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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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3
Results

LITERATURE SEARCH RESULTS

The objective of this evidence scan was to assess the status of evidence on the nutrient content of human milk and on the volume of milk, both of which are needed to understand nutrient consumption by healthy breastfed infants. The results of the scan are intended to be used to update the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference (USDA SR Database) and support future comprehensive systematic reviews to update specific Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) nutrients relevant to the nutrient requirements of infants from birth through 12 months of age in the United States and Canada. This approach took the following five key steps:

  1. Develop an analytic framework on the basis of appropriate markers of adequate intake of both nutrients and milk volume.
  2. Consult subject-matter experts on nutrients needed to support normal growth and development of infants.
  3. Use an analytic framework to develop and carry out a literature scan with relevant key words.
  4. Review abstracts and publications for relevance relative to prespecified criteria.
  5. Reach a consensus on the relevance of the evidence to updating the USDA SR Database and supporting the DRI process.

The results from the evidence scan are presented in Figure 3-1. The December 2019 searches produced 15,152 records on nutrient composition and 14,807 records on milk volume. The January 2020 searches produced 8,113 articles on nutrient composition and 4,690 articles on milk volume. Combined, the two search sets retrieved 42,762 articles on nutrient composition and milk volume. After removing 8,978 duplicate records from the December search and 2,268 duplicate records from the January search, there remained 31,516 unique citations. During title and abstract screening, 30,236 records were excluded, leaving 1,190 for full-text screening. The committee excluded 792 records during the first round of full-text screening and 272 during the second round (see Chapter 4 for a discussion of exclusion reasons). The final number of reports remaining for inclusion was 126.

Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Image
FIGURE 3-1 Evidence-scan flow diagram.
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×

In the process of review and abstraction of the identified studies the committee found no eligible studies on fluoride, vitamin B12, or niacin, and no eligible studies on total carbohydrate (although there were studies on lactose). Additionally, only one to two studies were found for biotin, molybdenum, pantothenic acid, riboflavin, thiamin, and vitamins C, D, and K. This is a result of both the small number of participants studied in any category of infant age as well as the need to use newer methods to analyze milk composition for DRI nutrients. Figure 3-2 compares the number of studies identified by nutrient, and Figure 3-3 shows the number of dyads for each nutrient in the combined results.

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FIGURE 3-2 Total number of studies per nutrient or volume reported.
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Image
FIGURE 3-3 Total number of dyads per nutrient or volume reported.

Included Studies

Using a Web-based spreadsheet (Google) (see Appendix E), the committee evaluated each of the 398 potentially relevant articles in its entirety. From the initial list, 94 articles relevant to the nutrient content in human milk, 24 relevant to milk volume, and 8 articles relevant to both nutrient content and milk volume combined were determined to be relevant to the committee’s criteria. A description of the selected articles is provided in Tables 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3. The committee notes that only three articles in the latter two tables met the committee’s general inclusion criteria and also contained data on the milk volumes produced by mothers of infants 6 to 12 months old. These mothers were not exclusively breastfeeding and, thus, these data did not meet the specific inclusion criteria, which required this behavior (see Notes to Tables 3-2 and 3-3). In response to the committee’s task, these tables represent the sum of the committee’s evidence-scan results.

Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×

TABLE 3-1 Assessment of Included Studies of Nutrient Composition in Human Milk on the Basis of Prespecified Criteria (Data Include Infants Who May or May Not Have Been Exclusively Breastfed)

Study Authors, Year Study Type Study Populationa Nutrient(s) Nutrient Analysis Methodology Outcome (mean ± SD)b Additional Comments
Denic et al., 2019 Prospective cohort 43 Serbian dyads, 0–1 mo pp Vitamin A HPLC Women age ≥ 35 years This article reported additional nutrients (total lipids) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
0.48 ± 0.08 μg/mL (1 mo pp)
 
Women age < 35 years
0.46 ± 0.11 μg/mL (1 mo pp)
Minato et al., 2019 Prospective cohort Japanese dyads, 82 at 1 mo pp, 48 at 3 mo pp Calcium Multitype emission spectrometer 29.8 (26.7, 33.3) mg/dL (1 mo pp) This article reported additional nutrients (total lipids, total proteins, total carbohydrates) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
28.7 (25.9, 31.9) mg/dL (3 mo pp)
Phosphorus Multitype emission spectrometer 16.6 (14.6, 18.3) mg/dL (1 mo pp) Values are expressed as: median (25%, 75%)
13.4 (11.6, 14.4) mg/dL (3 mo pp)
Wong et al., 2019 Cross-sectional 49 Chinese dyads, 2–12 mo pp Fatty acids Solvent extraction – GC 2–6 mo pp (%wt/wt of all fatty acids)
17.89 ± 4.09 (linoleic acid)
2.20 ± 1.02 (α-linolenic acid)
0.36 ± 0.31 (EPA)
0.86 ± 0.66 (DHA)
7–12 mo pp (%wt/wt of all fatty acids)
16.83 ± 3.63 (linoleic acid)
2.01 ± 0.66 (α-linolenic acid)
0.26 ± 0.28 (EPA)
0.91 ± 0.88 (DHA)
Total lipid Solvent 39.13 ± 14.69 g/L (2–6 mo pp)
extraction – GC 36.76 ± 9.76 g/L (7–12 mo pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Butts et al., 2018 Cross-sectional 78 New Zealand mothers of Asian, Māori, Pacific Island, or European ethnicity, 6–8 wk pp Calcium ICP-MS 27.5 ± 1.3 mg/100 g (Asian)

Sample included women classified as overweight and obese (BMI range 20–39)

Values are expressed as: mean ± standard error

This article reported additional nutrients (selenium, zinc, fatty acids, total lipid, total protein, carbohydrate) that did not meet the inclusion criteria

29.1 ± 1.0 mg/100 g (Māori and Pacific Island)
30.9 ± 0.7 mg/100 g (New Zealand European)
Magnesium ICP-MS 3.08 ± 0.08 mg/100 g (Asian)
3.01 ± 0.11 mg/100 g (Māori and Pacific Island)
10.19 ± 6.20 mg/100 g (New Zealand European)
Taravati Javad et al., 2018 Cross-sectional 100 Iranian dyads, 1–12 mo pp Zinc ICP-MS 1.38 ± 1.1 μg/mL
Copper ICP-MS 0.35 ± 0.1 μg/mL
Magnesium ICP-MS 34.58 ± 9.5 μg/mL
Iron ICP-MS 0.75 ± 1.4 μg/mL
Calcium ICP-MS 255 ± 68.8 μg/mL
Sodium ICP-MS 155.72 ± 111.5 μg/mL
Wang et al., 2018 Prospective cohort 106 Chinese dyads, 0–12 wk pp Iodine ICP-MS 221.7 ± 103.5 μg/L (4 wk pp)
175.2 ± 76.2 μg/L (8 wk pp)
148.1 ± 66.2 μg/L (12 wk pp)
Wiedeman et al., 2018 Cross-sectional 301 Canadian dyads, 8 wk pp Choline LC-MS/MS 1106 (1071, 1140) μmol/L (water-soluble choline) Values are expressed as: mean (95% CI)
(water-soluble choline = sum of free choline, phosphocholine, and glycerophosphocholine)
Dold et al., 2017 Cross-sectional 386 Chinese dyads, 109 Croatian dyads; 2–26 wk pp Iodine MC-ICP-MS 132 (91, 182) μg/d (China) Values are expressed as: median (IQR)
97 (72, 146) μg/d (Croatia)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Doneray et al., 2017 Prospective cohort 37 Turkish dyads, measured at 8–12 d pp and 25–30 d pp Zinc AAS 8–12 d pp Milk samples were obtained before (foremilk) and after (hindmilk) a feeding period from the same women
641.1 ± 500.1 μg/dL (foremilk)
 
455.2 ± 215.1 μg/dL (hindmilk)
25–30 d pp
575.1 ± 275.1 μg/dL (foremilk)
336.1 ± 235.1 μg/dL (hindmilk)
Goran et al., 2017 Prospective cohort 25 dyads, 1–6 mo pp Lactose LC-MS/MS 7.8 ± 0.8 g/dL (1 mo pp)
7.5 ± 0.7 g/dL (6 mo pp)
Huynh et al., 2017b Cross-sectional 538 Australian dyads, 3 mo pp Iodine ICP-MS 127 (84–184) μg/L Values are expressed as: median (IQR)
Kim et al., 2017 Cross-sectional 165 South Korean mothers from 8 metropolitan cities, 1–11 mo pp Sodium ICP-OES 11.71 ± 6.02 mg/dL

Approximately half of the women were taking dietary supplements; data presented in this table are for nonsupplement users

This article reported additional nutrients (lactose, total protein, total fat, retinol, vitamin E, iron, zinc, copper, manganese) that did not meet the inclusion criteria

Potassium ICP-OES 38.58 ± 8.91 mg/dL
Calcium ICP-OES 27.24 ± 5.62 mg/dL
Phosphorus ICP-OES 13.44 ± 3.21 mg/dL
Magnesium ICP-OES 3.01 ± 0.63 mg/dL
Perrin et al., 2017 Prospective cohort 19 dyads, 11–12 mo pp Lactose HPLC 5.7 ± 0.7 g/dL (11 mo pp) This article reported additional nutrients (total lipid, total protein, iron, zinc) and milk volume that did not meet the inclusion criteria
6.0 ± 0.8 g/dL (12 mo pp)
 
Calcium ICP-OES 200 ± 29 μg/mL (11 mo pp)
200 ± 25 μg/mL (12 mo pp)
 
Sodium ICP-OES 70 ± 19 μg/mL (11 mo pp)
70 ± 24 μg/mL (12 mo pp)
 
Potassium ICP-OES 370 ± 51 μg/mL (11 mo pp)
380 ± 69 μg/mL (12 mo pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Sunaric et al., 2017 Cross-sectional 67 Serbian dyads, 0–10 mo pp Riboflavin HPLC 0.228 ± 0.035 μg/mL (8–14 d pp) This article reported additional nutrients (total fat, total protein, vitamin E, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
0.453 ± 0.05 μg/mL (15–300 d pp)
 
Thiamin HPLC 0.094 ± 0.012 μg/mL (8–14 d pp)
0.248 ± 0.05 μg/mL (15–300 d pp)
 
Vitamin C HPLC 22.6 ± 3.7 μg/mL (8–14 d pp)
35.4 ± 5.2 μg/mL (15–300 d pp)
Xue et al., 2017 Cross-sectional 509 Chinese dyads, 0–240 d pp Vitamin E Ultra HPLC 239 (145–396) μg/mL (12–30 d pp)
206 (126–345) μg/mL (31–60 d pp)
212 (112–300) μg/mL (61–120 d pp)
211 (135–326) μg/mL (121–240 d pp)
Martysiak-Zurowska et al., 2016 Cross-sectional 16 Polish dyads, 15–90 d pp Vitamin C HPLC 43.4 ± 17.1 mg/L (15 d pp)
56.3 ± 12.9 mg/L (30 d pp)
55.2 ± 15.7 mg/L (90 d pp)
Panagos et al., 2016 Case-control 21 dyads, 4–10 wk pp Vitamin A HPLC 4.6 ± 1.7 μg/dL Study also reported data for obese women
 
Vitamin E HPLC 378 ± 171.7 μg/dL This article reported additional nutrients (total fat, total protein, lactose, vitamin B12) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
 
Vitamin D Extraction by radioimmunoassay procedure 1.3 ± 0.6 ng/mL
 
Folate L. casei microbial assay 46.4 ± 42.2 ng/mL
 
Fatty acids Modified Folch method 16.6 ± 3.4 mol% (linoleic acid)
1.7 ± 0.6 mol% (α-linolenic acid)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
0.8 ± 0.04 mol% (EPA)
0.3 ± 0.1 mol% (DHA)
 
Dumrongwongsiri et al., 2015 Cross-sectional 34 Thai dyads, 4–6 mo pp Zinc ICP-MS 1.57 (0.5, 3.2) mg/L Values are expressed as: median (min, max)
Mahdavi et al., 2015 RCT 27 Iranian dyads, 90–120 d pp Zinc Flame AAS 2.34 ± 0.79 mg/L
(preintervention)
Study also reports values for women who received synbiotic supplements
1.74 ± 0.79 mg/L
(postintervention)
 
Copper Flame AAS 0.39 ± 0.23 mg/L
(preintervention)
Values are expressed as: mean ± SEM
0.23 ± 0.27 mg/L
(postintervention)
 
Iron Flame AAS 0.36 ± 0.28 mg/L
(preintervention)
0.18 ± 0.20 mg/L
(postintervention)
 
Magnesium Flame AAS 16.92 ± 0.75 mg/L
(preintervention)
16.22 ± 0.71 mg/L
(postintervention)
 
Calcium Flame AAS 195 ± 17.4 mg/L
(preintervention)
174.9 ± 16.6 mg/L
(postintervention)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Matos et al., 2014 Prospective cohort 31 Portuguese dyads, 1–16 wk pp Chromium ICP-MS 49.74 ± 20.98 μg/kg (4 wk pp)
37.93 ± 13.66 μg/kg (8 wk pp)
35.11 ± 15.55 μg/kg (12 wk pp)
34.94 ± 9.55 μg/kg (16 wk pp)
 
Molybdenu m ICP-MS 3.06 ± 3.73 μg/kg (4 wk pp)
2.69 ± 2.52 μg/kg (8 wk pp)
3.87 ± 3.00 μg/kg (12 wk pp)
3.30 ± 2.64 μg/kg (16 wk pp)
 
Ozarda et al., 2014 Prospective cohort 53 Turkish dyads, 1–180 d pp Choline HPLC-EC Total choline Values are expressed as: median (IQR)
1532 (1250–1695) μmol/L (22–180 d pp)
 
Stimming et al., 2014 Cross-sectional 118 dyads, 8 wk pp Vitamin E HPLC 569.3 ± 322.3 μg/100 mL (α-tocopherol) This article reported additional nutrients (fatty acids) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
640.0 ± 354.3 μg/100 mL (total vitamin E)
 
Zhao et al., 2014 Cross-sectional 444 Chinese dyads Sodium ICP-MS 25.9 ± 26.2 mg/100 g (12–30 d pp) This article reported additional nutrients (copper, iodine, iron, zinc, selenium) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
14.3 ± 6.8 mg/100 g (31–60 d pp)
13.3 ± 6.9 mg/100 g (61–120 d pp)
12.1 ± 9.3 mg/100 g (121–240 d pp)
 
Calcium ICP-MS 293.6 ± 46.7 mg/kg (12–30 d pp)
309.6 ± 43.1 mg/kg (31–60 d pp)
287.4 ± 40.0 mg/kg (61–120 d pp)
267.4 ± 43.8 mg/kg (121–240 d pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Phosphorus ICP-MS 148.0 ± 25.0 mg/kg (12–30 d pp)
136.4 ± 19.3 mg/kg (31–60 d pp)
118.0 ± 11.4 mg/kg (61–120 d pp)
113.4 ± 19.3 mg/kg (121–240 d pp)
 
Potassium ICP-MS 601.3 ± 79.6 mg/kg (12–30 d pp)
537.6 ± 63.5 mg/kg (31–60 d pp)
489.1 ± 61.4 mg/kg (61–120 d pp)
459.1 ± 48.3 mg/kg (121–240 d pp)
 
Magnesium ICP-MS 33.1 ± 5.6 mg/kg (12–30 d pp)
32.8 ± 5.1 mg/kg (31–60 d pp)
35.8 ± 3.9 mg/kg (61–120 d pp)
35.9 ± 6.6 mg/kg (121–240 d pp)
Jozwik et al., 2013 Prospective cohort 13 Polish and American dyads, 1–10 d pp Lactose HPLC 171.2 ± 6.1 mmol (d 8 pp) Data are reported as: mean ± SEM
169.2 ± 6.6 mmol (d 9 pp)
170.1 ± 4.8 mmol (d 10 pp)
Martysiak-Zurowska et al., 2013 Cross-sectional 48 lactating Polish dyads Vitamin E NP-HPLC with UV detection 4.59 ± 0.93 TE mg/L (d 14 pp)

Some women were taking vitamin supplements at time of sampling; milk vitamin E concentrations did not differ significantly between supplement users and nonusers (3.46 ± 1.36 versus 3.35 ± 1.25 TE mg/L)

No statement about the health of the mother or infant

3.00 ± 0.85 TE mg/L (d 30 pp)
2.13 ± 0.67 TE mg/L (d 90 pp)
 
Total lipid Solvent extraction – HPLC 3.23 ± 0.44% (d 14 pp)
3.68 ± 0.52% (d 30 pp)
3.87 ± 0.40% (d 90 pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Severi et al., 2013 Cross-sectional 123 Uruguayan dyads, 4 mo pp Zinc Flame AAS 1.20 (1.10–1.46) mg/L (4 mo pp) Values are expressed as: median (CI 95%)
Szlagatys-Sidorkiewicz et al., 2013 Cross-sectional 136 Polish dyads, 17–30 d pp Total lipid Solvent extraction – HRGC 3.0 ± 1.54 (per 100 g of milk) Also reported data for women who smoked
Fatty acids Solvent extraction – HRGC Weight % per 100 g fatty acids
10.00 ± 1.91 (linoleic acid)
1.17 ± 0.47 (α-linolenic acid)
0.07 ± 0.10 (EPA)
0.33 ± 0.10 (DHA)
Urzica et al., 2013 RCT Romanian dyads, 2–4 mo pp; 15 controls; 17 and 19 in two treatment groups Magnesium AAS Baseline
1.05 ± 0.10 mmol/L (control)
1.16 ± 0.11 mmol/L (group 1)
0.97 ± 0.16 mmol/L (group 2)
 
Postintervention
1.11 ± 0.015 mmol/L (control)
Yagi et al., 2013 Cross-sectional 20 Japanese dyads, 60–188 d pp Vitamin B6 HPLC 101 ± 0.32 μmol/L  
Qian et al., 2012 Cross-sectional 750 Chinese dyads, 42 d pp Zinc AAS 36.29 ± 7.72 μmol/L  
Szlagatys-Sidorkiewicz et al., 2012 Prospective cohort 49 Polish dyads, 3–32 d pp Vitamin A HPLC 84.70 (51.45–134.68) μg/L (d 30–32 pp)

Mother–infant dyads reported taking vitamin supplements; study authors reported no significant difference in mean breast milk concentrations between supplemented and nonsupplemented women

Values are expressed as: median (IQR)

Vitamin E HPLC 1.10 (0.74–3.94) mg/L (d 30–32 pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Fischer et al., 2010 Case-control 48 dyads, 45 d pp Choline Liquid chromatography -electrospray ionization isotope dilution mass spectrometry 83 ± 8 nmol/mL free choline Values are expressed as: mean ± SE
Mahdavi et al., 2010 Cross-sectional 182 Iranian dyads, 90–120 d pp Zinc AAS 1.93 ± 0.5 mg/L (urban)
1.77 ± 0.5 mg/L (rural)
1.85 ± 0.5 mg/L (total)
 
Iron AAS 0.81 ± 0.2 mg/L (urban
0.9 ± 0.3 mg/L (rural)
0.85 ± 0.2 mg/L (total)
 
Copper AAS 0.58 ± 0.4 mg/L (urban
0.49 ± 0.2 mg/L (rural)
0.53 ± 0.3 mg/L (total)
 
Qian et al., 2010 Cross-sectional 60 Chinese dyads, 8–10 d pp Calcium AAS 30 (27, 31) mg/dL (group 1) Groups 1–3 were urban populations; group 4 was a suburban population
29 (28, 30) mg/dL (group 2)
28 (27, 29) mg/dL (group 3)
27 (25, 28) mg/dL (group 4)
  This article reported additional nutrients (total lipid, total protein, lactose, iron, copper, zinc) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
Manganese AAS 1.9 (1.6, 2.1) mg/dL (group 1)
1.9 (1.7, 2.1) mg/dL (group 2)
1.8 (1.6, 2.1) mg/dL (group 3)
0.7 (0.5, 1.3) mg/dL (group 4)
 
Phosphorus AAS 17 (16, 18) mg/dL (group 1)  
16 (14, 17) mg/dL (group 2) Values are expressed as: median (IQR)
16 (15, 17) mg/dL (group 3)
13 (12, 14) mg/dL (group 4)
 
Potassium AAS 62 (53, 69) mg/dL (group 1)
61 (56, 68) mg/dL (group 2)
63 (59, 68) mg/dL (group 3)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
    47 (43, 48) mg/dL (group 4)  
 
Sodium AAS 30 (21, 36) mg/dL (group 1)
26 (18, 37) mg/dL (group 2)
24 (19, 30) mg/dL (group 3)
12 (9, 16) mg/dL (group 4)
Han et al., 2009 Prospective cohort 20 Korean dyads, 0–6 mo pp Folate Microbiological assay 365 ± 207 nmol/L (2 mo pp)
201 ± 86 nmol/L (6 mo pp)
Hannan et al., 2009 Prospective cohort 31 dyads (WIC participants), measured at 30–45 d pp and 75–90 d pp Zinc AAS 2.1 ± 1.4 mg/L (30–45 d pp) This article reported additional nutrients (selenium, iodine) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
2.0 ± 1.7 mg/L (75–90 d pp)
 
Iron AAS 0.5 ± 1.0 mg/L (30–45 d pp)
0.4 ± 0.3 mg/L (75–90 d pp)
Houghton et al., 2009 Randomized placebo controlled intervention 23 Canadian dyads, 1–16 wk pp Folate L. rhamnoses 193 ± 62 nmol/L (wk 4 pp)
207 ± 76 nmol/L (wk 8 pp)
183 ± 57 nmol/L (wk 16 pp)
Matos et al., 2009 Prospective cohort 31 Portuguese dyads, 1–16 wk pp Copper ICP-MS 379.6 ± 93.7 μg/kg (4 wk pp) The study authors note that results are expressed as µg/kg milk, which is roughly equivalent to µg/L milk
292.4 ± 77.0 μg/kg (8 wk pp)
259.5 ± 94.6 μg/kg (12 wk pp)
240.7 ± 98.0 μg/kg (16 wk pp)
 
Zinc ICP-MS 2160.6 ± 589.4 μg/kg (4 wk pp)
1491.4 ± 619.5 μg/kg (8 wk pp)
1084.2 ± 537.2 μg/kg (12 wk pp)
1014.1 ± 461.5 μg/kg (16 wk pp)
 
Manganese ICP-MS 3.65 ± 1.99 μg/kg (4 wk pp)
2.29 ± 1.13 μg/kg (8 wk pp)
2.86 ± 1.67 μg/kg (12 wk pp)
2.44 ± 1.49 μg/kg (16 wk pp)
 
Selenium ICP-MS 25.47 ± 7.10 μg/kg (4 wk pp)  
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
19.95 ± 6.76 μg/kg (8 wk pp)  
20.16 ± 5.38 μg/kg (12 wk pp)
19.49 ± 3.58 μg/kg (16 wk pp)
Zimmerman et al., 2009 Prospective cohort 48 Israeli dyads, 1–6 mo pp Lactose HPLC 192.2 ± 10.52 μmol/L (prefast) This article reported additional nutrients (protein, calcium, phosphorus) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
Sodium AAS 0.0138 ± 0.003 mmol/L (prefast)
Shehadeh et al., 2006 Cross-sectional 41 Israeli dyads, 3 mo pp Calcium AAS 25.8 ± 3.9 mg/dL This article reported additional nutrients (total fat, total protein, carbohydrates) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
Sodium AAS 16.2 ± 3.9 mEq/dL
Hunt et al., 2005 Prospective cohort 45 dyads, 1–4 mo pp Calcium ICAP-ES 281 ± 11.5 mg/L (1 mo pp) Values are expressed as: mean ± SEM
268 ± 11.5 mg/L (4 mo pp)
 
Magnesium ICAP-ES 28.6 ± 2.2 mg/L (1 mo pp) This article reported additional nutrients (boron) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
33.0 ± 2.2 mg/L (4 mo pp)
 
Zinc ICAP-ES 2.3 ± 0.26 mg/L (1 mo pp)
1.0 ± 0.26 mg/L (4 mo pp)
Ilcol et al., 2005 Cross-sectional 12 Turkish women, 0–180 d pp Choline Enzymatic radiochemical method 19.2 ± 0.9 μmol/L (12–28 d pp)
18.0 ± 0.6 μmol/L (75–90 d pp)
16.2 ± 0.7 μmol/L (165–180 d pp)
Meneses et al., 2005 Cross-sectional 49 Brazilian dyads, 30–120 d pp Vitamin A HPLC 1.4 ± 0.1 μmol/L Values are expressed as: mean ± SEM
Domellof et al., 2004 Cross-sectional 86 Swedish dyads, 9 mo pp Iron AAS 0.29 ± 0.21 mg/L
 
Zinc AAS 0.46 ± 0.26 mg/L
 
Copper AAS 0.12 ± 0.22 mg/L
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Schweigert et al., 2004 Prospective cohort 21 German dyads, 4–19 d pp Vitamin E HPLC 13.2 ± 5.1 μmol/L (d 19 pp)
Vitamin A HPLC 2.90 ± 1.12 μmol/L (d 19 pp)
Canfield et al., 2003 Cross-sectional 411 dyads from various countries; 1–12 mo pp Vitamin A HPLC 1.086 ± 0.055 μmol/L (Australia) Values are expressed as: mean ± SEM
1.188 ± 0.066 μmol/L (Canada)
1.242 ± 0.085 μmol/L (Chile)
1.043 ± 0.088 μmol/L (China)
1.230 ± 0.063 μmol/L (Japan)
1.321 ± 0.087 μmol/L (Mexico)
1.052 ± 0.050 μmol/L (United Kingdom)
1.227 ± 0.087 μmol/L (United States)
Carratu et al., 2003 Cross-sectional 195 Italian dyads, 1 mo pp Total protein Kjeldahl with correction for NPN by acid precipitation 12.6 ± 2.0 g/L This paper also reported milk volume, but methods did not meet the inclusion criteria
Gossage et al., 2002 Randomized, placebo controlled trial 21 dyads, 4–32 d pp Vitamin A HPLC 2079 ± 207 μmol/L (d 32 pp) Study reported no significant effect of B-carotene supplementation on milk retinol values; so placebo and supplement group values were combined
Kantola and Vartiainen, 2001 Cross-sectional 256 Finnish dyads, 4 wk pp Selenium ETA-AAS 16.4 ± 3.2 μg/L (1987) Two separate groups of women were measured at different times: 1987 and 1993–1995
18.9 ± 3.0 μg/L (1993–1995)
 
Copper ETA-AAS 0.52 ± 0.11 mg/L (1987)
0.43 ± 0.10 mg/L (1993–1995)
 
Zinc Flame AAS 3.0 ± 1.0 mg/L (1987)
1.4 ± 0.7 mg/L (1993–1995)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Silvestre et al., 2001 Prospective cohort 22 Spanish dyads, 0–90 d pp Copper Flame AAS 0.43 ± 0.07 mg/L (2nd wk pp)  
0.34 ± 0.07 mg/L (d 30 pp)
0.27 ± 0.07 mg/L (d 60 pp)
0.19 ± 0.10 mg/L (d 90 pp)
 
Iron Flame AAS 0.50 ± 0.19 mg/L (d 2 and 4 pp)  
0.39 ± 0.19 mg/L (d 30 pp)
0.43 ± 0.15 mg/L (d 60 pp)
0.40 ± 0.17 mg/L (d 90 pp)
 
Zinc Flame AAS 3.31 ± 1.06 mg/L (d 2 and 4 pp)  
2.41 ± 0.90 mg/L (d 30 pp)
1.40 ± 0.65 mg/L (d 60 pp)
1.05 ± 0.71 mg/L (d 90 pp)
Wasowicz et al., 2001 Cross-sectional 131 Polish dyads, 1–30 d pp Zinc ICP-AES 1.42 ± 0.7 mg/L (10–30 d pp) This article reported additional nutrients (selenium) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
Copper ICP-AES 0.27 ± 0.9 mg/L (10–30 d pp)
Bocca et al., 2000 Cross-sectional 60 Italian dyads, 1 mo pp Calcium UN-ICP-AES 307 ± 11.8 μg/mL
Copper UN-ICP-AES 0.37 ± 0.03 μg/mL
Iron UN-ICP-AES 0.65 ± 0.04 μg/mL
Magnesium UN-ICP-AES 23.0 ± 0.51 μg/mL
Manganese UN-ICP-AES 0.03 ± 0.002 μg/mL
Zinc UN-ICP-AES 2.72 ± 0.07 μg/mL
Mataloun and Leone, 2000 Prospective case-control 41 Brazilian dyads, 3–30 d pp Calcium AAS 9.58 ± 2.01 mmol/L (15 d pp)
10.26 ± 1.83 mmol/L (30 d pp)
 
Phosphorus Colorimetric method 4.03 ± 1.00 (15 d pp)
Li et al., 1999 Prospective cohort 38 Austrian dyads, 0–10 mo pp Selenium AAS 12.2 ± 2.4 μg/L (15–60 d pp)  
Mackey and Picciano, 1999 Randomized, double-blind, longitudinal 21 dyads, 3–6 mo pp Folate L. casei 224.4 ± 11.6 nmol/L (3 mo pp) This article reported milk volume that did not meet the inclusion criteria
187.0 ± 11.9 nmol/L (6 mo pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
  supplementation trial          
Tamari and Kim, 1999 Prospective cohort 51 Korean dyads, 0–90 d pp Selenium AAS 13.1 ± 5.8 μg/kg (15–90 d pp)  
Fly et al., 1998 Case-control 14 dyads, 2–8 mo pp Calcium ICP-AES 7.77 ± 0.30 mmol/L (d of rest period) Values are for baseline mineral concentrations for each treatment day
7.95 ± 0.31 mmol/L (d of exercise test)
 

Values are expressed as: mean ± SE

This article reported additional nutrients (phosphorus) that did not meet the inclusion criteria

Magnesium ICP-AES 1.52 ± 0.072 mmol/L (d of rest period)
1.54 ± 0.068 mmol/L (d of exercise test)
 
Sodium ICP-AES 5.00 ± 0.48 mmol/L (d of rest period)
4.73 ± 0.22 mmol/L (d of exercise test)
 
Potassium ICP-AES 11.79 ± 0.62 mmol/L (d of rest period)
11.42 ± 0.40 mmol/L (d of exercise test)
Lin et al., 1998 Prospective cohort 211 Taiwanese dyads, 0–12 mo pp Calcium ICP-AES 264 ± 12 μg/mL (11–30 d pp) This article reported additional nutrients (iron) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
224 ± 9 μg/mL (1–3 mo pp)
225 ± 13 μg/mL (3–6 mo pp)
150 ± 26 μg/mL (6–12 mo pp)
 
Magnesium ICP-AES 24.7 ± 1.0 μg/mL (11–30 d pp) Values are expressed as: mean ± SE
26.3 ± 1.3 μg/mL (1–3 mo pp)
24.9 ± 2.0 μg/mL (3–6 mo pp)
18.4 ± 2.0 μg/mL (6–12 mo pp)
 
Copper ICP-AES 0.39 ± 0.02 μg/mL (11–30 d pp)
0.28 ± 0.02 μg/mL (1–3 mo pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
0.20 ± 0.02 μg/mL (3–6 mo pp)
0.09 ± 0.02 μg/mL (6–12 mo pp)
 
Zinc ICP-AES 2.23 ± 0.19 μg/mL (11–30 d pp)
1.41 ± 0.20 μg/mL (1–3 mo pp)
0.77 ± 0.13 μg/mL (3–6 mo pp)
0.55 ± 0.17 μg/mL (6–12 mo pp)
Rodriguez-Rodriguez et al., 1998 Cross-sectional 12 Canary Islander dyads, 2–6 mo pp Selenium Fluorometric 15.69 ± 4.07 μg/L  
Greer et al., 1997 Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial 11 dyads, 0–12 wk pp Vitamin K HPLC-FLD 1.17 ± 0.70 ng/mL (2 wk pp)
1.14 ± 0.46 ng/mL (6 wk pp)
1.17 ± 0.40 ng/mL (12 wk pp)
Ortega et al., 1997 Prospective cohort 32 Spanish dyads, 13–40 d pp Zinc AAS 51.0 ± 9.2 μmol/L (13–14 d pp) Values are for women with zinc intakes ≥ 50% of recommended intakes
33.1 ± 8.0 μmol/L (40 d pp)
Wack et al., 1997 Prospective cohort 30 dyads, 0–360+ d pp Sodium ICAP-ES 129 ± 61 mg/L (61–120 d pp)  
136 ± 76 mg/L (121–180 d pp)
139 ± 142 mg/L (181–240 d pp)
124 ± 65 mg/L (241–300 d pp)
122 ± 123 mg/L (301–360 d pp)
 
Potassium ICAP-ES 490 ± 85 mg/L (61–120 d pp)
485 ± 66 mg/L (121–180 d pp)
473 ± 63 mg/L (181–240 d pp)
470 ± 72 mg/L (241–300 d pp)
445 ± 53 mg/L (301–360 d pp)
 
Lactose HPLC 70 ± 4 g/L (61–120 d pp)
70 ± 3 g/L (121–180 d pp)
71 ± 4 g/L (181–240 d pp)
70 ± 4 g/L (241–300 d pp)
71 ± 4 g/L (301–360 d pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Chloride Potentiometric method 402 ± 97 mg/L (61–120 d pp)
339 ± 161 mg/L (121–180 d pp)
460 ± 232 mg/L (181–240 d pp)
420 ± 133 mg/L (241–300 d pp)
384 ± 197 mg/L (301–360 d pp)
Huisman et al., 1996 Prospective cohort Dutch dyads, 99 measured at 14 and 42 d pp, 25 measured at 89 d pp Lactose Capillary gas chromatography 59.0 ± 3.5 g/L (d 14 pp) This article reported additional nutrients (fatty acids) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
60.9 ± 3.0 g/L (d 42 pp)
63.4 ± 3.4 g/L (d 89 pp)
Coppa et al., 1993 46 Italian dyads, 4–120 d pp Lactose HPLC 62.5 ± 5.74 g/L (d 10 pp) This article reported additional nutrients (total carbohydrates) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
64.1 ± 6.45 g/L (d 30 pp)
66.2 ± 6.88 g/L (d 60 pp)
66.3 ± 7.08 g/L (d 90 pp)
68.9 ± 8.16 g/L (d 120 pp)
Ohtake and Tamura, 1993 Prospective cohort 80 Japanese dyads, 2–201 d pp Zinc AAS 1.76 ± 0.90 μg/mL (15–84 d pp)
0.76 ± 0.25 μg/mL (85–201 d pp)
 
Copper AAS 0.29 ± 0.12 μg/mL (15–84 d pp)
0.19 ± 0.08 μg/mL (85–201 d pp)
Dagnelie et al., 1992 Case-control 10 Dutch dyads, 2–3 mo pp Calcium AAS 29.80 ± 3.87 mg/100 g This article reported additional nutrients (lactose, total protein, total lipid, vitamin B12) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
Magnesium AAS 3.58 ± 0.50 mg/100 g
Zinc AAS 0.19 ± 0.10 mg/100 g
Hirano et al., 1992 Prospective cohort 38 Japanese dyads, 0–24 d pp Biotin L. plantarum Free-form biotin
3.8 ± 1.2 ng/mL (15–24 d pp)
 
Total biotin
5.2 ± 2.1 ng/mL (15–24 d pp)
Canfield et al., 1991 Cross-sectional 45 dyads, 0–6 mo pp Vitamin K HPLC 6.98 ± 6.36 nmol/L (1 mo pp)
5.14 ± 4.52 nmol/L (3 mo pp)
5.76 ± 4.48 nmol/L (6 mo pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Nommsen et al., 1991 Prospective cohort 73 dyads, 0–12 mo pp Total lipid Modified Folch extraction 36.2 ± 7.0 g/L (3 mo pp) This article reported additional nutrients (total protein, lactose) and milk volume that did not meet the inclusion criteria
37.7 ± 9.6 g/L (6 mo pp)
38.1 ± 8.0 g/L (9 mo pp)
37.2 ± 11.3 g/L (12 mo pp)
Andon et al., 1989 Cross-sectional 30 healthy, lactating dyads, measured at 60 d pp Vitamin B6 Saccharomyces uvarum method 733 ± 195 nmol/L

Women were not consuming vitamin supplements

Foremilk samples

Casey et al., 1989 Prospective cohort 13 dyads, 0–18 mo pp Zinc Flame AAS 59.8 ± 14.3 μmol/L (d 14 pp)
54.9 ± 15.0 μmol/L (d 21 pp)
45.8 ± 12.2 μmol/L (d 28 pp)
42.2 ± 10.4 μmol/L (d 38 pp)
33.4 ± 9.8 μmol/L (d 49 pp)
27.4 ± 10.2 μmol/L (d 60 pp)
22.8 ± 8.6 μmol/L (d 90 pp)
19.6 ± 9.3 μmol/L (d 120 pp)
18.5 ± 7.9 μmol/L (d 150 pp)
16.8 ± 9.2 μmol/L (d 180 pp)
14.1 ± 7.0 μmol/L (d 210 pp)
11.4 ± 3.2 μmol/L (d 240 pp)
11.8 ± 6.0 μmol/L (d 270 pp)
8.1 ± 5.0 μmol/L (d 330 pp)
8.3 ± 4.6 μmol/L (d 360 pp)
 
Copper Graphite furnace AAS 7.6 ± 1.2 μmol/L (d 14 pp)
6.7 ± 1.3 μmol/L (d 21 pp)
6.1 ± 0.7 μmol/L (d 28 pp)
5.8 ± 1.0 μmol/L (d 35 pp)
5.1 ± 0.9 μmol/L (d 49 pp)
4.7 ± 0.7 μmol/L (d 60 pp)
4.2 ± 0.8 μmol/L (d 90 pp)
3.5 ± 1.0 μmol/L (d 120 pp)
3.5 ± 0.8 μmol/L (d 150 pp)
2.8 ± 0.9 μmol/L (d 180 pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
2.6 ± 1.0 μmol/L (d 210 pp)
3.0 ± 0.8 μmol/L (d 240 pp)
2.8 ± 0.9 μmol/L (d 270 pp)
2.4 ± 0.8 μmol/L (d 330 pp)
2.7 ± 1.7 μmol/L (d 360 pp)
 
Manganese Graphite furnace AAS 70 ± 48 nmol/L (d 14 pp)
64 ± 33 nmol/L (d 21 pp)
68 ± 25 nmol/L (d 28 pp)
60 ± 27 nmol/L (d 35 pp)
46 ± 13 nmol/L (d 49 pp)
36 ± 10 nmol/L (d 90 pp)
35 ± 11 nmol/L (d 120 pp)
41 ± 20 nmol/L (d 150 pp)
39 ± 14 nmol/L (d 180 pp)
40 ± 24 nmol/L (d 210 pp)
45 ± 16 nmol/L (d 240 pp)
Clark et al., 1989 Cross-sectional 25 milk samples from dyads 2–32 wk pp Total lipid Solvent extraction by modified Folch method 4.3 ± 1.6 g/dL

Study did not report the number of dyads

This article reported additional nutrients (fatty acids) that did not meet the inclusion criteria

Deelstra et al., 1988 Prospective cohort 10 Belgian dyads, 0–60 d pp Chromium AAS 0.14 ± 0.05 ng/mL (30–60 d pp)  
Ferris et al., 1988 Prospective cohort 12 dyads, 2–16 wk pp Total lipid Modified Folch extraction 3.98 ± 0.99 g/100 mL (2 wk pp) This article reported additional nutrients (total protein, lactose) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
4.41 ± 1.07 g/100 mL (6 wk pp)
4.87 ± 1.19 g/100 mL (12 wk pp)
5.50 ± 1.09 g/100 mL (16 wk pp)
Butte et al., 1987 Prospective cohort 45 dyads, 0–4 mo pp Calcium AAS 297 ± 37 μg/g (1 mo pp) This article reported additional nutrients
301 ± 35 μg/g (2 mo pp)
292 ± 35 μg/g (3 mo pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
    285 ± 31 μg/g (4 mo pp) (phosphorus) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
Magnesium AAS 27 ± 4 μg/g (1 mo pp)  
30 ± 5 μg/g (2 mo pp) This article also reported milk volume that was originally reported in Butte et al. (1984b)
32 ± 6 μg/g (3 mo pp)
34 ± 6 μg/g (4 mo pp)
 
Zinc AAS 2.3 ± 0.8 μg/g (1 mo pp)
1.5 ± 0.6 μg/g (2 mo pp)
1.1 ± 0.5 μg/g (3 mo pp)
1.0 ± 0.5 μg/g (4 mo pp)
 
Sodium AAS 135 ± 33 μg/g (1 mo pp)
106 ± 21 μg/g (2 mo pp)
107 ± 38 μg/g (3 mo pp)
100 ± 28 μg/g (4 mo pp)
 
Potassium AAS 466 ± 62 μg/g (1 mo pp)
451 ± 60 μg/g (2 mo pp)
437 ± 54 μg/g (3 mo pp)
416 ± 45 μg/g (4 mo pp)
 
Iron AAS 0.242 ± 0.111 μg/g (1 mo pp)
0.203 ± 0.083 μg/g (2 mo pp)
0.182 ± 0.077 μg/g (3 mo pp)
0.160 ± 0.069 μg/g (4 mo pp)
 
Copper AAS 0.363 ± 0.058 μg/g (1 mo pp)
0.318 ± 0.071 μg/g (2 mo pp)
0.281 ± 0.065 μg/g (3 mo pp)
0.268 ± 0.067 μg/g (4 mo pp)
 
Casey and Neville, 1987 Prospective cohort 13 dyads, 0–38 d pp Molybdenum Graphite furnace AAS 4.5 ± 2.9 ng/mL (d 14 pp)  
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Udipi et al., 1987 Prospective cohort 27 dyads, 2–52 wk pp Folate L. casei 0.5 mo pp 21 of the women were taking daily supplemental folic acid
37 ± 6 μg/L (0400–0600 hr)
25 ± 4 μg/L (0600–0800 hr)
67 ± 19 μg/L (1000–1200 hr)  
52 ± 21 μg/L (1200–1400 hr) This article reported milk volume that did not meet the inclusion criteria
48 ± 9 μg/L (1400–1600 hr)
34 ± 4 μg/L (1800–2000 hr)
45 ± 9 μg/L (2200–2400 hr)
  Values are expressed as: mean ± SE
1 mo pp
32 ± 6 μg/L (0400–0600 hr)
42 ± 6 μg/L (0600–0800 hr)
48 ± 6 μg/L (1000–1200 hr)
58 ± 11 μg/L (1200–1400 hr)
58 ± 7 μg/L (1400–1600 hr)
47 ± 12 μg/L (1800–2000 hr)
54 ± 5 μg/L (2200–2400 hr)
 
2 mo pp
22 ± 7 μg/L (0400–0600 hr)
44 ± 8 μg/L (0600–0800 hr)
65 ± 10 μg/L (1000–1200 hr)
88 ± 25 μg/L (1200–1400 hr)
76 ± 12 μg/L (1400–1600 hr)
64 ± 8 μg/L (1800–2000 hr)
84 ± 15 μg/L (2200–2400 hr)
 
3 mo pp
52 ± 11 μg/L (0400–0600 hr)
42 ± 10 μg/L (0600–0800 hr)
64 ± 12 μg/L (1000–1200 hr)
97 ± 16 μg/L (1200–1400 hr)
98 ± 32 μg/L (1400–1600 hr)
88 ± 17 μg/L (1800–2000 hr)
59 ± 1 μg/L (2200–2400 hr)
 
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
4 mo pp
22 ± 2 μg/L (0400–0600 hr)
47 ± 10 μg/L (0600–0800 hr)
82 ± 14 μg/L (1000–1200 hr)
73 ± 13 μg/L (1200–1400 hr)
101 ± 23 μg/L (1400–1600 hr)
90 ± 16 μg/L (1800–2000 hr)
49 ± 23 μg/L (2200–2400 hr)
 
5 mo pp
46 ± 16 μg/L (0400–0600 hr)
43 ± 6 μg/L (0600–0800 hr)
78 ± 16 μg/L (1000–1200 hr)
62 ± 11 μg/L (1200–1400 hr)
126 ± 28 μg/L (1400–1600 hr)
90 ± 12 μg/L (1800–2000 hr)
75 ± 16 μg/L (2200–2400 hr)
 
6 mo pp
51 ± 19 μg/L (0400–0600 hr)
55 ± 11 μg/L (0600–0800 hr)
103 ± 15 μg/L (1000–1200 hr)
107 ± 31 μg/L (1200–1400 hr)
92 ± 17 μg/L (1400–1600 hr)
88 ± 26 μg/L (1800–2000 hr)
39 ± 7 μg/L (2200–2400 hr)
 
8 mo pp
35 ± 9 μg/L (0400–0600 hr)
36 ± 6 μg/L (0600–0800 hr)
62 ± 13 μg/L (1000–1200 hr)
79 ± 22 μg/L (1200–1400 hr)
79 ± 37 μg/L (1800–2000 hr)
45 ± 9 μg/L (2200–2400 hr)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Morriss et al., 1986 Cross-sectional 52 dyads, 2–180 d pp Sodium Flame photometry 7.3 ± 0.5 mEq/L (d 14–21 pp)

This article reported additional nutrients (calcium, magnesium, lactose) that did not meet the inclusion criteria

Data are reported as: mean ± SE

4.8 ± 1.0 mEq/L (d 120–180 pp)
 
Potassium Flame photometry 17.1 ± 0.6 mEq/L (d 14–21 pp)
12.8 ± 0.5 mEq/L (d 120–180 pp)
 
Chloride Colorimetric-amperometric titration 11.8 ± 0.6 mEq/L (d 14–21 pp)
10.5 ± 1.0 mEq/L (d 120–180 pp)
 
Phosphorus Colorimetric method 5.6 ± 0.3 mEq/L (d 14–21 pp)
3.9 ± 0.2 mEq/L (d 120–180 pp)
Chappell et al., 1985 Prospective cohort 12 Canadian dyads, 1–5 wk pp Vitamin A HPLC 62 ± 3 μg/100 mL (37 d pp) This article reported additional nutrients (vitamin E) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
Krebs et al., 1985a Prospective cohort 16 dyads, 1–12 mo pp Zinc Flame AAS All mo pp
1.59 ± 1.17 μg/mL (foremilk)
1.60 ± 1.21 μg/mL (midmilk)
1.57 ± 1.30 μg/mL (hindmilk)
 
1st mo pp
3.02 ± 1.17 μg/mL (foremilk)
3.05 ± 1.22 μg/mL (midmilk)
2.92 ± 1.20 μg/mL (hindmilk)
 
2nd mo pp
1.85 ± 0.97 μg/mL (foremilk)
1.88 ± 0.99 μg/mL (midmilk)
1.81 ± 1.06 μg/mL (hindmilk)
Krebs et al., 1985b Case-control 39 dyads, 1–12 mo pp Zinc Flame AAS 2.65 ± 0.81 μg/mL (1 mo pp) Study also reports values for women who received dietary zinc supplements
0.67 ± 0.40 μg/mL (9 mo pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Morrison and Driskell, 1985 Cross-sectional 21 dyads, 3–7 mo pp Vitamin B6 HPLC with fluorometric detection 770 ± 341 pmol/mL
 
Vitamin B6 S. uvarum 955 ± 98 pmol/mL
Butte et al., 1984c Prospective cohort 13 dyads, 2–12 wk pp Sodium AAS 220.0 ± 77 mg/L (2 wk pp) This article reported additional nutrients (total lipid, total protein, phosphorus) and milk volume that did not meet the inclusion criteria
184.0 ± 54 mg/L (4 wk pp)
173.0 ± 65 mg/L (6 wk pp)
153.0 ± 47 mg/L (8 wk pp)
150.0 ± 49 mg/L (10 wk pp)
130.0 ± 41 mg/L (12 wk pp)
 
Calcium AAS 255.0 ± 53 mg/L (2 wk pp)
254.0 ± 52 mg/L (4 wk pp)
267.0 ± 24 mg/L (6 wk pp)
258.0 ± 22 mg/L (8 wk pp)
270.0 ± 25 mg/L (10 wk pp)
260.0 ± 26 mg/L (12 wk pp)
 
Magnesium AAS 33.0 ± 8 mg/L (2 wk pp)
31.0 ± 6 mg/L (4 wk pp)
35.0 ± 9 mg/L (6 wk pp)
36.0 ± 9 mg/L (8 wk pp)
38.0 ± 9 mg/L (10 wk pp)
39.0 ± 10 mg/L (12 wk pp)
 
Zinc AAS 3.4 ± 0.8 mg/L (2 wk pp)
2.9 ± 0.9 mg/L (4 wk pp)
2.1 ± 0.9 mg/L (6 wk pp)
1.9 ± 0.6 mg/L (8 wk pp)
1.8 ± 1.0 mg/L (10 wk pp)
1.4 ± 0.7 mg/L (12 wk pp)
Casey et al., 1984 Prospective cohort 45 dyads, 0–48 wk pp Chromium Graphite furnace AAS 0.28 ± 0.11 ng/mL (1–3 mo pp)
0.26 ± 0.12 mg/mL (4–6 mo pp)
0.46 ± 0.41 ng/mL (7+ mo pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Dewey et al., 1984 Prospective cohort 46 dyads, 7–11 mo pp Potassium Flame AAS 389 ± 41 μg/mL Values given are for women with full lactation (volume > 500 mg/d)
Sodium Flame AAS 84 ± 42 μg/mL
Copper Flame AAS 0.17 ± 0.05 μg/mL
Calcium Flame AAS 236 ± 29 μg/mL  
Magnesium Flame AAS 31.9 ± 4.8 μg/mL This article reported additional nutrients (lactose, total protein, total lipid) and milk volume that did not meet the inclusion criteria
Iron Flame AAS 0.18 ± 0.10 μg/mL
Zinc Flame AAS 0.42 ± 0.22 μg/mL
Song et al., 1984 Prospective cohort 26 dyads, 2–12 wk pp Pantothenic acid Radio-immunoassay 2.73 ± 0.61 μg/mL foremilk (2 wk pp)
2.40 ± 0.58 μg/mL hindmilk (2 wk pp)
2.54 ± 0.72 μg/mL foremilk (12 wk pp)
2.55 ± 0.73 μg/mL hindmilk (12 wk pp)
Feeley et al., 1983a Prospective cohort 102 dyads, 4–45 d pp Calcium ICAP-ES 25.0 ± 0.5 mg/100 g (10–14 d pp) Values are expressed as: mean ± SEM
26.2 ± 0.5 mg/100 g (30–45 d pp)
 
Phosphorus ICAP-ES 14.4 ± 0.3 mg/100 g (10–14 d pp)
13.3 ± 0.3 mg/100 g (30–45 d pp)
 
Magnesium ICAP-ES 4.9 ± 0.1 mg/100 g (10–14 d pp)
4.9 ± 0.1 mg/100 g (30–45 d pp)
Feeley et al., 1983b Prospective cohort 102 dyads, 4–45 d pp Copper ICAP-ES 93.9 ± 3.6 μg/100 g (10–14 d pp) All values are expressed as: mean ± SEM
84.7 ± 3.8 μg/100 g (30–45 d pp)
 
Iron ICAP-ES 85.4 ± 4.5 μg/100 g (10–14 d pp)
76.1 ± 3.8 μg/100 g (30–45 d pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Zinc ICAP-ES 0.41 ± 0.01 mg/100 g (10–14 d pp)
0.29 ± 0.01 mg/100 g (30–45 d pp)
Smith et al., 1983 Prospective cohort 11 dyads, 6–12 wk pp Folate L. casei 6 wk pp (ng/mL)
48.7 ± 17.4 morning/foremilk
69.8 ± 23.8 morning/hindmilk
60.6 ± 28.2 midday/foremilk
77.0 ± 24.0 midday/hindmilk
83.4 ± 37.7 evening/foremilk
100.3 ± 43.7 evening/hindmilk
 
12 wk pp (ng/mL)
44.4 ± 27.5 morning/foremilk
70.0 ± 37.1 morning/hindmilk
58.9 ± 34.3 midday/foremilk
98.2 ± 55.6 midday/hindmilk
103.7 ± 52.8 evening/foremilk
131.3 ± 44.2 evening/hindmilk
 
Greer et al., 1982 Prospective cohort 18 dyads, 3–26 wk pp Calcium AAS 25.9 ± 0.96 mg/dL (3 wk pp)

Values are expressed as: mean ± SE

This article reported additional nutrients (phosphorus) that did not meet the inclusion criteria

27.7 ± 0.86 mg/dL (6 wk pp)
24.8 ± 0.97 mg/dL (26 wk pp)
 
Magnesium AAS 14.7 ± 0.6 mg/dL (3 wk pp)
12.7 ± 0.4 mg/dL (6 wk pp)
10.7 ± 0.4 mg/dL (26 wk pp)
Keenan et al., 1992 Prospective cohort 28 dyads, 3.5–32 wk pp Sodium Flame photometry 7.9 ± 3.0 mEq/L (3.5–6 wk pp)
4.7 ± 2.0 mEq/L (8.5–18 wk pp)
5.4 ± 1.3 mEq/L (20–32 wk pp)
 
Potassium Flame photometry 15.2 ± 1.8 mEq/L (3.5–6 wk pp)
13.8 ± 1.3 mEq/L (8.5–18 wk pp)
13.3 ± 1.1 mEq/L (20–32 wk pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Koo and Gupta, 1982 Prospective cohort 45 Australian dyads, 0–28 d pp Sodium Flame photometry 9.8 ± 0.6 mmol/L (8–14 d pp) Values are expressed as: mean ± SEM
6.9 ± 0.2 mmol/L (15–28 d pp)
Ohtake et al., 1981 Prospective cohort 30 Japanese dyads, 1–3 mo pp Zinc AAS 3.80 ± 1.24 μg/mL (27–47 d pp)
 
Copper AAS 0.38 ± 0.08 μg/mL (27–47 d pp)
             
Tamura et al., 1980 Cross-sectional 25 Japanese dyads, 3–25 wk pp Folate L. casei 141.4 ± 47.9 ng/mL  

NOTES: A number of authors claimed that fatty acids do not change within a feed and used this as their rationale for not using a complete breast expression as their sample. However, the fatty acids are part of the lipid component of milk, which varies remarkably during a feed. If all you want to know is the proportion of fatty acids, something other than a full expression may suffice, but for estimating an infant’s needs, it is not acceptable. The amount of a fatty acid actually delivered is the key information needed. This is the product of the total lipid in the whole feed and the proportion of that lipid represented by the particular fatty acid.

AAS = atomic absorption spectrometry; B-carotene = beta-carotene; BMI = body mass index; CI = confidence interval; d = day; DHA = docosahexaenoic acid; dL = deciliter; EPA = eicosapentaenoic acid; ETA-AAS = electro thermal atomization-atomic absorption spectroscopy; g = gram; GC = gas chromatography; HPLC = high-performance liquid chromatography; HPLC-EC = high-performance liquid chromatography-electrochemical detection; HPLC-FLD = high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection; hr = hour; HRGC = high resolution gas chromatography; ICAP-ES = inductively coupled argon plasma emission spectrometry; ICP-AES = inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry; ICP-MS = inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry; ICP-OES = inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry; IQR = interquartile range; kg = kilogram; L = liter; LC-MS/MS = liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry; MC-ICP-MS = multicollector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry; mEq = milliequivalent; mg = milligram; mL = milliliter; mmol = millimole; mo = month; mol = mole; ng = nanogram; NP-HPLC = normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography; NPN = nonprotein nitrogen; pmol = picomole; pp = postpartum; RCT = randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial; SD = standard deviation; SE = standard error; SEM = standard error of the mean; TE = alpha-tocopherol equivalent; UN-ICP-AES = ultrasonic nebulization-inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry; UV = ultraviolet; WIC = Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children; wk = week; wt/wt = weight/weight.

a Study was done in the United States, unless noted otherwise.

b Values are presented as the mean ± standard deviation unless noted otherwise.

Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×

TABLE 3-2 Assessment of Included Studies of the Volumea of Human Milk on the Basis of Prespecified Criteria (Results Include Studies of Healthy, Singleton, Full-Term Infants Who Were Exclusively Breastfed from Birth to 5.9 Months)

Study Authors, Year Study Type Study Populationb Methodology Outcome (mean ± SD)c Additional Comments
Mohd Shukri et al., 2019 RCT 11 Malaysian dyads, 2–18 wk pp Deuterium dilution 534.1 ± 169 g/d (2 wk pp)  
Buntuchai et al., 2017 Cross-sectional 36 Thai dyads, 1–3 mo pp 24-hr test weighing 598.7 ± 182.4 mL/d  
Bandara et al., 2015 Cross-sectional 48 Sri Lankan dyads, 0–6 mo pp Deuterium oxide to the mother 773 ± 219 g/d (2 to < 4 mo pp) Volume was measured over a 14-day period Dyads were randomly selected from health clinics
802 ± 156 g/d (4–6 mo pp)
Wells et al., 2012 Randomized trial 50 Icelandic dyads, 6 mo pp Deuterium dilution 901 ± 158 g/d  
Nielsen et al., 2011 Prospective cohort 36 Scottish dyads, 15–25 wk pp Deuterium dilution 923 ± 122 g/d (15 wk pp)
999 ± 146 g/d (25 wk pp)
Kent et al., 2006 Cross-sectional 71 Australian dyads, 4–26 wk pp 24-hr test weighing 788 ± 169 g/d  
Sekiyama et al., 2003 Prospective cohort 13 Japanese dyads, 30–90 d pp Test weighing 712 ± 188 g/d (30 d pp)
809 ± 164 g/d (60 d pp)
798 ± 120 g/d (90 d pp)
Mitoulas et al., 2002 Cross-sectional 30 Australian dyads, 1–6 mo pp Test weighing 750 ± 200 mL/d  
Butte et al., 2001 Prospective cohort 24 dyads, 3–24 mo pp 3-day test weighing 763 ± 144 g/d (3 mo pp)  
Chen et al., 1998 Cross-sectional Dyads (19 primiparous; 16 multiparous), 0–2 wk pp 24-hr test weighing Day 14 pp A third subgroup of primiparous women who delivered by cesarean was not included because they did not meet the inclusion criteria
766 ± 196 g/d (primiparous)
960 ± 166 g/d (multiparous)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Dewey et al., 1991 Prospective cohort 67 dyads, 3 mo pp 24-hr test weighing 914 ± 194 g/d  
Vio et al., 1991 Case-control 10 Chilean dyads (nonsmokers), 1–3 mo pp Deuterium dilution 961 ± 120 g/d (1–3 mo pp)  
Woodward and Cumming, 1990 Cross-sectional 35 Australian dyads, 6–12 wk pp Test weighing 830 ± 152 g/24 hr  
Neville et al., 1988 Prospective cohort 13 dyads, 0–5 mo pp Test weighing 615 ± 130 g/d (7–14 d pp)
689 ± 148 g/d (15–28 d pp)
707 ± 104 g/d (30–59 d pp)
753 ± 89 g/d (60–150 d pp)
Lucas et al., 1987 Prospective cohort 12 dyads, 5–11 wk pp Deuterium dilution 767 ± 20 mL/d (5 wk pp) Values are expressed as: mean ± SE
868 ± 39 mL/d (11 wk pp)
Dewey and Lonnerdal, 1986 Prospective cohort 18 dyads, 6–21 wk pp 24-hr test weighing 753 ± 121 g/24 hr  
Forsum and Sadurskis, 1986 Prospective cohort 22 Swedish dyads, 2–10 wk pp 24-hr test weighing 666 ± 129 g/24 hr (2 wk pp)
765 ± 126 g/24 hr (4 wk pp)
778 ± 146 g/24 hr (6 wk pp)
778 ± 147 g/24 hr (8 wk pp)
789 ± 132 g/24 hr (10 wk pp)
Janas and Picciano, 1986 Prospective cohort 10 dyads, 2–8 wk pp Test weighing 634 ± 43 mL/d (2 wk pp)
691 ± 43 mL/d (4 wk pp)
701 ± 47 mL/d (8 wk pp)
Matheny and Picciano, 1986 Prospective cohorts (3 combined) 50 dyads, 2–16 wk pp Test weighing 628 ± 127 mL/d (4 wk pp) The authors noted that 1 g of milk consumed was taken to represent 1 mL of milk ingested
644 ± 138 mL/d (8 wk pp)
676 ± 140 mL/d (12 wk pp)
Strode et al., 1986 Intervention trial 14 dyads, 6–24 wk pp Test weighing 736 ± 168 g/24 hr (6–24 wk pp)  
Butte et al., 1985 Prospective cohort 45 dyads, 0–4 mo pp 24-hr test weighing Feeding Pattern A Feeding pattern A = feedings distributed throughout the 24-hr day
798.2 ± 159.0 g/24 hr (1 mo pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
781.5 ± 172.7 g/24 hr (2 mo pp)
751.2 ± 112.2 g/24 hr (3 mo pp)
787.9 ± 149.0 g/24 hr (4 mo pp) Feeding Pattern B = no feeding from 12 am to 6 am
Feeding Pattern B
795.2 ± 176.4 g/24 hr (3 mo pp)
841.7 ± 101.6 g/24 hr (4 mo pp)
Butte et al., 1984a Prospective cohort 45 dyads, 0–4 mo pp 24-hr test weighing 751 ± 130 g/d (1 mo pp)
725 ± 131 g/d (2 mo pp)
723 ± 114 g/d (3 mo pp)
740 ± 128 g/d (4 mo pp)
De Carvalho et al., 1982 Prospective cohort 46 dyads, 1 mo pp 24-hr test weighing 681 ± 136 mL/d  
Pao et al., 1980 Prospective cohort 11 dyads, 1–6 mo pp Test weighing 600 ± 159 mL/d (1 mo pp)  

NOTE: d = day; g = gram; hr = hour; mL = milliliter; mo = month; pp = postpartum; RCT = randomized controlled trial; SD = standard deviation; wk = week.

a To measure milk volume, infant intake is assessed (not maternal weight change or total production, which can be higher as infants leave milk in the breast). However, weighing the baby before and after a feed underestimates the volume consumed because of insensible water loss (sweat that has evaporated and exhaled water). Because very few reports corrected for this, often without having estimated this amount themselves, the committee did not use correction for insensible water loss as an exclusion criteria.

b Study was done in the United States, unless noted otherwise.

c Values are presented as the mean ± standard deviation unless noted otherwise.

Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×

TABLE 3-3 Assessment of Included Studies of Both Nutrient Composition and Milk Volumea on the Basis of Prespecified Criteria (Results Include Volume Studies of Healthy, Singleton, Full-Term Infants Who Were Exclusively Breastfed from Birth to 5.9 Months)

Study Authors, Year Study Type Study Populationb Nutrient(s) Nutrient Analysis Methodology Outcome (mean ±SD)c Additional Comments
McCrory et al., 1999 Randomized intervention 23 dyads, 8–16 wk pp Volume Test weighing 801 ± 115 g/d
 
Total lipid Folch extraction 34.1 ± 6.0 g/L
 
Total protein Micro Kjeldahl 9.10 ± 1.36 g/L
Dewey et al., 1994 Case-control 33 dyads, 6–8 wk pp Total protein Kjeldahl with correction for NPN by acid precipitation 9.1 ± 1.0 g/L This article reported additional nutrients (lactose) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
 
Total lipid Folch assay (solvent extraction) 32.7 ± 5.1 g/L
 
Volume Test weighing 838 ± 176 g/d
Krebs et al., 1994 Prospective cohort 71 healthy dyads, followed from 2 wk to 9 mo pp Volume Test weighing 600 ± 120 g/d (2 wk pp) Study only reported daily zinc intake from human milk, not zinc concentration
690 ± 110 g/d (3 mo pp)
 
Zinc Flame AAS Zinc intake from human milk:
2.30 ± 0.68 mg/d (2 wk pp)
1.00 ± 0.43 mg/d (3 mo pp)
 
Stuff and Nichols, 1989 Prospective cohort 45 dyads, 16–24 wk pp Volume Test weighing 792 ± 111 g/d (16 wk pp) This article reported additional nutrients (lactose) that did not meet the inclusion criteria
734 ± 150 g/d (16 wk pp)
729 ± 165 g/d (20 wk pp)
 
Total lipid Gravimetric analysis 29.3 ± 7.0 mg/g (16 wk pp)
28.4 ± 7.0 mg/g (16 wk pp)
29.2 ± 6.4 mg/g (20 wk pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
          32.1 ± 7.7 mg/g (20 wk pp)
30.8 ± 9.0 mg/g (24 wk pp)
30.1 ± 6.6 mg/g (24 wk pp)
33.8 ± 10.4 mg/g (28 wk pp)
32.7 ± 12.7 mg/g (28 wk pp)
34.3 ± 13.9 mg/g (32 wk pp)
 
      Protein nitrogen Kjeldahl 1.29 ± 0.17 mg/g (16 wk pp)
1.30 ± 0.14 mg/g (16 wk pp)
1.25 ± 0.21 mg/g (20 wk pp)
1.33 ± 0.15 mg/g (20 wk pp)
1.20 ± 0.15 mg/g (24 wk pp)
1.27 ± 0.16 mg/g (24 wk pp)
1.21 ± 0.18 mg/g (28 wk pp)
1.26 ± 0.14 mg/g (28 wk pp)
1.27 ± 0.17 mg/g (32 wk pp)
 
Casey et al., 1985 Prospective cohort 11 dyads, 0–31 d pp Chromium Graphite furnace AAS 0.22 ± 0.09 ng/mL (14 d pp)  
     
Zinc Flame AAS 4.74 ± 1.02 μg/mL (8 d pp)
3.88 ± 0.91 μg/mL (14 d pp)
 
Copper Graphite furnace AAS 0.49 ± 0.06 μg/mL (14 d pp)
   
Manganese Graphite furnace AAS 3.8 ± 2.4 ng/mL (14 d pp)
 
Volume 24-hr test weighing 542 ± 103 mL/d (8 d pp)
615 ± 108 mL/d (14 d pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
Butte et al., 1984b Prospective cohort 45 dyads, 0–4 mo pp Total lipid Solvent extraction 36.2 ± 7.5 mg/g (1 mo pp)
34.4 ± 6.8 mg/g (2 mo pp)
32.2 ± 7.8 mg/g (3 mo pp)
34.8 ± 10.8 mg/g (4 mo pp)
 
Volume 24-hr test weighing 751.0 ± 130.0 g/d (1 mo pp)
725.0 ± 131.0 g/d (2 mo pp)
723.0 ± 114.0 g/d (3 mo pp)
740.0 ± 128.0 g/d (4 mo pp)
 
Dewey et al., 1983 Prospective cohort 20 dyads, 1–6 mo pp Potassium Flame AAS 527 ± 70 μg/mL (1 mo pp)

This article reported additional nutrients (lactose, total protein, total lipid) that did not meet the inclusion criteria.

Study authors defined exclusive breastfeeding as receiving ≤ 50 kcal/d from other sources

477 ± 79 μg/mL (2 mo pp)
470 ± 81 μg/mL (3 mo pp)
464 ± 89 μg/mL (4 mo pp)
460 ± 85 μg/mL (5 mo pp)
430 ± 63 μg/mL (6 mo pp)
 
Sodium Flame AAS 227 ± 152 μg/mL (1 mo pp)
264 ± 223 μg/mL (2 mo pp)
184 ± 139 μg/mL (3 mo pp)
175 ± 138 μg/mL (4 mo pp)
166 ± 130 μg/mL (5 mo pp)
134 ± 78 μg/mL (6 mo pp)
 
Copper Flame AAS 0.36 ± 0.08 μg/mL (1 mo pp)
0.28 ± 0.06 μg/mL (2 mo pp)
0.27 ± 0.07 μg/mL (3 mo pp)
0.24 ± 0.05 μg/mL (4 mo pp)
0.20 ± 0.09 μg/mL (5 mo pp)
0.21 ± 0.07 μg/mL (6 mo pp)
 
Calcium Flame AAS 261 ± 44 μg/mL (1 mo pp)
275 ± 48 μg/mL (2 mo pp)
270 ± 61 μg/mL (3 mo pp)
255 ± 43 μg/mL (4 mo pp)
248 ± 40 μg/mL (5 mo pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
          256 ± 42 μg/mL (6 mo pp)
 
      Magnesium Flame AAS 27.6 ± 4.7 μg/mL (1 mo pp)
32.4 ± 4.1 μg/mL (2 mo pp)
33.6 ± 4.7 μg/mL (3 mo pp)
35.1 ± 8.0 μg/mL (4 mo pp)
33.8 ± 7.1 μg/mL (5 mo pp)
33.9 ± 4.4 μg/mL (6 mo pp)
 
      Iron Flame AAS 0.31 ± 0.11 μg/mL (1 mo pp)
0.22 ± 0.07 μg/mL (2 mo pp)
0.25 ± 0.11 μg/mL (3 mo pp)
0.22 ± 0.09 μg/mL (4 mo pp)
0.20 ± 0.08 μg/mL (5 mo pp)
0.21 ± 0.10 μg/mL (6 mo pp)
 
      Zinc Flame AAS 2.71 ± 0.36 μg/mL (1 mo pp)
1.67 ± 0.68 μg/mL (2 mo pp)
1.35 ± 0.54 μg/mL (3 mo pp)
0.89 ± 0.39 μg/mL (4 mo pp)
0.57 ± 0.20 μg/mL (5 mo pp)
0.64 ± 0.28 μg/mL (6 mo pp)
 
      Volume 24-hr test weighing 673 ± 192 mL/d (1 mo pp)
756 ± 170 mL/d (2 mo pp)
782 ± 172 mL/d (3 mo pp)
810 ± 142 mL/d (4 mo pp)
805 ± 117 mL/d (5 mo pp)
896 ± 122 mL/d (6 mo pp)
 
Picciano et al., 1981 Prospective cohort 26 dyads, 1–3 mo pp Iron AAS 5.87 ± 2.09 μmol/L (1 mo pp)
6.62 ± 2.17 μmol/L (2 mo pp)
7.36 ± 3.03 μmol/L (3 mo pp)
 
Zinc AAS 33.8 ± 19.8 μmol/L (1 mo pp)
31.8 ± 16.8 μmol/L (2 mo pp)
Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
     
    29.5 ± 13.8 μmol/L (3 mo pp)
 
Calcium AAS 7.24 ± 1.52 mmol/L (1 mo pp)
7.31 ± 1.40 mmol/L (2 mo pp)
7.14 ± 1.25 mmol/L (3 mo pp)
 
Copper AAS 3.35 ± 1.07 μmol/L (1 mo pp)
3.24 ± 1.21 μmol/L (2 mo pp)
3.26 ± 1.35 μmol/L (3 mo pp)
 
Phosphorus Colorimetric assay 5.04 ± 0.84 mmol/L (1 mo pp)
4.78 ± 0.84 mmol/L (2 mo pp)
4.68 ± 0.81 mmol/L (3 mo pp)
 
Magnesium AAS 1.15 ± 0.25 mmol/L (1 mo pp)
1.27 ± 0.21 mmol/L (2 mo pp)
1.36 ± 0.21 mmol/L (3 mo pp)
 
Sodium AAS 6.57 ± 2.39 mmol/L (1 mo pp)
5.26 ± 2.18 mmol/L (2 mo pp)
5.48 ± 2.04 mmol/L (3 mo pp)
 
Potassium AAS 11.92 ± 2.38 mmol/L (1 mo pp)
10.92 ± 2.23 mmol/L (2 mo pp)
10.41 ± 2.05 mmol/L (3 mo pp)
 
Chlorine Ion electrode 12.04 ± 2.37 mmol/L (1 mo pp)
11.70 ± 2.09 mmol/L (2 mo pp)
11.96 ± 2.57 mmol/L (3 mo pp)
 
Volume Test weighing 606 ± 135 mL/d (1 mo pp)

NOTE: AAS = atomic absorption spectrometry; d = day; g = gram; kcal = kilocalories; L = liter; mg = milligram; mL = milliliter; mmol = millimole; mo = month; mol = mole; ng = nanogram; NPN = nonprotein nitrogen; pp = postpartum; wk = week.

a To measure milk volume, infant intake is assessed (not maternal weight change or total production, which can be higher as infants leave milk in the breast). However, weighing the baby before and after a feed underestimates the volume consumed because of insensible water loss (sweat

Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×

that has evaporated and exhaled water). Because very few reports corrected for this, often without having estimated this amount themselves, the committee did not use correction for insensible water loss as an exclusion criteria.

b Study was done in the United States, unless noted otherwise.

c Values are presented as the mean ± standard deviation unless noted otherwise.

Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×

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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×

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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
×
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Results." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk: A Process Model for Determining Age-Specific Nutrient Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25943.
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Human milk is considered the biologic norm for feeding the human infant during the first 6 months of life, and it is a preferred food from 6 to 12 months. It is a complex food and exerts its biologic effects well beyond its known nutritional value; however, human milk composition and the complexity of its composition is not wholly known or understood. Thus, defining the composition of milk, as well as both the individual and combined effects of milk components and the volume consumed on infant growth and development, is central to optimizing infant health. Furthermore, defining human milk composition, volume, and the myriad factors that influence milk components is needed for developing future Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) standards for nutrient intakes during the first 12 months of life.

Scanning for New Evidence on the Nutrient Content of Human Milk examines the new and emerging evidence describing the nutrient content of human milk as well as the volume of milk consumed, both of which are needed to understand nutrient consumption by healthy breastfed infants. An evidence scan approach was used to summarize the status of the published literature on the nutrient content of human milk and to identify new evidence on nutrients in human milk that could inform the need for a systematic review as a component of the DRI process.

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