars and Nightclubs Vulnerability Alcohol Consumption: Many assaults occur in and around bars, nightclubs, and similar liquor serving facilities such as pubs or taverns. Alcohol consumption leads to risk taking behavior, less concern over consequences or punishments, high levels of emotion, and poor communication, all which may cause a violent altercation. The physical environments of bars or nightclubs are conducive to altercations as they are often overcrowded and under-regulated. Bars and nightclubs may also cater to prostitution, drug dealing, or aggressive entertainment. In addition, if a particular geographical location has many bars and nightclubs, customers from different social groups may encounter one another leading to violence. 33.5% of offenders arrested for aggravated assault were perceived to be under the influence of drugs or alcohol. Simple assault that is related to alcohol consumption or patronage of a bar or nightclub is more likely to occur during weekend nights. ROUTE FACTOR No. 2 TVC Definitions and Sources Of the four regions of the United States, aggravated assault was ranked greatest in the: South (44.5%) West (22.5%) Midwest (18.9%) With the least in the Northeast (14.2%). Sources: Drucker, J. (2011). Risk Factors of Aggravated Assault. RTM Insights, 16. Rand, M. R. (2008). Criminal Victimization, 2007. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, D.C. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

76 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: Research Overview Sources: Nakanishi Y. J. and Fleming, W. C. (2011). TCRP Synthesis 93: Practices to Protect Bus Operators from Passenger Assault. Bus Transit Capacity, Transit Capacity, and Quality of Service Manual. Pulled on 7/2/14 from http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_webdoc_6-b.pdf. ROUTE FACTOR No. 5 TVC Definitions and Sources Venues Along the Route (stations, events, places of congregation) Vulnerability Venues: A venue is a place where something happens, such as an organized event (concert, conference, institute of learning, retail facilities, or sport event locations). Examples of venues where people congregate include: Sports Complexes/Special Event Venues Movie Complexes Mall Strip Mall Specialized Retail Local/Corner Store (this includes boutiques, high end retail, and stores that are established in the community) High Schools Middle Schools Stadiums, arenas, sporting grounds, and concert halls are conducive to aggravated assault because of overcrowding, high level of physical contact, alcohol consumption, high energy levels, and the adversarial nature of competitions. Sources: Drucker, J. (2011). Risk Factors of Aggravated Assault. RTM Insights, 16. ROUTE FACTOR No. 6 TVC Definitions and Sources Proximity to Crime Hot Spots Vulnerability Crime Hot Spot A crime hot spot is generally defined as an area containing dense clusters of criminal incidents. Identifications of hot spots helps public safety institutions allocate resources for crime prevention activities. High Crime Area: For the purposes of this report, transit crime occurs more frequently in areas with high crime rates. The analysis shows that crime on transit has increased about in proportion to transit ridership, and that it is concentrated in both space and time. Crime occurs mostly on routes which traverse areas having high crime rates in general In general, the level of mass transit crime mirrors the crime rate of the surrounding area Stations that have high crime rates are generally located in neighborhoods with high crime rates. The crime level of the area around a route is a contributing factor to the likelihood of Operator assault. ROUTE FACTOR No. 4 TVC Definitions and Sources Route and Vehicle Capacities and Passenger Ridership Rates Vulnerability Capacity: For purposes of this report capacity reflects the number of people that can be carried past a given location during a given time period under specified operating conditions without unreasonable delay, hazard, or restriction, and with reasonable certainty. Nakanishi and Fleming suggest service problems may be caused by overcrowding and lead to a number of incidents. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 77 Nakanishi, Y. J., and Fleming, W. C. (2011). TCRP Synthesis 93: Practices to Protect Bus Operators from Passenger Assault. Pearlstein, A., and Wachs, M. (1982). Crime in Public Transit Systems: An Environmental Design Perspective. Transportation, 11(3), pp. 277-297. Mauri, R., Cooney, N. A., Prowe, G. J. (1984). Transit Security: A Description of Problems and Countermeasures. U.S. OT Research and Special Programs Administration Transportation Systems Center. ROUTE FACTOR No. 7 TVC Definitions and Sources Temporal Effects (Time of Day) Vulnerability Temporal Effects on Assault: The time of day affects the number of passengers and visibility of a crime. For the purposes of this report, time is linked to the likelihood of assault. Of 2007’s 775,060 aggravated assaults analyzed in the Crime Victimization in the United States report, 45.6% occurred between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., 39.8% occurred from 6 p.m. to midnight, 12.6% occurred from midnight to 6 a.m. Though the timing is organized differently, TCRP Report 93 revealed similar trends. Nakanishi and Fleming found 79% of transit agencies surveyed reported assaults during the evening/late night/early morning time frame (48/61). The second most frequent time period for assaults was the PM peak, evening rush hour (38/61). Intensity of use of place varies by time of day, day of week, and time of year. In Chicago, few street robberies occur during rush hour, but many occur at closing times of taverns. During rush hour, rapid transit stations are heavily used, but surveillance is high. At a late hour, there are few pedestrians, but guardianship is low. While a higher concentration of restaurants, bars, and nightclubs does not necessarily correlate with higher violence, if establishments have the same closing time, then patrons, possibly from different social groups, may encounter each other on the street leading to violent altercations. Working alone Working in isolation has been cited as a factor contributing to workplace violence. ROUTE FACTOR No. 6 TVC Definitions and Sources Sources: RTD Fastracks 2007. Branas, C. C., Rubin, D., and Guo, W. (2012). Vacant Properties and Violence in Neighborhoods. ISRN Public Health. Wilson, J. Q., and Kelling, G. L. (1982). The Police and Neighborhood Safety: Broken Windows. The Atlantic Monthly, 127, pp. 29-38. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

78 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: Research Overview Sources: Drucker, J. (2011). Risk Factors of Aggravated Assault. RTM Insights, 16. Block, R., and Davis, S. (1996). The Environs of Rapid Transit Stations: A Focus for Street Crime or Just Another Risky Place. Preventing Mass Transit Crime. Nakanishi, Y. J., and Fleming, W. C. (2011). TCRP Synthesis 93: Practices to Protect Bus Operators from Passenger Assault. ROUTE FACTOR No. 8 TVC Definitions and Sources Juvenile Crime Vulnerability Juvenile Delinquency The violation of a law of the United States committed by a person prior to his eighteenth birthday which would have been a crime if committed by an adult Most violent crime committed by juvenile offenders occurs during the after school hours. Nearly one-third (29%) of all violent crime committed by juvenile offenders occurs between 3 p.m. and 7 p.m. In comparison, nearly the same proportion of violent crime committed by adults (26%) occurs between the hours of 8 p.m. and 12 a.m. Vandalism, the willful destruction of property, is a constant problem for transit agencies. Vandals are usually school-age children, and the crime is viewed as an aspect of juvenile delinquency. The types of destruction to transit property include breaking windows, ripping seats, graffiti, and stoning moving vehicles. When an Operator travels to a location that has been vandalized or is likely to be vandalized, there is an increased risk of Operator assault. Sources: U.S. Office of the Attorneys, Executive Office. Pulled on 7/11/14 from http://www.justice.gov/usao/eousa/foia_reading_room/usam/tit le9/crm00038.htm. OJJDP Statistical Briefing Book. Online. Available at http://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/offenders/qa03401.asp?qaDat e=2008. Released on December 21, 2010. National Institute of Justice, Crimesolutions.org pulled on 7/11/14 from https://www.crimesolutions.gov/TopicReferences.aspx?ID=5. Hoel, L. (nd. Public Transportation Security, Chapter 18. Pulled on 7/11/14 from http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/11000/11800/11877/Chapter18.pd f. Public transport—Bus Drivers Work-related Violence Case Studies, First Group. Found online at http://www.hse.gov.uk/violence/hslcasestudies/first.htm. ROUTE FACTOR No. 7 TVC Definitions and Sources In a study of the geographic distribution of crime across four Chicago police districts: two with relatively low rates of robbery, and two with very high rates, the patterns varied by district. In the low-rate districts, street robbery was concentrated near rapid transit stations, while in the high-crime districts the geographic distribution of robberies was more dispersed. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 79 D. Whose members engage in criminal activity or acts of juvenile delinquency that if committed by an adult would be crimes with the intent to enhance or preserve the association's power, reputation or economic resources. E. The association may also possess some of the following characteristics: 1. The members may employ rules for joining and operating within the association. 2. The members may meet on a recurring basis. 3. The association may provide physical protection of its members from others. 4. The association may seek to exercise control over a particular geographic location or region, or it may simply defend its perceived interests against rivals. 5. The association may have an identifiable structure. For the purposes of this report, increased criminal gang activity in an area may be indicative of increased crime on transit. Criminal gangs commit as much as 80% of crime in many areas. Such crimes include simple and aggravated assault. There are at least 21,500 gangs and more than 731,000 active gang members in the United States. Gangs conduct criminal activity in all 50 states and U.S. territories. Although most gang activity is concentrated in major urban areas, gangs also are proliferating in rural and suburban areas of the country as gang members flee increasing law enforcement pressure in urban areas or seek more lucrative drug markets. This proliferation in nonurban areas increasingly is accompanied by violence and is threatening society in general. According to a 2001 Department of Justice survey, 20 percent of students aged 12 through 18 reported that street gangs had been present at their school during the previous 6 months. More than a quarter (28%) of students in urban schools reported a street gang presence, and 18 percent of students in suburban schools and 13 percent in rural schools reported the presence of street gangs. Sources: National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. What is a gang? Pulled on 7/11/14 from http://www.nij.gov/topics/crime/gangs/Pages/definitions.aspx. Drucker, J. (2011). Risk Factors of Aggravated Assault. RTM Insights, 16. U. S. Department of Justice, National Gang Intelligence Center. (2009). National gang threat assessment. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Gang Intelligence Center. National Drug Intelligence Center. (2005). Drugs and Gangs Fast Facts. U.S. Department of Justice. Pulled on 7/11/14 from http://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs11/13157/. ROUTE FACTOR No. 9 TVC Definitions and Sources Gang Activity Vulnerability Gang: A. An association of three or more individuals; B. Whose members collectively identify themselves by adopting a group identity, which they use to create an atmosphere of fear or intimidation, frequently by employing one or more of the following: a common name, slogan, identifying sign, symbol, tattoo or other physical marking, style or color of clothing, hairstyle, hand sign or graffiti; C. Whose purpose in part is to engage in criminal activity and which uses violence or intimidation to further its criminal objectives. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

80 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: Research Overview of all prostitution, but it has the most visible negative impact on the community. Sources: Scott, M., and Dedel, K. (2006). Street Prostitution, Guide No. 2. Pulled from http://www.popcenter.org/problems/street_prostitution/ on 7/10/14. Definition pulled from Google public sourcing, 7/14/14. ROUTE FACTOR No. 11 TVC Definitions and Sources Drug Trade Vulnerability Drug trafficking organizations (DTOs): They are complex organizations with highly defined command-and-control structures that produce, transport, and/or distribute large quantities of one or more illicit drugs. The presence of drug markets increases the likelihood of violence, including aggravated assault. Communities with high rates of drug use and drug distribution experience higher levels of violence, which includes assault. Assault may occur as a result of disputes between drug dealers over territory, disputes within dealing hierarchies to enforce regulations, disputes over payment, arguments over drug quality or quantity, during attempts to steal drugs or drug paraphernalia, or due to violence associated with drug use. Sources: Drucker, J. (2011). Risk Factors of Aggravated Assault. RTM Insights, 16. Goldstein, P. J. (1985). The drugs/violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework. Journal of Drug Issues, 39, pp. 143-174. Justice Department. (2010). National Drug Threat Assessment 2010: Drug Trafficking Organizations. Pulled on 7/14/14 from http://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs38/38661/dtos.htm. ROUTE FACTOR No. 10 TVC Definitions and Sources Prostitution and Vice Vulnerability Prostitution: The practice or occupation of engaging in sexual activity with someone for payment. For the purposes of this report, prostitution is included as a route factor because it is a criminal activity and many prostitutes co-locate with transit centers. Street prostitution areas are typically small, less than a square mile. Larger cities usually have several such areas. They are typically industrial sites; declining residential areas; those near major thoroughfares, including tunnels, bridges, or airport access roads; or those near transportation hubs, such as train and bus stations. Street prostitution flourishes around convention centers and hotels, especially when mostly male conventions are held. Street prostitution accounts for perhaps only 10 to 20 percent Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 81 Operators may be confronted by known threats to the transit system, bus route, or the Operator individually. Systemwide After 9/11, the Department of Homeland Security created the Transit Security Grant Program to provide funding to owners and operators of transit systems (which include intra-city bus, commuter bus, ferries, and all forms of passenger rail) to protect critical surface transportation infrastructure and the traveling public from acts of terrorism and to increase the resilience of transit infrastructure. Terrorism countermeasures, such as surveillance and increased information sharing, can also be used to combat day to day crime. In Portland, TriMet allocated TSGP funding to purchase security cameras and saw a 25% drop in overall system crime. Bus Route Some routes increase the risk level to the Operator—for instance if there are numerous bars and nightclubs on the route (this is explained in more detail in other route factors). Operator Bruyere and Gillet (2005) found that 84% of physical assaults were preceded by verbal threats. Many of the physical assaults had contributing factors, such as: Passenger misconduct (77%), nonpayment of fares (60%), alcohol or drugs (51%), or weapons (11%). Warning behaviors such as threats make substantial, and often more accurate, contributions to assessments of acute and short-term violence risk. Sources: Caplan, J. M., and Kennedy, L. W. (2010). Risk Terrain Modeling Manual. Rutgers Center on Public Security, Newark, New Jersey. DHS. NTAS Public Guide. Pulled on 7/2/14 from http://www.dhs.gov/ntas-public-guide. Uniform Crime Reporting Statistics. Pulled on 7/2/14 from http://www.ucrdatatool.gov/. FTA Transit Threat Level Response Recommendation. Pulled on 7/2/14 from https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=440811. Meloy, J. R., Hoffmann, J., Guldimann, A., and D. James. (2011). The Role of Warning Behaviors in Threat Assessment: An Exploration and Suggested Typology, Behavioral Sciences and the Law. Published online in Wiley Online Library. Gray, Snowden, and MacCulloch, 2004; McNiel, Gregory, and Lam, 2003; Nicholls, Brink, Desmarais, Webster, and Martin, 2006; Skeem and Mulvey, 2001. See Role of Warning Behaviors in Threat Assessment for full citations. ROUTE FACTOR No. 12 TVC Definitions and Sources Known Threats Threat Known threats: For the purposes of this report, known threats include crime, terrorism and other threats to public security. Sources of known threats may include: Crime Statistics World Events Suspicious and Unattended Packages NTAS levels Operational Considerations Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

82 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: Research Overview ROUTE FACTOR No. 13 TVC Definitions and Sources Vehicle Security Countermeasures Vulnerability Vehicle Security Countermeasures: For the purposes of this report, the principal strategy for bus vehicle security includes four categories: Deter: including access management, police (uniformed, under cover, K9), crime statistics, and CCTV surveillance Detect: weapons detectors and screeners, intrusion detection, CCTV surveillance, training, crime statistics Minimize: training, Operator equipment, standard and emergency operating procedures Respond and Recover: emergency response factors, decontamination awareness, continuity of operations An example of a deterrent would be physical alterations to each vehicle, such as: Barriers (partitions) between Operators and passengers. Left-side Operator exit doors. Security cameras to discourage violent behavior and identify the perpetrator if an assault does occur. Silent alarms and radio communication to allow Operators to safely request help. Vehicle tracking devices, such as global positioning satellite (GPS) systems, to locate an Operator in distress. Improved interior and bus stop lighting to allow the operator to be aware of passenger behavior. Sources: https://transit- safety.fta.dot.gov/security/SecurityInitiatives/DesignConsiderati ons/CD/sec3.htm#subsec322. http://www.atu1741.org/uploads/5/4/2/0/5420560/atu- violence-fact-sheet.pdf. ROUTE FACTOR No. 14 TVC Definitions and Sources Operator Assault Security Countermeasures Vulnerability Operator Security Countermeasures: For the purposes of this report, Operator Security Countermeasures address the procedural interventions to deter Bus Operator assaults. Some factors that reduce Operator assault include: Cashless fare collection Elimination of operator enforcement responsibilities Onboard police presence and/or increased police patrols and stops De-escalation training and procedures Operator Assaults are increasing in frequency. Bus Operators experience much higher rates of exposure to criminal incidents than transit passengers. Security Cameras Help Transit Agencies Fight Crime. (2014). Pulled on 8/12/14 from http://www.thetransitwire.com/2014/04/23/security-cameras- help-transit-agencies-fight-crime/. Bruyere, D., and Gillet, J. M. (2005). National Operator Assault Survey Results. Referenced in Nakanishi, Y. J., Fleming, W. C. (2011). TCRP Synthesis 93: Practices to Protect Bus Operators from Passenger Assault. ROUTE FACTOR No. 12 TVC Definitions and Sources Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 83 ROUTE FACTOR No. 15 TVC Definitions and Sources Training and Skill Level of Operators and Crew/Development Vulnerability Training: One of the most powerful tools available to transit management in creating an environment for agency safety and security awareness and success is the delivery of safety and security-related training to all operations employees. Safety and security is impacted by nearly every action taken by drivers/operators during the day-to-day performance of their jobs or during emergency operations. Driver/Operator training includes a focus on: vehicle inspection defensive driving customer assistance (customer complaints) emergency/crisis management (NIMS/ICS) transit agency specific skills and standard operating procedures (SOPs) stress management/ conflict resolution Operator Training techniques include: Initiating contact Cooperative language Verbal judo Listening tactics Problem solving Assertive limit setting Countering nonverbal intimidation Operators need self-awareness training as well. A study was conducted on one of the categories particularly at risk, the Operators who have seen a rise in the rate of stressful incidents in recent years. It was possible to demonstrate a causal relationship between stress and exposure to attacks. The study revealed three basic attitudes towards stress-causing factors: assertive diplomacy: the employee adopts a strategy that lowers stress; reactive inhibited: the employee takes refuge in an attitude of hostile withdrawal; and reactive aggressive: the employee reacts with a strong propensity for conflict. The study established that employees, who were assaulted multiple times, were in the last category. ROUTE FACTOR No. 14 TVC Definitions and Sources Sources: ATU. Preventing Violence Against Bus Operators. Pulled on 7/2/14 from http://www.atu1741.org/uploads/5/4/2/0/5420560/atu- violence-fact-sheet.pdf. Bus Operator Safety-Critical Issues Examination and Model Practices. (2014). National Center for Transit Research. Pearlstein, A., and Wachs, M. (1982). Crime in Public Transit Systems: An Environmental Design Perspective. Transportation, 11(3), pp.277-297. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

84 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: Research Overview if they have to waste the time, at least they know it’s going to be 15 minutes. Otherwise they’re sitting there thinking the bus will be along in about two minutes, and when it doesn’t show, then they start getting frustrated.” Delays in transportation; poor information following delays; the quality of environmental surroundings; and failure to meet passenger expectations, are likely to incite anger and frustration in the public, and increase the risk of aggression (Boyd, 2002; Chappell and Di Martino, 2006; Essenberg, 2003). Sources: Nakanishi, Y. J., and Fleming, W. C. (2011). TCRP Synthesis 93: Practices to Protect Bus Operators from Passenger Assault. Duffy, J. (2002). Quoted in Mishalani, R., and McCord, M. (2006). Passenger Wait Time Perceptions at Bus Stops: Empirical Results and Impact on Evaluating Real-Time Bus Arrival Information. Journal of Public Transportation, 9(2). Transportation Trades Department, AFL-CIO (2013) Policy Statement No. F13-06, Adopted October 29, 2013. Boyd, C. (2002). Customer violence and employee health and safety. Work, Employment and Society, 16(1), 151-169. Chappel, D., and Di Martino, V. (2006). Violence at work. Geneva: ILO. Essenberg, B. (2003). Violence and stress at work in the transport sector. Geneva: ILO. Transportation Trades Department, AFL-CIO and ATU. ROUTE FACTOR No. 17 TVC Definitions and Sources Fleet Condition and Maintenance Vulnerability State of Good Repair (SGR): SGR may be defined differently at each agency, though most definitions include the following: Maintaining an agency’s rolling stock and infrastructure as needed to meet a certain level of service (e.g., avoiding slow zones on a rail system); ROUTE FACTOR No. 16 TVC Definitions and Sources Changes or Delays in Schedule Threat On-Time Performance: Although some assaults occur without reason, many assaults have one or more contributing factors such as schedule delays and service reductions. For purposes of this report on-time performance addresses bus arrivals and departures as provided by the transit agency. Assaults can be precipitated by cutbacks in bus frequency, elimination of routes, service problems and other causes of rider frustration. In general, reducing waiting time uncertainty is expected to improve passenger satisfaction, and ultimately increase bus ridership. “People don’t mind waiting for a bus if they know how long it’s going to be. Even Essenberg, B. (2003). Violence and Stress at Work in the Transport Sector, Working Paper. International Labour Office. Geneva. Bus Operator Safety-Critical Issues Examination and Model Practices. 2014. National Center for Transit Research. ROUTE FACTOR No. 15 TVC Definitions and Sources Sources: FTA. Driver/Operator Training. Pulled on 7/2/14 from http://bussafety.fta.dot.gov/list_resources.php?category_id=1449. Henrion. Preventing assaults is everyone’s business. Public Transport International. No. 6/99, pp. 25-27. Nakanishi, Y. (2009). TCRP Synthesis 80: Transit Security Update. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 85 ROUTE FACTOR No. 18 TVC Definitions and Sources Incident Reporting and Management systems Vulnerability Incident Reporting: Employees are expected to report any and all accidents/ incidents to a designated employee/supervisor within their transit agencies. Incident Reports often include accidents, injuries, property damage and near misses. Transit agencies that receive federal funding are required to report system security and personal security events to the National Transit Database. For purposes of this report, it is important that employees report this information to transit agencies- for instance the prevalence of verbal disputes, threats, and other non-traditional reporting requirements. Examples of incidences that should be recorded include: Passenger falls with/without injuries Difficulties with passengers that result in damage to people and/or property (example: passenger actions such as throwing objects, etc.) Equipment failures which cause delays; Suspicious packages, bomb threats, bombs Arson Vandalism Assault Robbery Rape Larceny/ theft Most agencies (92%) surveyed by Nakanishi and Fleming had SOPs in place to respond to operator assaults. Most agencies also have a safety department, established safety performance measures, as well as safety training and corrective action procedures. Sources: FTA Accident/Incident Reporting, North Carolina Department of Transportation Accident/ Incident Reporting Policy. (2003). Pulled on 7/11/14 from http://bussafety.fta.dot.gov/list_resources.php?category_id=1446. Nakanishi, Y. J., and Fleming, W. C. (2011). TCRP Synthesis 93: Practices to Protect Bus Operators from Passenger Assault. Bus Operator Safety-Critical Issues Examination and Model Practices. (2014). National Center for Transit Research. Pulled on 7/15/14 from http://www.ntdprogram.gov/ntdprogram/pubs/safetyRM/2014 /2014%20Safety%20&%20Security%20Reporting%20Manual.pdf. Sources: U.S. DOT and FTA. (2010). Transit Asset Management Practices: A National and International Review. Pulled on 7/2/14 from http://www.fta.dot.gov/documents/TAM_A_National_and_Inte rnational_Review_-_6.10_FINAL.pdf. Nakanishi, Y. J., and Fleming, W. C. (2011). TCRP Synthesis 93: Practices to Protect Bus Operators from Passenger Assault. ROUTE FACTOR No. 17 TVC Definitions and Sources Performing maintenance, repair, rehabilitation and renewal according to agency policy (e.g., replacing buses according to a set time interval); and/or Reducing or eliminating an agency’s backlog of unmet capital needs. Nakanishi and Fleming suggest service problems may lead to a number of incidents. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

86 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: Research Overview Agencies that practice a zero-tolerance approach instruct operators to enforce fare payment and codes of conduct strictly, in the belief that making exceptions can confuse and anger passengers. Agencies that instruct their operators to use their judgment on a case by-case basis believe that the operator is the best judge of the situation. Most commonly assaults are related to fare disputes. Most common reasons for fare disputes are arguments over transfers, dispute as to proper cash fares, expired or invalid passes and arguments about reduced fare authorizations. For example, Transfer Use Cash vs. non-Cash Payment Fare Policies and Reduced Fare options Fare Changes Sources: Fleishman, D. (2010). Transit Fare Policy, Structure, and Technology. Pulled on 7/14/14 from http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/civil-and-environmental- engineering/1-258j-public-transportation-systems-spring- 2010/lecture-notes/MIT1_258JS10_lec12.pdf. Nakanishi, Y. J., and Fleming, W. C. (2011) TCRP Synthesis 93: Practices to Protect Bus Operators from Passenger Assault. ROUTE FACTOR No. 20 TVC Definitions and Sources Workplace Violence Policy and Procedure Vulnerability Workplace violence is violence or the threat of violence against workers. It can occur at or outside the workplace and can range from threats and verbal abuse to physical assaults and homicide, one of the leading causes of job-related deaths. Some 2 million American workers are victims of workplace violence each year. Workplace violence can strike anywhere, and no one is immune. Some workers, however, are at increased risk. Among them are workers who exchange money with the public; deliver passengers, goods, or services; or work alone or in small groups, during late night or early morning hours, in high-crime areas, or in community settings and homes where they have extensive contact with the public. Sources: Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2002). OSHA Fact Sheet—Workplace Violence. U.S. Department of Labor. Pulled on 7/14/14 from https://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_General_Facts/factsheet- workplace-violence.pdf. Fare enforcement issues are important because a high percentage of assaults are instigated by fare issues, such as fare evasion, short pay, transfer disputes, questionable fare media, or the lack of valid ID for special fares. Agencies reported a variety of fare enforcement policies, ranging from conflict avoidance to zero tolerance. ROUTE FACTOR No. 19 TVC Definitions and Sources Fare Structure and Disputes Vulnerability Fare Policy - Principles, goals and constraints that guide and restrict a transit agency in setting and collecting fares Fare Structure - Pricing Strategy: general approach (e.g., flat fare vs. fare differentials), Payment Options: forms of fare payment (e.g., cash, passes, multi-ride tickets, stored value), Transfer Policy: price and use parameters, Pricing Levels: actual fare amounts for each payment option Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 87 Response Considerations ROUTE FACTOR No. 21 TVC Definitions and Sources Security Personnel Counter- measures Vulnerability Security Personnel Of the many activities undertaken to provide security in the transit environment, one of the most important, and often the most costly, is the deployment of uniformed police and other security personnel. For purposes of this report, security personnel refers to: uniformed security (armed/ unarmed) plainclothes transit police armed and unarmed Sources: Interactive Elements, Inc. (1997). Guidelines for the Effective Use of Uniformed Transit Police and Security Personnel. Pulled on 7/2/14 from http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_webdoc_15- a.pdf. ROUTE FACTOR No. 22 TVC Definitions and Sources Police or Security Response Capability along the Route Vulnerability CAD systems CAD systems allow public safety operations and Communications to be augmented, assisted, or partially controlled by an automated system. It can include, among other capabilities, computer- controlled emergency vehicle dispatching, vehicle status, incident reporting, and management information. The deployment strategy of local and transit police have a tangible effect on the crime rates in that area. Deployment strategies are affected by the accuracy of timely intelligence, ability of personnel and resources to deploy rapidly, effective response tactics, and regular follow up and assessment. For the purposes of this report, deployment strategies of local law enforcement are applicable to bus operator assault given the response and treatment time. In fact, Myers asserts that urban areas are safer than rural because of the proximity to hospitals. The risk of injury death (self-inflicted, or inflicted by others) is much higher in the countryside than large urban areas. Sources: Law Enforcement Information Technology Standards Council (nd). Law Enforcement Computer Aided Dispatch (CAD) Systems. Bureau of Justice Assistance, National Institute of Justice. Pulled on 7/16/14 from http://www.ijis.org/docs/LE_CAD_FuncSpecs.pdf. McElvain, J. P., Kposowa, A. J., and Gray, B. C. (2012). Testing a Criminal Control Model: Does Strategic and Direct Deployment of Police Officers Lead to Lower Crime? Journal of Criminology, Vol. 2013. Walsh, W. F. (2001). Quoted in Ozdemir, H. (2011). Compstat: Strategic Police Management for Effective Crime Deterrence in New York City. International Police Executive Symposium. Working Paper. Myers, S. R., Branas, C. C., French, B. C., Nance, M. L., Kallan, M. J., Wiebe, D. J., and Carr, B. G. (2013). Safety in Numbers: Are Major Cities the Safest Places in the United States? Pulled on 7/16/14 from http://www.annemergmed.com/article/S0196-0644(13)00520- 9/abstract. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

ROUTE FACTOR No. 23 TVC Definitions and Sources Relationship with Local Law Enforcement Vulnerability Many of the security measures recommended by federal, state, and local systems have also been found to contribute to the efficiency of public transportation operations (vehicle locating systems, multimodal communications), passenger safety (design and materials used in station and coach construction), and making systems more convenient and attractive to passengers (good lighting, clean interiors, timely information on system status, visible presence of staff), and to reducing ordinary crime [closed- circuit television (CCTV), high-profile and undercover patrolling]. Additionally, improving liaison with local police and other emergency responders, establishing crisis management plans, conducting exercises, and putting procedures in place for handling bomb threats and suspicious objects are not costly undertakings. Sources: Balog, J. N., Boyd, A., and Caton, J. E. (2003). The Public Transportation System Security and Emergency Preparedness Planning Guide. U.S. DOT Research and Special Programs Administration. Pulled on 7/17/14 from http://www.fta.dot.gov/documents/PlanningGuide.pdf. ROUTE FACTOR No. 24 TVC Definitions and Sources Passenger Security Inspections, Random Searches, Presence of Uniformed Personnel Vulnerability Passenger Security Inspections (PSI) are inspections conducted without warrants or individualized suspicion. Generally, such inspections are legally permissible only if they can be justified under exceptions to the warrant and individualized suspicion requirements of the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. When individualized suspicion exists, inspections are subject to normal policing procedures. PSIs include manual, visual, and technology-based inspections; canine inspections; and behavioral assessments. For most transit systems, it is not operationally feasible to inspect all passengers, so random inspections are the most likely choice for suspicionless inspections. As random inspections are random both in terms of who will be inspected and where the inspections will take place, they provide a strong deterrent to attackers, who seek to reduce the risk of detection through avoiding uncertainty. Sources: Countermeasures Assessment and Security Experts, Waite and Associates, and Nakanishi Research and Consulting. (2007). TCRP Report 86: Public Transportation Security, Volume 13: Public Transportation Passenger Security Inspections: A Guide for Policy Decision Makers. ROUTE FACTOR No. 25 TVC Definitions and Sources Crime Displacement Threat Crime displacement is the relocation of crime from one place, time, target, offense, or tactic to another as a result of some crime prevention initiative. Formally, the possible forms of displacement are: Temporal – offenders change the time at which they commit crime; Spatial – offenders switch from targets in one location to targets in another location; Target – offenders change from one type of target to another; Tactical – offenders alter the methods used to carry out crime; and Offense – offenders switch from one form of crime to another. Sources: Guerette, R. T. (2009). Analyzing Crime Displacement and Diffusion Tool Guide No. 10. Center for Problem-Oriented Policing. Pulled on 7/17/14 from http://www.popcenter.org/tools/displacement/print/. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 89 Weighting Methodology The rating scales for the Route Factors encompass both quantitative and qualitative approaches to identifying and analyzing the factors as identified. Using both data- and expertise-driven methods, and verified where appropriate with sources, it defines these factors as follows: • The likelihood of injury or loss, generally reflected as an adverse effect on health, property, or other things of value, measured as a function of threat and vulnerability. The Route Factor rating process recognizes that the “Factors” are composed of Threats and Vulnerabilities. This process defines each as follows: Threat: The likelihood/probability of an assault taking place that could cause injury or death (passengers, employees, or the general public), or damage to critical assets. Vulnerability: The likelihood that an assault against an operator will be successful and/or the extent to which the potential target (e.g., operator) is susceptible or exposed to injury or dam- age from a particular type of assault. Vulnerability is determined by the effectiveness of existing controls for identified threats (e.g., physical security measures, procedures). The purpose of this section is to assess the likelihood of an assault to occur on a route based on the route factors. The previous section provided the background on why each route factor was chosen and some of the key components to consider with the route factor. This section breaks those considerations into probability. Each route factor has a separate rating system. Using this system, the factors will later be multiplied by weighting to define the risk to the route. Thus a 0.5 rating for a route factor with a weighting of 10 may become a risk score of 5. A 0.5 rating for a route factor with a weighting of 1 will become a risk score of 0.5. Route Rating × Rank Weighting = Risk Score Route Rating The “score” assigned to each Route Factor may be raised or lowered due to operation cir- cumstances that reduce or increase its effectiveness. For example, an operator may be aware of a “Known Threat” and countermeasures can be employed to thwart the attack from being successful such as deployment of plainclothes police or uniformed security. However, if the police or security are unavailable, a lower score may be given. The objective of the “Route Rating” is to identify those “Factors” that make an operator susceptible to a particular type of assault and what processes are in place to predict the occurrence, mitigate, and/or respond. The rating is determined by evaluating countermeasures and/or policies and procedures that are in place to deny accessibility to the operator, evaluating the likelihood an assault would occur before being detected if attempted, and evaluating the likelihood that a detected assault could be successfully interdicted. The Route Rating Scores include specific descriptions of the capabilities that are represented by each level of scoring. Capabilities include not just physical implementations but also opera- tion factors. Class ratings start at “0.5 Very Low,” which represents little to no capability in that area, to “1.0 Very High,” which represents a comprehensive and robust prevention system. Each higher-class rating indicates increasing levels of capability. Various considerations, intended to drive the rating thought process, were considered for each Route Factor. The Route Rating was developed based on previously determined susceptibility as noted in the route factor references/sources. For instance, in terms of population density; aggravated assaults occur more frequently in high density areas. If a route travels through a high-density area, the Operator will face increased probability of assault. Aggravated assaults of Operators Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

90 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: Research Overview are also more common in the Southern region of the United States than elsewhere in the United States. If an Operator is on a route in the South, she/he will face increased probability of assault. These sub-factors provide input into the likelihood of assault when measuring that route factor. An Operator traveling through a Southern high density area has a higher likelihood of assault than the same Operator traveling through a Southern low density area, Northern high density area, or Northern low density area. Accordingly, the probability is higher for more “yes” answers. Please note these route factors are not in weighted/ranked order. 1. Incident History and Escalation Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. a. Has an Operator been assaulted (verbal, simple, or aggravated) on the route? (Y/N) b. Has there been an aggravated assault of an operator or passenger on the route? (Y/N) c. Have there been any repeat crimes, e.g., criminal committed first crime, received sanc- tions, returned to commit or with intent to commit second crime? (Y/N) d. Are there minor incidents on the route (e.g., fare evasion, intoxicated passengers, youth related violence)? (Y/N) e. Did the Operator pass all background checks, without finding police reports or suspi- cious activity? (Y/N) f. Did the Operator receive training on conflict de-escalation? (Y/N) g. Have patrons or the Operator reported previous threats or threatening actions from on the route? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 0 Score of 1-2 Score of 3-4 Score of 5-6 Score of 7 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 2. Population Density Along the Route Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Does the route travel through an urban/high density area? (Y/N) 2. Is the route part of a large transit system? (Y/N) 3. Does the route travel through the Southern US? (Y/N) 4. Does the route travel through the West or Midwest? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 0 Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 3. Bars and Nightclubs Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Are there bars/nightclubs/pubs/taverns/similar liquor serving facilities along the route? (Y/N) a) If so, are the bars or other liquor serving establishments often crowded or known to be under-regulated? (Y/N) b) Does the route pass the bars/liquor serving establishments late at night or on week- ends? (Y/N) 2. Have any passengers boarded the route either intoxicated or otherwise unable to com- municate effectively/disoriented as if drunk or on drugs? (Y/N) Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 91 3. Are there known areas of prostitution, drug dealing, or violent entertainment along the route? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 0 or 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Score of 5 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 4. Vehicle Capacity and Ridership Rates Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. a) Are there enough vehicles on the route for the demand of riders? (Y/N) b) Are there times when the bus is full and passes a stop on the route? (Y/N) c) Have any passengers or Operators complained about a bus over capacity/under hazard- ous conditions due to the number of passengers on board? (Y/N) d) Have the boarding and alighting of passengers caused schedule delays? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 0 Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 5. Venues Along the Route Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Is there an organized event venue along the route (e.g., sport stadium or concert hall)? (Y/N) a. Does the venue serve alcohol? (Y/N) b. Does the venue ever get overcrowded? (Y/N) c. Are there events of an adversarial nature (e.g., sporting events)? (Y/N) d. Does the venue allow for large numbers of people to congregate in/outside the facil- ity? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Score of 5 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 6. Proximity to Crime Hot Spots Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Does the route travel through a high crime area? (Y/N) 2. Does the route travel through two or more high crime areas? (Y/N) 3. Is there a known cluster of criminal incidents along the route? (Y/N) 4. Is there a station or stop on the route known for high levels of crime/criminal activity nearby? (Y/N) 5. Are there two or more stations/stops with criminal activity nearby? Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Score of 5 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

92 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: Research Overview 7. Temporal Effects on Assault Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Does the route provide service in the early morning (pre-commuter traffic) when the bars have closed? (Y/N) 2. Does the route provide service in the late evening (post-commuter traffic)? (Y/N) 3. Does the route provide service in the afternoon (after schools let out)? (Y/N) 4. Does the route provide service during the commuter evening rush? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 0 Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 8. Juvenile Crime Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Does the route pass by a school in the afternoon? (Y/N) 2. Has the route experienced vandalism such as: a. Broken windows? (Y/N) b. Ripped seats? (Y/N) c. Graffiti? (Y/N) d. Or individuals throwing stones at the moving vehicle? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Score of 5 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 9. Gang Activity Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Does the route travel through an area with gang activity? (Y/N) a. If so, has a gang member attacked an innocent bystander along the route? (Y/N) 2. Does the route travel through more than one area with gang activity? (Y/N) 3. Do known gang members use this route for travel? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 0 Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 10. Prostitution and Vice Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Does the route travel through an area with prostitution activity? (Y/N) a. If so, has an individual associated with the prostitution activities attacked an innocent bystander along the route? (Y/N) 2. Is there a stop or transit center known to have prostitution activity? (Y/N) 3. Does the route travel through more than one area with prostitution activity? (Y/N) 4. Do known individuals associated with prostitution activities use this route for travel? (Y/N) Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 93 Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Score of 5 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 11. Drug Trade Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Does the route travel through an area with drug trafficking? (Y/N) a. If so, has an individual associated with drug trafficking caused an act of violence along the route? (Y/N) 2. Does the route travel through more than one area with drug trafficking? (Y/N) 3. Do known drug traffickers use this route for travel? (Y/N) 4. Have any passengers or Operators found drugs or drug paraphernalia on the bus or at a station on the route? Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Score of 5 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 12. Known Threats Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Has there been a threat to the route, bus, or Operator? (Y/N) 2. Has anyone reported a suspicious or unattended package on the route/ bus? (Y/N) 3. Has any intelligence/crime focused agency shared a warning about a possible threat to the route, bus, or Operator? (Y/N) 4. Has an Operator on the route received a threat? (Y/N) a. If so, was the threat about harm to the bus or Operator? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Score of 5 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 13. Vehicle Security Countermeasures Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “no” answers receive one point. 1. Does the bus on the route have a physical barrier between the Operator and passengers? (Y/N) 2. Does the bus on the route have a left side door for the Operator? (Y/N) 3. Does the bus on the route have security cameras for the interior of the bus? (Y/N) 4. Does the bus on the route have a silent alarm by the Operator’s seat? (Y/N) 5. Does the Operator have a radio with an alarm button? (Y/N) 6. Does the bus have a button that the Operator can press to change the external signs to request help? (Y/N) 7. Is the bus well lit? (Y/N) 8. Are the route stops well lit? (Y/N) Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

94 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: Research Overview 9. Does the bus on the route have a global positioning system (GPS) connected to law enforcement GPS trackers? (Y/N) 10. Does the bus on the route have a cashless fare collection system? (Y/N) 11. Does the bus on the route have an assigned law enforcement officer and/or regular security checks and stops? (Y/N) 12. Is the Operator given any additional mechanisms to request assistance/defend him/ herself? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “no” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. No Scoring Score of 0-2 Score of 3-5 Score of 6-8 Score of 9-11 Score of 12 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 Operator Operation Security Countermeasures Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “no” answers receive one point. 1. Does the Operator have vehicle inspection training? (Y/N) 2. Does the Operator have defensive driving training? (Y/N) 3. Is the Operator instructed not to provide fare enforcement? (Y/N) 4. Does the Operator have transit agency specific training/SOPs training? (Y/N) 5. Does the Operator have customer assistance training? (Y/N) 6. Does the Operator have emergency/crisis management training? (Y/N) 7. Does the Operator have self-defense training? (Y/N) 8. Does the Operator have stress reduction training? (Y/N) 9. Does the Operator have conflict de-escalation training? (Y/N) 10. Does the Operator have anger management training? (Y/N) 11. Does the Operator have cooperative language training? (Y/N) 12. Does the Operator have verbal judo training? (Y/N) 13. Does the Operator have listening tactics training? (Y/N) 14. Does the Operator have problem-solving training? (Y/N) 15 Does the Operator have assertive limit training? (Y/N) 16. Does the Operator have countering nonverbal intimidation training? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “no” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. No Scoring Score of 1-3 Score of 4-6 Score of 7-9 Score of 10-12 Score of 13+ Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 14. On-Time Performance Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Within the past 6 months, have there been route cut backs to bus frequency on this route? (Y/N) 2. Within the past 6 months, have there been any routes eliminated that are near or connect with this route? (Y/N) 3. Have passengers reported service problems/delays for the buses on this route? (Y/N) 4. Have Operators reported service problems/delays for the buses on this route? (Y/N) 5. Have Maintenance workers and/or Dispatchers reported service problems/delays for the buses on this route? (Y/N) 6. Are the buses on this route frequently more than 10 minutes late? (Y/N) Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 95 7. Do passengers complain about not knowing when the bus will arrive on this route? (Y/N) 8. If the transit agency communicates delays and route changes to passengers, is that infor- mation shared less than 30 minutes ahead of time? (Y/N) 9. Do passengers complain about where the bus stops are/the environment where the pas- sengers wait for the bus? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 1-2 Score of 3-4 Score of 5-6 Score of 7-8 Score of 9 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 15. State of Good Repair Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Has there been a maintenance-related delay on this route within the past 6 months? (Y/N) 2. Do the buses regularly go slower than planned/provide noisy or fume filled trips for pas- sengers on this route? (Y/N) 3. Are the buses on this route on time for preventative maintenance inspections and follow up actions? (Y/N) 4. Are the buses on this route behind schedule for replacements and overhauls? (Y/N) 5. Are the buses on this route behind schedule for capital replacements and renewals? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Score of 5 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 16. Incident Reporting Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Do Operators on this route report accidents/injuries/near misses/other applicable inci- dents to the appropriate supervisor/designated employee within the transit agency? (Y/N) 2. Do Operators on this route report assaults/rapes/other applicable incidents to the appro- priate supervisor/designated employee within the transit agency? (Y/N) 3. Do Operators on this route report property damage/arson/vandalism/robbery/larceny/ theft incidents to the appropriate supervisor/designated employee within the transit agency? (Y/N) 4. Do Operators on this route report difficulties with passengers that result in damage to people and/or property (e.g., passenger actions such as throwing objects, etc.)? (Y/N) 5. Do Operators on this route report verbal disputes, threats, passenger falls with/without injuries, and other non-traditional reporting requirements to the appropriate supervisor/ designated employee within the transit agency? (Y/N) 6. Do the Operators and/or passengers on this route report or have a procedure to report suspicious packages, bomb threats, bombs? (Y/N) 7. Do the Operators and/or passengers on this route report or have a procedure to report delay causing equipment failures? (Y/N) 8. Are there standard operating procedures for reporting Operator assaults on this route? (Y/N) a. If so, are there specific safety performance measures? (Y/N) Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

96 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: Research Overview 9. Has the safety department created corrective actions for any concerns along the route (e.g., threats, accidents, etc.)? (Y/N) 10. Does the agency compare the Operator and passenger reported incidents with the local police department? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 0 Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 17. Fare Structure and Disputes Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Do individuals evade fares on this route? (Y/N) 2. If so, do they do so successfully (e.g., not kicked off/no transit police involvement)? (Y/N) 3. Do passengers on this route attempt using invalid or expired passes? (Y/N) 4. Do passengers on this route request special fares without valid identification for special fares? (Y/N) 5. Are Operators on this route responsible for providing transfers? (Y/N) 6. Do passengers on this route provide questionable fare media and/or have questions about the fare media? (Y/N) 7. Do Operators handle cash in the fare transactions on this route? (Y/N) 8. Has the cost of fare media on this route changed within the past 6 months? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 0-1 Score of 2-3 Score of 4-5 Score of 6-7 Score of 8 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 18. Workplace Violence Policy and Procedure Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Has an Operator reported violence or the threat of violence from a coworker on this route? (Y/N) 2. Do Operators drive this route during the late night or early morning hours? (Y/N) 3. Do Operators drive this route without a coworker on board? (Y/N) 4. Do Operators drive this route through high crime area? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 0 Score of 1 Score of 2 Score of 3 Score of 4 Narrative Rating Very Low/Unlikely Low Medium High Very High/Very Likely Numerical Rating 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 19. Security Personnel Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Are there uniformed security/police personnel patrolling the bus stops on this route? (Y/N) 2. Are there uniformed security/police personnel riding the buses on this route? (Y/N) 3. Are there uniformed security/police personnel conducting searches and inspections at any point on this route? (Y/N) 4. If yes to any of the above, are the uniformed personnel armed? (Y/N) Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Transit Agency Operator Assault Route Factors 97 5. Are there plainclothes uniformed security/police personnel patrolling the bus stops on this route? (Y/N) 6. Are there plainclothes security/police personnel riding the buses on this route? (Y/N) 7. Are there plainclothes security/police personnel conducting searches and inspections at any point on this route? (Y/N) 8. If yes to any of the above, are the plainclothes personnel armed? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 0-1 Score of 2-3 Score of 4-5 Score of 6-7 Score of 8 Narrative Rating Very High/Very Likely High Medium Low Very Low/Unlikely Numerical Rating -0.1 -0.25 -0.5 -0.75 -1.0 20. Passenger Security Inspections Please respond to each question with a yes or no. All “yes” answers receive one point. 1. Do security/police personnel conduct manual inspections of passengers/passenger goods on this route? (Y/N) 2. Do security/police personnel conduct visual inspections of passengers/passenger goods on this route? (Y/N) 3. Do security/police personnel conduct technology-based inspections of passengers/ passenger goods on this route? (Y/N) 4. Do security/police personnel conduct canine inspections of passengers/passenger goods on this route? (Y/N) 5. Do security/police personnel conduct behavioral inspections of passengers/passenger goods on this route? (Y/N) 6. If yes to number 5, are the inspections done at random intervals (e.g., not a set time every day)? (Y/N) 7. If yes to number 5, are the inspections done at random locations? (Y/N) Please tally the number of “yes” answers, then use the table below to identify the route factor rating. Yes Scoring Score of 0-1 Score of 2-3 Score of 4-5 Score of 6-7 Score of 8 Narrative Rating Very High/Very Likely High Medium Low Very Low/ Unlikely Numerical Rating -0.1 -0.25 -0.5 -0.75 -1.0 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Next: Appendix C Weighted Countermeasure Scores »
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TRB's Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Research Report 193: Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 1: Research Overview provides the materials and methodology used to produce potential countermeasures and strategies to prevent or mitigate assaults against transit operators.

Transit industry policies, practices, and operating procedures related to preventing, mitigating, and responding to operator assaults are not uniform. The policies and procedures set by the transit agency and situational and design factors can shape mitigation approaches. The format, scale, and implementation of these measures vary greatly among transit agencies. Many agencies have written policies that address workplace violence prevention, but they vary widely in content, scope, and application. Relevant skills and training required by transit operators to address this issue vary as well.

Volume 1 documents the materials used to develop TCRP Research Report 193: Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide. The User Guide includes an operator assault risk management toolbox developed to support transit agencies in their efforts to prevent, mitigate, and respond to assaults against operators. The User Guide also provides transit agencies with guidance in the use and deployment of the vulnerability self-assessment tool and the route-based risk calculator and includes supportive checklists, guidelines, and methodologies.

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