Report on the U.S. Program for the International Geophysical Year: July 1, 1957 - December 31, 1958 (1965)

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IGY General Report Number 21 November 1965 R E P O R T O N T H E U.S. PROGRAM FOR T H E I N T E R N A T I O N A L GEOPHYSICAL Y E A R July 1, 1957 — December 31, 1958 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL Washington, D. C. November 1965

Q C 8 0 I 3 R46 1965 c I Report on the U S program for the Int'l GeophysicalYveai Julv 1 1957-December3r 1958 r n V -. . . . J I T h i s r e p o r t was prepared under Task Order Number 2 of Con t r a c t NSF C-310 with the N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e Foundation

FOREWORD The s p e c i a l p r o j e c t s undertaken i n the United S t a t e s for the IGY were supported by funds granted by the Congress of the United S t a t e s to the N a t i o n a l Science Founda- t i o n . Moreover, the support of the Foundation has made the pr e p a r a t i o n of t h i s termi- n a l r e port p o s s i b l e . I n a d d i t i o n , there a r e included s e v e r a l p r o j e c t s which were financed from funds made a v a i l a b l e by the Ford Foundation. T h i s r e p o r t o u t l i n e s b r i e f l y the work of the IGY c a r r i e d out under these p r o j e c t s , i n c l u d i n g an i n t e r i m summary of the s c i e n t i f i c r e s u l t s as of about e a r l y 1964 The primary purpose i s to present the p r o j e c t work, area by area and to t h i s end, t h e r e f o r e , the bulk of the r e p o r t (Chapters 1 through 20) i s devoted I n a d d i t i o n . Chapter 21 attempts to sketch the work of the Committee and i t s subcommittees and panels. For t h i s r e p o r t , information was gathered by the Academy's s t a f f from the progress r e p o r t of each p r o j e c t , personal communications and s c i e n t i f i c p u b l i c a t i o n s . P r o j e c t numbers a r e r e t a i n e d here a s a convenience S e v e r a l words of c a u t i o n a r e n e c e s s a r y , however, i n connection with t h i s r e p o r t . I n no case can i t be considered as complete or f i n a l , i n part because space and time precluded anything but a s e l e c t i o n of the r e - s u l t s of each p r o j e c t and a r a t h e r b r i e f summary of these s e l e c t e d a s p e c t s . Moreover, i t does not appear p o s s i b l e to prepare a " f i n a l " r eport because the IGY work merged with l a t e r s t u d i e s i n the g r e a t l y expanded geophysical a c t i v i t y f ollowing the IGY. F i n a l l y , many r e s e a r c h groups have support from s e v e r a l sources and i t i s not p r a c t i - c a l to t r y to separate i n an unequivocal way the p r o j e c t s or portions of p r o j e c t s a t - t r i b u t a b l e to a p a r t i c u l a r grant -- most of the work c a r r i e d out i n geophysics, espe- c i a l l y by the l a r g e r groups, i s u s u a l l y r e l a t e d I n t e r n a l l y . An attempt was made i n t h i s document to cover r e s u l t s that could reasonably be a t t r i b u t e d wholly, p a r t i a l l y , or even i n d i r e c t l y , to the s p e c i f i c IGY p r o j e c t i n question. Another aspect of t h i s r e p o r t warrants a note of c a u t i o n . Compilation of t h i s m a t e r i a l has taken somewhat over four y e a r s -- some s e c t i o n s completed e a r l y i n the compilation are n e c e s s a r i l y l e s s complete than s e c t i o n s f i n i s h e d s h o r t l y before p u b l i c a t i o n . I n a l l c a s e s , i t i s recommended t h a t f o r exact d e t a i l s the reader t u r n to the s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d i n the b i b l i o g r a p h i c s e c t i o n s of each report or c o n s u l t with the p r i n c i p a l s c i e n t i s t s involved. T h i s report could not have been compiled without the f u l l support of the hundreds of s c i e n t i s t s a s s o c i a t e d with the program. To them we a r e most g r a t e f u l for t h e i r many r e p o r t s and t h e i r review of the present m a t e r i a l . P a r t i c u l a r acknowledgement i s due to Mr. Stanley Ruttenberg and Mr. Thomas Gikas of the Academy's s t a f f , who c a r r i e d almost the f u l l burden of gathering and preparing the m a t e r i a l , and to Mr, Richard Y. Dow, who e d i t e d the m a t e r i a l and saw i t through p u b l i c a t i o n . We a r e a l s o indebted to many of our s t a f f s e c r e t a r i e s , who over the y e a r s typed v a r i o u s d r a f t s of the m a t e r i a l - - i n p a r t i c u l a r , Barbara Born, L o i s Heirman, C a r o l Hough, E l i n o r e K r e l l , Annemarie O'Quinlivan, and A l i s o n Wilson. M. A. Tuve, Chairman Geophysics Research Board Joseph Kaplan, Chairman U.S. National Committee for IGY Hugh Odishaw, E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r U.S. National Committee for IGY i i i

INTRODUCTION I n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation i n the study of our p h y s i c a l environment i s not new. The importance of geophysical data — gathered over r e l a t i v e l y remote a r e a s of the ea r t h -- was recognized i n the l a s t century i n the conduct of the F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l a r Year i n 1882-83, when mete o r o l o g i c a l , magnetic, and a u r o r a l s t a t i o n s were f i r s t e s t a b l i s h e d i n the a r c t i c r e g i o n s . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s a t t h a t time d i s c l o s e d how northern auroras were d i s t r i b u t e d i n a band of maximum a u r o r a l a c t i v i t y some 23° wide, centered approximately a t the geomagnetic pole, and the geomagnetic data obtained a t that time remains u s e f u l to t h i s day I n the s t u d i e s of the e a r t h ' s magnetism. A Second I n t e r - n a t i o n a l P o l a r Year was held i n 1932-33, f i f t y y e a r s l a t e r . Again, many nations c o l - laborated i n making geophysical measurements i n the north polar regions. Probably the most important r e s u l t of t h i s e f f o r t was an in c r e a s e d knowledge of the ionosphere, ob- tained by u t i l i z i n g the r a d i o sounding techniques developed a few years e a r l i e r by Tuve and B r e i t . T h i s knowledge g r e a t l y advanced the s c i e n c e of r a d i o communications 1 I n i t i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of the IGY. With these precedents of demonstrated s c i e n t i f i c v a l u e , though l i m i t e d to a s i n g l e region and to but s e v e r a l geophysical d i s c i p l i n e s , s c i e n t i s t s were emboldened to undertake a more complete study of our geophysical en- vironment encompassing the whole of the ea r t h . I n 1950, based on i n i t i a l ideas of L. V Berkner, the matter was d i s c u s s e d a t the meeting of the J o i n t Commission on the Ionosphere i n B r u s s e l s , and a r e s o l u t i o n was presented to the Ex e c u t i v e Board of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c i l of S c i e n t i f i c Unions (ICSU), urging that a t h i r d i n t e r n a t i o n a l e f f o r t i n geophysics be undertaken i n 1957-58. A c t i n g upon t h i s recommendation and s i m i l a r recommendations from v a r i o u s i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c unions, the Executive Board of ICSU i n 1951 appointed a s p e c i a l committee, the Comittf S p e c i a l de 1'Ann^e G^ophysique I n t e r n a t i o n a l e (CSAGI), to coordinate the s c i e n t i f i c planning of a world- wide cooperative program of geophysical observations. The period of J u l y 1, 1957 to December 31, 1958 was designated f or the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year. The membership of CSAGI was composed of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c i l of S c i e n t i f i c Unions, the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Astronomical Union, the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union of Pure and Applied P h y s i c s , the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union of Geography, the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union of B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s , the J o i n t Commission of the Ionosphere, the J o i n t Commission on S o l a r and T e r r e s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s h i p s , the World Meteorological Organization and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Radio Con- s u l t a t i v e Committee Reporters were designated for each IGY d i s c i p l i n e ; each Reporter was supported by an a d v i s o r y committee organized i n the p a r t i c u l a r union or a s s o c i a t i o n cognizant of the d i s c i p l i n e . CSAGI a l s o had finance and p u b l i c a t i o n committees, and A d j o i n t S e c r e t a r i e s for the A n t a r c t i c , A r c t i c , Western Hemisphere, E a s t e r n Europe and Southern A f r i c a . 2. CSAGI I n t e r n a t i o n a l Assemblies. D i s c i p l i n e Meetings. Regional Assemblies. The CSAGI he l d a p r o v i s i o n a l meeting i n October 1952 and asked a l l nations to form n a t i o n a l committees for the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year (IGY) and to t r a n s m i t t h e i r recom- mendations as to the content of the program to be Included i n the IGY. The f i r s t p lenary s e s s i o n s of the CSAGI were held i n B r u s s e l s i n J u l y 1953. Here the program proposals of twenty-six c o l l a b o r a t i n g n a t i o n s were considered. T h i s meeting l e d to the establishment of c r i t e r i a f o r and the t e n t a t i v e o u t l i n i n g of the b a s i c IGY program. The n a t i o n a l committees then turned to the d e t a i l e d geographical, as w e l l as geophy- s i c a l a s p e c t s of the p r o j e c t s t h a t would make up those p a r t s of the program for which they were to be r e s p o n s i b l e .

By 1954, t h i r t y - e i g h t n a t i o n s had prepared d e t a i l e d programs. These nations came together a t the CSAGI meeting i n Rome i n l a t e September and e a r l y October 1954, to d i s c u s s and i n t e g r a t e t h e i r p l a n s . I t was decided a t t h i s meeting to i n c l u d e oceano- graphy, seismology and g r a v i t y i n the IGY; a r e s o l u t i o n was a l s o adopted c a l l i n g f or the study of the p o s s i b i l i t y of o r b i t i n g s c i e n t i f i c payloads around the e a r t h for the IGY. The meeting l e d to the development of a b a s i c plan for IGY operations which was adopted by a l l the d e l e g a t i o n s a t the meeting, and for e x p l i c i t c r i t e r i a as guidance to the n a t i o n a l committees for the s e l e c t i o n of programs: a. The programs of the IGY should be s e l e c t e d with a view to s o l v i n g s p e c i f i c p l a n e t a r y problems of the e a r t h . To achieve such s o l u t i o n s i t was recognized t h a t during the IGY the r e g u l a r s c i e n t i f i c f a c i l i t i e s of the world must be supplemented by a d d i t i o n a l observations s u i t a b l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n space and time, as needed for the s o l u t i o n of s e l e c t e d problems. b. Problems r e q u i r i n g s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n during the IGY should be s e l e c t e d according to the following c r i t e r i a : ( i ) Problems r e q u i r i n g concurrent synoptic observations a t many poi n t s i n v o l v i n g cooperative observations by many n a t i o n s . ( i i ) Problems of branches of geophysical s c i e n c e s whose s o l u t i o n s w i l l be aided by the a v a i l a b i l i t y of synoptic or other con- ce n t r a t e d work during the IGY i n other geophysical s c i e n c e s . ( i i i ) Observations of a l l major geophysical phenomena i n r e l a t i v e l y i n a c c e s s i b l e regions of the e a r t h that can be occupied during the IGY because of the e x t r a o r d i n a r y e f f o r t during that i n t e r - v a l , i n order to augment our b a s i c knowledge of the e a r t h and of the s o l a r and other i n f l u e n c e s a c t i n g upon i t . ( i v ) Epochal observations of slowly v a r y i n g t e r r e s t r i a l pheno- mena, to e s t a b l i s h b a s i c information f o r subsequent com- pa r i s o n a t l a t e r epochs. c. Where questions of p r i o r i t y a r i s e , p r i o r i t y should be given to programs under sub-paragraph b ( i ) . At the t h i r d plenary s e s s i o n s of the CSAGI i n B r u s s e l s September 8-14, 1955, about t h i r t y - e i g h t n a t i o n s a g a i n presented n a t i o n a l r e p o r t s . At the end of the B r u s s e l s meeting the i n t e r n a t i o n a l IGY program was w e l l I n t e g r a t e d w i t h about f o r t y c o u n t r i e s f o r m a l l y making plans to p a r t i c i p a t e . The formal period of the IGY was decided to be 0000 UT, 1 J u l y 1957 and 2400 UT 31 December 1958. The IGY symbol was a l s o s e l e c t e d a t t h i s meeting. At the f o u r t h plenary s e s s i o n s o f the CSAGI I n Barcelona, September 10-15, 1956, twenty-nine committees were represented and f i f t y - o n e c o u n t r i e s had made plans for p a r t i c i p a t i o n . There was a formal d i s c u s s i o n of the proposed e a r t h s a t e l l i t e program by U.S. and USSR s c i e n t i s t s . The question of data storage and r e t r i e v a l was d i s c u s s e d , a s w e l l a s the matter of exchange of IGY data, and the concept of the IGY World Data Centers was incorporated i n t o the program. The f i f t h and f i n a l plenary s e s s i o n s of the CSAGI took p l a c e i n Moscow, J u l y 29- August 9, 1958. T h i r t y - s i x p a r t i c i p a t i n g committees were represented. Among the h i g h l i g h t s of the meeting were the symposium on rocket and e a r t h s a t e l l i t e r e s u l t s , symposia on p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s i n the other d i s c i p l i n e s , f i n a l formulation of the guide to exchange of data, and the recommendation t h a t the IGY should continue for a year, a t l e a s t i n f o r m a l l y , under the name I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Cooperation 1959. v i

A s e r i e s of conferences on s p e c i a l r e g i o n s was inaugurated w i t h the F i r s t Ant- a r c t i c Conference, P a r i s , J u l y 6-10, 1955, followed by the Second A n t a r c t i c Conference a t B r u s s e l s , September 8-14, 1955. I n 1956 there were the CSAGI Regional Conference on the A r c t i c a t Stockholm, May 22-25; the CSAGI Regional Conference i n the Western Hemisphere a t R i o de J a n e i r o , J u l y 16-25; the T h i r d A n t a r c t i c Conference a t P a r i s , J u l y 30-August 4; and the CSAGI E a s t e r n European Regional Conference, Moscow, August 20- 25. I n 1957, there were held the J o i n t CSAGl/CSA meeting of Coordination f or the IGY i n A f r i c a South of the Sahara, Bukavu, February 11-15; the CSAGI Western P a c i f i c Regional Conference, Tokyo, February 25-March 2; and the E u r a s i a n Regional Conference on World Days and Communications, Moscow, May 7-8. CSAGI d i s c i p l i n e conferences were h e l d i n oceanography (Goteborg, January 15-17, 1957); n u c l e a r r a d i a t i o n ( U t r e c h t , January 22-26, 1957), World Data Centers ( U c c l e , A p r i l 1-4, 1957) and Rockets and S a t e l l i t e s (Washington, September 30-October 5, 1957). During the f i f t h Assembly of CSAGI (Moscow, J u l y 30-August 9, 1958) a r e s o l u t i o n was adopted (and l a t e r accepted by the ICSU) that i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation i n geo- p h y s i c a l programs should continue. I t was r e s o l v e d that each p a r t i c i p a t i n g committee should endeavor to continue such programs as were f e a s i b l e for 1959, and the name " I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Cooperation-1959" (IGC-1959) was given to t h i s program. 3. The i n t e r n a t i o n a l program. The p r i n c i p a l f i e l d s of study during the IGY were aurora and airglow, cosmic r a y s , geomagnetism, g l a c i o l o g y , g r a v i t y , ionospheric p h y s i c s , longitudes and l a t i t u d e s , meteorology, oceanography, seismology, s o l a r a c t i v i t y , upper atmosphere s t u d i e s u s i n g r o c k e t s and s a t e l l i t e v e h i c l e s , and n u c l e a r r a d i a t i o n . I n - h e r e n t l y these f i e l d s were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r g l o b a l nature, and thus the labora- tory of the g e o p h y s l c i s t I s the e a r t h i t s e l f where the experiments a re performed by nature. The g e o p h y s l c i s t must observe these n a t u r a l phenomena on the glob a l b a s i s i f he i s to secure s o l u t i o n s and to develop adequate t h e o r e t i c a l explanations. T h i s was one of the compelling reasons f o r the world-wide scope of the IGY I n 1957-58: to observe geophysical phenomena and to secure data from a l l p a r t s of the world; to con- duct t h i s e f f o r t on a coordinated b a s i s by f i e l d s , and i n space and time, so t h a t r e - s u l t s could be c o l l a t e d i n a meaningful manner. The proposal that 1957-58 be the time f or t h i s major i n t e r n a t i o n a l e f f o r t was based i n p a r t upon the f a c t t h a t these y e a r s would correspond with a period of maximum s o l a r a c t i v i t y . I t was planned to take advantage of t h i s expected Increased a c t i v i t y by a s e r i e s of A l e r t s and of S p e c i a l World I n t e r v a l s , c a l l e d on occasions when i t was pre- d i c t e d t h a t unusual magnetic, i o n o s p h e r i c , or a u r o r a l a c t i v i t y might occur. Other s p e c i a l i n t e r v a l s were planned f o r days of new moon, s o l a r e c l i p s e s , and unustjal meteor showers. S p e c i a l e f f o r t s on a world-wide s c a l e were made during these times to record the many phenomena which r e a c t so ronarkably to the complex a c t i v i t i e s of the sun. The p r e d i c t i o n was most s u c c e s s f u l : the peak o f the pr e s e n t c y c l e of s o l a r a c t i v i t y occurred i n e a r l y 1958. By a fortunate coincidence, t h i s was a l s o the g r e a t e s t peak ever observed s i n c e s c i e n t i s t s began to study sunspot f l u c t u a t i o n s i n the 18th century. The IGY program was to a l a r g e extent based on e x i s t i n g geophysical s t a t i o n s and networks. I n a d d i t i o n , new IGY s t a t i o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d i n geographical r e g i o n s , such as the A r c t i c , A n t a r c t i c , oceanic r e g i o n s , e t c . , where there had been l i t t l e or no geophysical a c t i v i t y . T h i s spread was of grea t v a l u e f o r those programs with syno- p t i c a s p e c t s on a world-wide b a s i s . The p o l a r regions were covered by broad bands of s t a t i o n s both w i t h i n and o u t s i d e the zones o f maximum a u r o r a l occurrence. S t a t i o n s i n a broad b e l t around the e a r t h i n the e q u a t o r i a l and temperate regions focussed a t t e n t i o n on the continuous observations o f the sun and, i n the v i c i n i t y of the geo- magnetic equator, observations i n geomagnetism and ionospheric p h y s i c s . O r b i t s of ea r t h s a t e l l i t e s covering regions 50° N to 50''S l a t i t u d e completed the coverage of the middle l a t i t u d e s . v i i

Three major pole-to-pole (and the two meridional l i n e s ) networks w i t h the three r i n g s of coverage i n the a r c t i c , e q u a t o r i a l , and a n t a r c t i c regions c o n s t i t u t e d a ki n d of coordinate system by which the movement of atmospheric d i s t u r b a n c e s and the develop- ment of other t r a n s i e n t geophysical phenomena can be observed and mapped. 4. The U.S. program. The i n s t i t u t i o n t hat represented the United S t a t e s on the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c i l of S c i e n t i f i c Unions (ICSU), the parent i n t e r n a t i o n a l body of the IGY, was the National Academy o f S c i e n c e s . The Academy organized the U.S. Natio n a l Committee for the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year (USNC-IGY) to p l a n , d i r e c t , and execute the U.S. program. I n order to secure the f i s c a l support, the USNC made i t s request f o r s p e c i a l funds t o the Congress through the N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e Foundation. I n a d d i t i o n , the Committee made arrangements for e x t e n s i v e program and l o g i s t i c con- t r i b u t i o n s from many p u b l i c and p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s . The U.S. program for the IGY, as presented i n t h i s r e p o r t , was developed by the Academy's IGY Committee i n cooperation with many s c i e n t i s t s from p u b l i c and p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s . T e c h n i c a l Panels (membership of panels i s given i n the t e x t under each d i s c i p l i n e ) were e s t a b l i s h e d f o r the v a r i o u s s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s which c o n s t i t u t e the t e c h n i c a l program. The panels were r e s p o n s i b l e f or planning the b a s i c program i n each d i s c i p l i n e and for recommending s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s f or execution by v a r i o u s groups o f s c i e n t i s t s . I n a d d i t i o n , some s p e c i a l committees were e s t a b l i s h e d . The IGY s t a f f of the Academy, working with the USNC-IGY, i t s subcommittees and panels, had the task of o v e r a l l program and budget planning, of c o o r d i n a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s among p r o j e c t s and r e l a t e d s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s , of a s s i s t i n g i n the t e c h n i c a l d i r e c t i o n of the U.S. program, and of preparing t e c h n i c a l and general information a r t i c l e s on the operations and r e s u l t s . Observations i n a l l d i s c i p l i n e s were incorporated i n t o the U.S. program, which was b u i l t around s e v e r a l networks of pre-IGY geophysical s t a t i o n s . These included the upper-air s t a t i o n s of the U.S. Weather Bureau, v e r t i c a l - i n c i d e n c e i o n o s p h e r i c p h y s i c s s t a t i o n s of the C e n t r a l Radio Propagation Laboratory of the N a t i o n a l Bureau of Standards, and geomagnetic o b s e r v a t o r i e s and t i d e gauge s t a t i o n s of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. S e v e r a l new sjmoptic networks were e s t a b l i s h e d for the IGY, many of which remain i n opera t i o n to t h i s day, modified according to new d i s c o v e r i e s and i n s t r u m e n t a l advances. I n a d d i t i o n to synoptic network s t u d i e s , s p e c i a l e x p e r i - ments were inaugurated i n many of the d i s c i p l i n e s ; experiments u s i n g the techniques o f high a l t i t u d e sounding r o c k e t s and a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s and deep space probes c o n t r i b u t e d s p e c i a l observations i n many of the d i s c i p l i n e s . A s p e c i a l e f f o r t was made to f i l l i n the pole-to-pole c h a i n of s t a t i o n s a t yO-SO'W; s e v e r a l s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d and operated i n A n t a r c t i c a ; and U.S. s c i e n t i s t s worked a t two s t a t i o n s i n the A r c t i c Ocean, one on pack i c e , the other on a l a r g e s e c t i o n of ta b u l a r i c e . I c e I s l a n d T-3 ( F l e t c h e r ' s I c e I s l a n d ) . The United S t a t e s was assigned r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the World Warning Agency (operated by the Natio n a l Bureau of Standards) and the A n t a r c t i c Weather C e n t r a l (operated a t the L i t t l e America S t a t i o n ) , A f t e r d i s c u s s i o n s of the problems of storage, exchange and a v a i l a b i l i t y o f data a t the fourth meeting of CSAGI a t Barcelona, the United S t a t e s o f f e r e d to organize and operate a world data c e n t e r ( c a l l e d World Data Center A) covering a l l d i s c i p l i n e s . The USSR a l s o o f f e r e d to organize and operate a s i m i l a r world data c e n t e r (World Data Center B) and s e v e r a l other c o u n t r i e s o f f e r e d to e s t a b l i s h data c e n t e r s i n one or s e v e r a l of the d i s c i p l i n e s ( c o l l e c t i v e l y known as World Data Center C) . The data center i n the United S t a t e s was organized on a d i s c i p l i n e b a s i s a t s e v e r a l of the r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s involved i n the o b s e r v a t i o n a l program. V l l l

Mindful, however, that the o r g a n i z a t i o n of exp e d i t i o n s , observing programs, r e - duction and t a b u l a t i o n of data, the exchange of t h i s data between data c e n t e r s , and the p r o v i s i o n s f o r making the data a v a i l a b l e to s c i e n t i s t s , was only the f i r s t , how- ever e s s e n t i a l , step towards answering some of the great g l o b a l problems i n geophysics that prompted the IGY, the U.S. Nati o n a l Committee a l s o took steps to inaugurate an i n i t i a l program for a n a l y s i s and r e s e a r c h u s i n g the IGY data. The IGY c o l l e c t i o n of data has remained an important source of m a t e r i a l f o r r e s e a r c h and long-range programs w i l l be requ i r e d to e l u c i d a t e most of the important s p e c i f i c geophysical q u e s t i o n s . I t was recognized, i n the shor t time a v a i l a b l e to the Committee, that only a s t a r t could be made i n the study of the many e x c i t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s a fforded by the IGY data, and i t was decided to s t r e s s , i n t h i s p r e l i m i n a r y work, problems that crossed s e v e r a l or, i n some c a s e s , many of the IGY d i s c i p l i n e s . I n sh o r t , emphasis was placed on i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y r e s e a r c h . S c i e n t i s t s i n many r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s engaged i n studying IGY data, attempting to apply t h i s data to problems i n three general a r e a s : a. The ea r t h i t s e l f as a s t r u c t u r e b. Atmospheric and oceanic c i r c u l a t i o n and heat and water budget of the e a r t h c. Upper atmosphere p h y s i c s and s o l a r - t e r r e s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . As p a r t of t h i s g eneral program of study of IGY data, many d i s t i n g u i s h e d s c i e n - t i s t s from other c o u n t r i e s v i s i t e d t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s i n the United S t a t e s , d i s c u s s i n g problems of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and i n v e s t i g a t i n g f r u i t f u l avenues of approach to those g r e a t geophysical problems which s c i e n t i s t s the world over a r e attempting to under- stand. 5. Dissemination of r e s u l t s . I n order to provide prompt n o t i f i c a t i o n and dissemina- t i o n of r e s u l t s of IGY experiments and programs, and of other m a t e r i a l of IGY i n t e r e s t , the U.S. Nati o n a l Committee e s t a b l i s h e d a monthly IGY B u l l e t i n , the f i r s t number was published i n J u l y 1957. The B u l l e t i n was a l s o included with the T r a n s a c t i o n s of the American Geophysical Union. IGY World Data Center A for Rockets and S a t e l l i t e s p u b l i - shed the S a t e l l i t e Report S e r i e s and the Rocket Report S e r i e s , to make a v a i l a b l e data and important papers i n these d i s c i p l i n e s . M a t e r i a l of general i n t e r e s t was published by WDC-A i n the General Report S e r i e s . These p u b l i c a t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e from the Academy's P u b l i c a t i o n O f f i c e . Other sub-centers of WDC-A published catalogues of IGY data and a l s o some general r e p o r t s of p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s of processed data. For example, WDC-A for G l a c i o l o g y published s i x volumes of papers d i s c u s s i n g r e s u l t s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n g l a c i o l o g y i n the A r c t i c and A n t a r c t i c ; WDC-A f o r S o l a r A c t i v i t y published twenty-two r e p o r t s con- t a i n i n g t a b u l a t i o n s of s o l a r observations and data, three r e p o r t s on riometer data were published by WDC-A for Aurora ( I n s t r u m e n t a l ) ; four r e p o r t s were published by WDC-A f o r Oceanography. To e f f e c t s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n of o b s e r v a t i o n a l techniques and a l s o to a f f o r d a f o c a l point f or matters d e a l i n g with the IGY, a s p e c i a l s e r i e s of p u b l i c a t i o n s was i n s t i t u t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . T h i s s e r i e s , the Annals of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year, i s published by Pergamon P r e s s ; the m a t e r i a l was supplied by the CSAGI and CSAGI Repor- t e r s for each d i s c i p l i n e and was supervised a f t e r the IGY by the CSAGI's successor committee, the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Committee ( C I G ) . I n s t r u c t i o n manuals i n s e v e r a l d i s c i p l i n e s were published f i r s t , so that workers a l l over the world could s t a n d a r d i z e t h e i r observing and r e p o r t i n g techniques i n those d i s c i p l i n e s where t h i s was necessary. H i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i n the f i r s t and second I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l a r Y e a r s , o r g a n i z a t i o n of the IGY, and re p o r t s on IGY meetings and conferences were published m

other volumes. F i n a l l y , under the s u p e r v i s i o n of the CSAGI Reporters and i n coopera- t i o n with the v a r i o u s World Data C e n t e r s , s e l e c t e d processed data and r^sum^s of IGY programs i n the Annals have been published. The p r i n c i p a l r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s during the IGY have been and a r e being published i n the customary s c i e n t i f i c j o u r n a l s . 6. E d u c a t i o n a l programs. The Congress of the United S t a t e s , a f t e r s e v e r a l hearings on plans for the IGY, requested the Academy to devote some e f f o r t to c a p i t a l i z e on the widespread p u b l i c i n t e r e s t i n t h i s e n t e r p r i s e and use the IGY as a means of i n t r o - ducing information on geophysics to students and the general p u b l i c . A c t i n g upon t h i s s t i m u l u s , the Academy secured non-government funds and undertook s e v e r a l pro- grams, i n c l u d i n g the p u b l i c a t i o n of the IGY B u l l e t i n , mentioned above, and i t s d i s t r i - bution to schools and i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s . A second e d u c a t i o n a l program d e a l t with s i x l a r g e , f u l l - c o l o r " P lanet E a r t h " p o s t e r s , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g s e v e r a l a s p e c t s of the IGY: the poles, oceanography, meteoro- logy, the sun, the s o l i d e a r t h , and space. These were accompanied by a f o r t y - t h r e e page student brochure d i s c u s s i n g i n some d e t a i l the IGY s c i e n c e s , and a k i t for t e a c h e r s . These posters and brochures were d i s t r i b u t e d a t nominal c o s t to approxi- mately s i x thousand schools i n the United S t a t e s ; i n a d d i t i o n , l a r g e numbers of the poster s e t s and brochures were made a v a i l a b l e to school systems i n other c o u n t r i e s . T h i s a c t i o n was supported by the Ford Foundation. The t h i r d e ducational program undertaken under the a u s p i c e s of the U.S. Committee for IGY was the production of t h i r t e e n half-hour c o l o r f i l m s on each of the IGY d i s c i p l i n e s , the "Planet E a r t h " f i l m s e r i e s : the f i l m s were Intended l a r g e l y f o r the secondary school l e v e l , but many of them were s u c c e s s f u l l y used i n grade schools as w e l l as i n graduate seminars i n u n i v e r s i t i e s , i n which case they served as departures for d i s c u s s i o n of the i n t e r - r e l a t l o n s h i p s between the IGY d i s c i p l i n e s . The " P l a n e t E a r t h " f i l m s have been d i s t r i b u t e d through McGraw-Hill Text F i l m D i v i s i o n to many thousands of schools and r e n t a l l i b r a r i e s ; they have been shown on commercial and e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n throughout the United S t a t e s and i n many other c o u n t r i e s ; they were t r a n s l a t e d i n t o Spanish, Portugese and A r a b i c and shown over t e l e v i s i o n networks i n c o u n t r i e s where these languages were dominant. The f i l m s e r i e s was made p o s s i b l e by a grant from the Ford Foundation. 7. Post-IGY programs. The success of the IGY was instrumental i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n , under the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c i l of S c i e n t i f i c Unions, of s e v e r a l c o n t i n u i n g programs i n geophysics f o r which s p e c i a l new committees were e s t a b l i s h e d by ICSU. The f i r s t to be organized and implemented was the continuing s c i e n t i f i c work i n the A n t a r c t i c under the cognizance of the S c i e n t i f i c Committee for A n t a r c t i c Research (SCAR); an i n t e r n a t i o n a l program i n oceanography i s being continued under the S c i e n t i f i c Commit- tee f o r Oceanographic Research (SCOR); the i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation i n space s c i e n c e s i s organized under the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR); the program for the IQSY (1964-65) was organized under the S p e c i a l Committee for the Y e a r s of the Quiet Sun (SC-IQSY); the Upper Mantle e f f o r t under an i n t e r - u n i o n committee administered by the lUGG. Many of these a c t i v i t i e s had t h e i r beginnings i n the Comit^ I n t e r n a t i o n a l e de Geophysique ( C I G ) , which succeeded the CSAGI and which i s charged with such tasks as completion of IGY p u b l i c a t i o n s i n the Annals s e r i e s , the conduct of the World Data Centers for geophysics, and a s s i s t a n c e to the lUWDS.

CONTENTS Page FOREWORD Hi INTRODUCTION V I AURORA AND AIRGLOW PROGRAM 1 I I COSMIC RAYS PROGRAM 55 I I I GEOMAGNETISM PROGRAM 125 IV GLACIOLOGY PROGRAM 143 V GRAVITY PROGRAM 235 VI IONOSPHERIC PHYSICS PROGRAM 253 V I I LONGITUDES AND LATITUDES PROGRAM 315 V I I I METEOROLOGY PROGRAM 321 I X OCEANOGRAPHY PROGRAM 353 X ROCKETRY PROGRAM 419 XI SEISMOLOGY PROGRAM 461 X I I SOLAR ACTIVITY PROGRAM 499 X I I I WORLD DAYS AND COMMUNICATIONS PROGRAM 533 XIV NUCLEAR RADIATION PROGRAM 541 XV EARTH SATELLITE PROGRAM 551 XVI INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH PROGRAM 663 XVII DATA PROCESSING AND WORLD DATA CENTER PROGRAM 781 X V I I I SPECIAL RESEARCH PROGRAM 813 XIX ARCTIC RESEARCH PROGRAM 835 XX ANTARCTIC RESEARCH PROGRAM 851 XXI ACTIVITIES OF THE U.S. NATIONAL COMMITTEE AND ITS SUBCOMMITTEES 869 APPENDIXES 901 x i

AURORA AND AIRGLOW PROGRAM Aurora at College, Alaska, 1957

AURORA AND AIRGLOW PROGRAM Page A. Organization of T e c h n i c a l Panel on Aurora and Airglow 3 B. Summary of Panel Actions 4 C. P r o j e c t O b j e c t i v e s and R e s u l t s 9 1.1 A l l - s k y Camera C o n s t r u c t i o n 10 1.2 V i s u a l Aurora Observations 12 1.3 Photometer Procurement 14 1.4 P a t r o l Spectrograph - Prototype Development 15 1.5 P a t r o l Spectrograph - Procurement 16 1.6 Scanning Spectrograph - Procurement 17 1.7 Auro r a l Radar - Procurement 18 1.9 Aurora Data A c q u i s i t i o n and P r o c e s s i n g 19 1.10 Data Reduction - Airglow 20 1.12 Airglow Headquarters 23 1.13 A l l - S k y Camera, U.S. Headquarters & I t h a c a Operation 30 1.14 Aurora and Airglow Operations i n Al a s k a 32 1.15 Radar A u r o r a l Observations - I t h a c a 37 1.16 A u r o r a l Radar Operations - Western U.S 38 1.17 A l l - S k y Camera Operations, S i x U.S. S t a t i o n s 38 1.18 A n t a r c t i c Aurora and Airglow Network 39 1.20 Aurora and Airglow Operations a t Sacramento Peak, T o n a n z i n t l a , Huancayo, and San Juan 43 1.24 Aurora And Airglow Observations a t Thule 44 1.25 Aurora and Airglow Operations a t Bedford, Saskatoon, Shingleton and Williams Bay 45 1.34 A u r o r a l Operations i n New Zealand 47 1.38 Meteor Radar i n the A n t a r c t i c 48 1.42 A u r o r a l Observations, A r c t i c B a s i n , D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n 49 1.43 Ionospheric Absorption of Cosmic Noise, A l a s k a 50 1.44 Ionospheric Absorption of Cosmic Noise, West 54 1.45 Studies of N o c t i l u c e n t Clouds 54

AURORA AND AIRGLOW PROGRAM A. Organization of T e c h n i c a l Panel on Aurora and Airglow 1. Establishment of Panel. L e t t e r s were w r i t t e n i n December 1954 - January 1955 reque s t i n g a u r o r a l s c i e n t i s t s to become members of the panel: Dr. Joseph Kaplan was named as convenor of the f i r s t meeting. L a t e r , a t the request of the panel, s e v e r a l new members were added and other s c i e n t i s t s were i n v i t e d to serve as c o n s u l t a n t s . Dr. Kaplan was e l e c t e d chairman a t the f i r s t meeting, but developments of the IGY so i n - creased h i s commitments that he resigned from the panel. C.T. E l v e y was e l e c t e d as chairman, with N.J. O l i v e r , vice-chairman for aurora, and F.E. Roach, vice-chairman for airglow. Dr. Meinel resigned from the panel because of new d u t i e s he assumed a t the National Astronomical Observatory; Dr. Chamberlain, who was h i s a l t e r n a t e , was then made a f u l l member and Dr. Meinel continued h i s a s s o c i a t i o n with the panel as a con s u l t a n t . The Department of Defense appointed l i a i s o n members from the three s e r - v i c e s . 2. Composition of the Panel. ( A f f i l i a t i o n a t time of appointment.) a. Panel Members J.W. Chamberlain (to J u l y 1955) Sydney Chapman C.T. E l v e y , Chairman C. W. G a r t l e i n E. R. Manring (to Dec. 1957) A.B. Meinel ( t o Dec. 1957) D. H. Menzel N.J. O l i v e r , J r . , Vice-Chm., Aurora A.M. Peterson F. E. Roach, Vice-Chm., Airglow Richard Tousey J.A. Van A l l e n ( to Dec. 1957) E. H. V e s t i n e Yerkes Observatory, Univ. of Chicago Geophysical I n s t . , U. of Alaska Geophysical I n s t . , U. of Alaska C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e , AFCRL Yerkes Obs., Univ. of Chicago Harvard U n i v e r s i t y Observatory Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e , AFCRL Stanford U n i v e r s i t y C e n t r a l Radio Propagation Lab., NBS Naval Research Laboratory S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y of Iowa Dept. T e r r e s t r i a l Magnetism, Carnegie I n s t i t u t i o n of Washington Consultants D.K. Berkey B. W. C u r r i e C. G. L i t t l e A.B. Meinel Peter M. Millman F.K. I s a k s o n W.S. McAffee, J r . Colgate U n i v e r s i t y U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan, Canada Geophysical I n s t i t u t e , U. of Alaska N a t ' l . Astronomical Obs., K i t t Peak N a t ' l . Research Council of Canada O f f i c e of Naval Research U.S. Army S i g n a l Res. & Dev. Lab. S e c r e t a r i a t (IGY S t a f f ) G.F. S c h i l l i n g ( t o Feb. 1956) D.A. Curry (Feb. 1956 - J u l y 1957) P.W. Mange ( J u l y 1957 - Feb. 1959) S. Ruttenberg (from Feb. 1959)

AURORA AND AIRGLOW 3. Panel Meetings. There were eight meetings of the panel. F i r s t Meeting Second Meeting T h i r d Meeting Fourth Meeting F i f t h Meeting S i x t h Meeting Seventh Meeting E i g h t h Meeting January 16-17, 1955 March 8-9, 1955 May 7, 1955 J u l y 15-16, 1955 February 8, 1956 November 2-3, 1956 December 9, 1957 May 5, 1958 Boulder, Colorado Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Boulder, Colorado Washington, D.C. Boston, Massachusetts Boulder, Colorado Washington, D.C. B. Summary of Panel Actions 1. O r i g i n a l Program. The aurora and a i r g l o w program was developed i n the i n i t i a l stages of the CSAGI planning by the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Reporter for Aurora and Airglow, Sydney Chapman, m c o n s u l t a t i o n with h i s c o l l e a g u e s around the world. At the time the T e c h n i c a l Panel on Aurora and Airglow was organized, the U.S. N a t i o n a l Committee had drawn up a t e n t a t i v e U.S. program based on informal d i s c u s s i o n s with U.S. workers i n t h i s a r e a . a. V i s u a l Observations. I t was recognized that v i s u a l observations would be an important element o f U.S. p a r t i c i p a t i o n inasmuch as the a u r o r a l zone dips s h a r p l y southward over northeastern North America. I t was planned to c o l l a b o r a t e with Cana- dian a u r o r a l s c i e n t i s t s i n working out a scheme of recording v i s u a l o b s ervations. D i f f e r e n t standards of observation were s e t according to whether the l o c a t i o n was s o u t h e r l y (where auroras would not occur frequently) or whether the s t a t i o n would be n o r t h e r l y (where auroras would be very f r e q u e n t ) . b. Photographic Observations. I t was planned to u t i l i z e a camera which would photograph the e n t i r e overhead hemisphere so that wide synoptic coverage could be obtained of a u r o r a l i n c i d e n t s and development. I t was a n t i c i p a t e d a t t h i s time that photographs would be taken a t one-minute i n t e r v a l s and read a t 15-minute i n t e r v a l s for synoptic observations, i t was a l s o thought that a l l except a few key s t a t i o n s would observe only on World Days. c. Radar Observations. I n s p i t e of problems of i n t e r p r e t i n g radar echoes and d i s t i n g u i s h i n g a u r o r a l echoes from echoes from other ionospheric phenomena, i t was decided to provide a l o n g i t u d i n a l chain of s t a t i o n s a t approximate geomagnetic l a t i - tude 60° along with two t r a n s - a u r o r a l networks, one i n A l a s k a and the other i n mid- United S t a t e s connecting with s t a t i o n s m Canada. d. Comugate Point Observations. I t was thought p o s s i b l e to i n s t i t u t e coordin- ated obsei-vations a t the ends of magnetic f i e l d l i n e s i n cooperation with s c i e n t i s t s of A u s t r a l i a and New Zealand. These would include v i s u a l , photographic, photometric, radar and s p e c t r o s c o p i c observations. e. Spectroscopic Observations. I n order to provide information on the d i s t r i b u - t i o n of incoming s o l a r p a r t i c l e s thought to be r e s p o n s i b l e for the auroras, i t was planned to s e t up a network of s t a t i o n s using a Memel p a t r o l spectrograph. T h i s i n - strument would focus a 165° a r c of the sky on the s l i t of the spectrograph. The cam- er a , o r i e n t e d i n the magnetic meridian, could thus provide a d i s t r i b u t i o n along that meridian of r a d i a t i o n and from that could be deducted the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the bombar- ding protons.

AURORA AND AIRGLOW f. Spectrophotometnc Studies. The same spectrographs mentioned above could be used with proper c a l i b r a t i o n to observe r a t i o s of i n t e n s i t i e s of c e r t a i n l i n e and band systems which a r e r e l a t e d to the p h y s i c a l processes involved m a u r o r a l e x c i t a t i o n . g. S c i n t i l l a t i o n of Radio S t a r s . I t was thought that observations of s c i n t i l l a - t i o n of r a d i o s t a r s , using a t r i p a r t i t e observing network, would give information on the s i z e and v e l o c i t y of patches of i o n i z a t i o n that might be connected with the auro- r a l d i s p l a y . h. Absorption of E x t r a - T e r r e s t r i a l Radio S i g n a l s . I n i t i a l experiments a t the Geophysical I n s t i t u t e i n Alaska i n d i c a t e d the u s e f u l n e s s of observing the v a r i a t i o n s i n the g a l a c t i c n o i s e r e c e i v e d a t the ground. The v a r i a t i o n s come about as a r e s u l t of changing absorption i n the ionosphere and a r e r e l a t e d to polar blackouts, geomag- n e t i c and ionospheric storms, and a u r o r a l a c t i v i t y . I t was thought that a frequency of about 30 megacycles would be u s e f u l . 1. Radio Noise A s s o c i a t e d with A u r o r a l D i s p l a y s . There had been some i n d i c a t i o n of 3000 megacycle r a d i o n o i s e emitted by a u r o r a l d i s p l a y s . T h i s general question was under study a t the Geophysical I n s t i t u t e i n Alaska and i t was expected that i f i t looked promising s e v e r a l s t a t i o n s should be s e t up to monitor t h i s phenomenon. J . Airglow S t u d i e s . I t was expected to i n s t i t u t e a chain of synoptic s t a t i o n s to monitor the s e v e r a l emissions of the airglow with p h o t o e l e c t r i c photometers. A meridional chain would be s e t up through North America connecting to s t a t i o n s i n South America. 2. Planning f o r A n t a r c t i c Observations. One of the f i r s t tasks of the panel, m a d d i t i o n to d i s c u s s i n g the merits of the i n d i v i d u a l observations mentioned above, was to prepare s p e c i f i c recommendations for the program envisioned for the s e v e r a l s t a - t i o n s planned for A n t a r c t i c a . Plans for the c o n s t r u c t i o n and operation of the s t a - t i o n s were being formulated by the Navy, which had been assigned as the r e s p o n s i b l e agency for l o g i s t i c support, m c o n s u l t a t i o n with the U.S. Nati o n a l Committee and va r i o u s c o n s u l t a n t s and experienced polar workers. Drs. Elv e y and Meinel studied the design of the a u r o r a l tower. They agreed with the t e n t a t i v e planning that such a tower should be constructed so as to minimize the accumulation of wind-driven snow. Up to four p l a s t i c hemispheres, four f e e t m diameter, might be mounted on the roof of the tower for v i s u a l and instrumental observations. Dry heated a i r would be sup- p l i e d to the i n s i d e of these domes to prevent f r o s t formation. Care would have to be taken so that the horizon along the magnetic meridian should not be obscured and the domes i n s t a l l e d on the tower to minimize the i n t e r f e r e n c e between the f i e l d s of view of the v a r i o u s instruments. Drs. O l i v e r and Roach studied the question of the a u r o r a l laboratory for the s t a t i o n and made recommendations about the type of f a c i l i t i e s that would be required for the s e r v i c i n g of equipment and handling of the f i l m . Drs. G a r t l e i n and V e s t i n e made suggestions for a u r o r a l programs a t s u b s i d i a r y a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s . The problem of i n t e r f e r e n c e with a r t i f i c i a l l i g h t s was di s c u s s e d . I t was recommended that any l i g h t s that be kept burning o u t s i d e be of the continuous r a d i a - t i o n types ( i . e . , i n c andescent). I t was g e n e r a l l y f e l t that with reasonable precau- t i o n s t h i s should not become a problem. a. Meteor Observations. Dr. Fred Whipple wrote to the panel and r a i s e d the ques- t i o n of v i s u a l observations of meteors inasmuch as i n an e a r l i e r expedition (Byrd, 1930) Dr. Thomas C. Po u l t e r had reported anomalously high incidence of f a i n t meteors. Dr. Whipple recommended that an attempt should be made to repeat Dr. P o u l t e r ' s v i s - ual o bservations. A f t e r some study, i t was decided that a simple radar observation program might y i e l d more information and the panel approved a small p r o j e c t a t Stan- ford U n i v e r s i t y for a low-power radar to be supplied and operated during the f i r s t season a t A n t a r c t i c a . Should the observations support the e a r l i e r f i n d i n g s , then a more elaborate program might be i n s t i t u t e d .

AURORA AND AIRGLOW b. A n t a r c t i c Whiteout. Dr. Sigmund F r i t z of the Weather Bureau r a i s e d the ques- t i o n with the panel of whether the Roach photometer might be u s e f u l i n studying the whiteout phenomena. The panel questioned whether the photometer could be used for t h i s purpose and requested Dr. Tousey to c o l l a b o r a t e with Dr. F r i t z i n designing some observations i n the A n t a r c t i c that would help m understanding t h i s phenomenon. c. F i n a l A n t a r c t i c Synoptic Program. As the USNC developed i t s p l a n s , seven s t a - t i o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d i n the A n t a r c t i c , a l l of which were f u l l - s c a l e o b s e r v a t o r i e s . Hence, i t was decided by the Panel that a f u l l - s c a l e a u r o r a l program should be c a r r i e d out a t each s t a t i o n with the exception that only one scanning spectrograph (see d i s - c u s s i o n below) was recommended for i n s t a l l a t i o n ( a t L i t t l e America). d. A n t a r c t i c Personnel. The a n t a r c t i c a u r o r a l program was assigned to the Geo- p h y s i c s Research D i r e c t o r a t e for t e c h n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n . The A r c t i c I n s t i t u t e of North America was designated as the agency to h i r e temporary personnel for t h i s pro- j e c t . Candidates for observers were screened by N.J. O l i v e r and h i s s t a f f and were t r a i n e d a t GRD and a l s o a t Yerkes Observatory under the s u p e r v i s i o n of J.W. Chamber- l a i n . An i n s t r u c t i o n memorandum was d r a f t e d for the observers to guide them i n s e r - v i c i n g instruments, developing f i l m , and making r e g u l a r and s p e c i a l o b s e r v a t i o n s . T h i s memo was d i s c u s s e d and suggestions for m o d i f i c a t i o n were made by the panel. I n - s t r u c t i o n s and s u p p l i e s for v i s u a l observations were supplied to the a n t a r c t i c obser- v e r s by C.W. G a r t l e i n . e. S p e c i a l Experiments. Two of the a n t a r c t i c observers were i n t e r e s t e d m some s p e c i a l o b s ervations, the equipment for which was furnished by GRD. The Panel en- dorsed these programs and was g r a t i f i e d that the observers were i n t e r e s t e d i n under- taking t h i s personal r e s e a r c h . One program involved the use of the p a t r o l spectro- graph a t the South Pole S t a t i o n i n conjunction with a 24-hour r o t a t i n g t u r n t a b l e to obtain t w i l i g h t s p e c t r a . The other experiment involved a spectrograph a t E l l s w o r t h for observation of hydrogen-beta emission. 3. Scanning Spectrometer. N.J. O l i v e r introduced the suggestion that s e v e r a l scan- ning spectrometers be included i n the program a t c e r t a i n key l o c a t i o n s . T h i s i n s t r u - ment was developed by Dr. D.H. Hunten, U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan, and i t was f e l t that I t would c o n t r i b u t e to the study of a u r o r a l mechanisms. T h i s proposal was accepted by the Panel and d i s t r i b u t i o n of the instruments was l e f t to l a t e r d i s c u s - s i o n and recommendations from GRD. 4. L i a i s o n . a. Rocket Program. The Panel studied the document prepared by the T e c h n i c a l Panel on Rocketry which requested from appropriate panels information to a s s i s t i n the planning of the rocket program and the launching f a c i l i t y p r o j e c t e d for F o r t C h u r c h i l l , Canada. The major item of concern to the Panel was the need for informa- t i o n on ground s c i e n t i f i c support. I t was decided t h a t , inasmuch as the main launch- ing be located i n Canada, l i a i s o n should be e s t a b l i s h e d with Canadian s c i e n t i s t s . I t was r e a l i z e d that many of the members of the Panel had working r e l a t i o n s h i p s with t h e i r counterparts i n Canada and i t was recommended that t h i s informal l i a i s o n be con- tinued and that such information as could be obtained by supplied to the Rocket Panel. b. World Days and Communications. To represent the requirements of the A u r o r a l Program, the Aurora Panel recommended that A.M. Peterson be designated as l i a i s o n to the World Days and Communications Panel. T h i s Panel had been e s t a b l i s h e d to coordin- a t e the c o l l e c t i o n of information on s o l a r disturbances and d i s s e m i n a t i o n of warnings as p a r t of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l program. T h i s Panel a l s o attempted to a s s e s s the needs i n the United S t a t e s of s c i e n t i s t s who would r e q u i r e r a p i d communication with the c e n t r a l agency to r e c e i v e information on s o l a r t e r r e s t r i a l phenomena.

AURORA AND AIRGLOW 5. V i s u a l A u r o r a l Observations. I n d i s c u s s i n g how information might be obtained over a widespread a r e a , i t was decided that the commercial a i r l i n e s and the A i r Force be i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e by having p i l o t s r e p o r t on auroras that might be sighted. I t was a l s o recommended that the U.S. Weather Bureau be approached so that a u r o r a l obser- v a t i o n s could be taken a t many of t h e i r o b s e r v a t o r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the northern a r e a s . C.W. G a r t l e i n was designated to develop these contacts and look i n t o the kinds of r e p o r t i n g schemes t h a t might be u t i l i z e d . Drs. E l v e y and G a r t l e i n studied the sug- g e s t i o n that punchcards be used for recording and p r o c e s s i n g v i s u a l data and to make recommendations for s t a n d a r d i z i n g nomenclature of a u r o r a l f e a t u r e s and to develop sug- gestions for programs a t s t a t i o n s where there was to be no a l l - s k y camera. Drs. Chap- man and G a r t l e i n studied the problem of i n t e r n a t i o n a l coordination. I t was apparent that c o ordination with Canadian observers would be most important. Dr. B.W. C u r r i e of the U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan was i n v i t e d to attend one of the e a r l y meetings and l a t e r was asked to be a s p e c i a l c o n s u l t a n t to the Panel. Dr. Peter Millman of Canada was a l s o asked to be a c o n s u l t a n t . T h i s a c t i o n , along with Dr. G a r t l e i n ' s own long- e s t a b l i s h e d r e l a t i o n s h i p with these workers, led to the most u s e f u l coordination of the North American Program. The Panel recommended that C.W. G a r t l e i n be appointed the A u r o r a l Reporter for the United S t a t e s . 6. Stormertron. The Panel was informed of the development by Dr. W.H. Bennett, Naval Research Laboratory, of an instrument to study the paths of charged p a r t i c l e s under the i n f l u e n c e of a magnetized sphere and i t s p o t e n t i a l u s e f u l n e s s i n t h e o r e t i - c a l s t u d i e s r e l a t i n g to a u r o r a l occurrence and development. The Panel expressed i n t e r e s t i n t h i s equipment and hoped that Dr. Bennett could apply t h i s instrument to the study of a u r o r a l theory. 7. N o c t i l u c e n t Cloud Observations. N.J. O l i v e r informed the panel that GRD had a s p e c i a l spectrograph a v a i l a b l e and suggested that t h i s instrument be loaned to Dr. Paton, U n i v e r s i t y of Edinburgh, Scotland, for observations of n o c t i l u c e n t clouds and that t h i s be included <is a p r o j e c t of the A u r o r a l Panel a t no c o s t to the USNC. I t was agreed that t h i s was a worthwhile undertaking and was accepted. 8. Airglow Program. At an e a r l y meeting of the Panel, Dr. Roach explained the r e - cent developments by Dunn and Manring of Sacramento Peak whereby the astronomical background was eliminated from the a i r g l o w photometer, thus g r e a t l y enhancing the u s e f u l n e s s of the data. The Panel d i s c u s s e d the p o s s i b l e program i n airglow and accepted Dr. Roach's suggestions that s e v e r a l new automatic scanning airglow photo- meters be constructed. These would be of 4 - b a r r e l type observations a t 3 wavelengths, plus p r o v i s i o n for c a l i b r a t i o n . A number of older s i n g l e channel instruments would be modified for l o c a t i o n a t l e s s important s t a t i o n s . 9. A r c t i c Operations. I n view of the importance of observations i n the a r c t i c a r e a , the panel recommended that the m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s provide l o g i s t i c support for supply f l i g h t s and v i s i t s to remote l o c a t i o n s i n the A r c t i c and expressed the hope that the A i r Force could a s s i s t i n manning some of the s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s i n that a r e a . 10. Data Reduction and Exchange. S e v e r a l suggestions were d i s c u s s e d by the Panel as to how the v a s t amount of a u r o r a l data expected could be reduced and exchanged on a reasonable b a s i s . I t was thought that perhaps synoptic maps could be prepared for every 15 minutes and that Indexes of a u r o r a l a c t i v i t y might be prepared showing r e l a - t i o n s h i p s to other upper atmosphere phenomena. The use of punchcards, as mentioned e a r l i e r , was a l s o d i s c u s s e d as a means of handling data. The i n t e r n a t i o n a l exchange of data involved the question of the treatment of o r i - g i n a l f i l m . I t was recommended that o r i g i n a l f i l m be copied for exchange and that the i n v e s t i g a t o r should have the opportunity of r e t a i n i n g the o r i g i n a l f i l m for h i s own s t u d i e s . The Panel a l s o r a i s e d the question as to whether packages might be r o u t i n e l y X-rayed or inspected i n such a way, i n the course of i n t e r n a t i o n a l exchange, that might damage f i l m . The Academy's IGY s t a f f was asked to check with appropriate

AURORA AND AIRGLOW government agencies to see whether such a s i t u a t i o n might e x i s t with r e s p e c t to the United S t a t e s . Assurances were obtained and transmitted to the Panel that packages not r o u t i n e l y inspected i n any way that would damage exposed but undeveloped f i l m . a. A u r o r a l Data Center. E a r l y i n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l planning, d i s c u s s i o n s were held concerning the c o l l e c t i o n and interchange of IGY data. I t was thought, for example, that the Carnegie I n s t i t u t i o n of Washington might be i n t e r e s t e d i n undertaking to serve as a world data center for aurora and r e l a t e d upper atmosphere data. Drs. E l v e y , G a r t l e i n and V e s t i n e d i s c u s s e d t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y . Dr. V e s t i n e reported that the Carnegie I n s t i t u t i o n would only be i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s undertaking provided that i t were a t r u l y i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y upper atmosphere center, and even then i t was not sure that the I n s t i t u t i o n could undertake t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . b. P r o t e c t i o n of the I n t e r e s t s of the O r i g i n a l I n v e s t i g a t o r . The T e c h n i c a l Panel on Cosmic Rays had posed the question of the d e s i r a b i l i t y of a s s u r i n g that the c o l l e c t o r of data would have a reasonable opportunity to work on h i s data and p u b l i s h h i s r e s u l t s i n view of the r a p i d time t a b l e of exchange of data proposed by the CSAGI. The Aurora Panel f e l t t h at t h i s was not a s e r i o u s problem i n the f i e l d of aurora and airglow, where i n d i v i d u a l observations or observations from only part of a network of s t a t i o n s would not be very u s e f u l i n terms of s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h . The Panel saw no need to recommend a m p l i f i c a t i o n of CSAGI r e g u l a t i o n s toward t h i s purpose but did sug- gest that the proposed three-month i n t e r v a l of exchange of data might be extended to s i x months, 11. P u b l i c a t i o n P l a n s . Dr. Sydney Chapman d i s c u s s e d with the Panel the question of p u b l i c a t i o n i n the "Annals of the IGY" of v a r i o u s types of a u r o r a l data, i n c l u d i n g maps, i n d i c e s , c a t a l o g s of a l l - s k y camera o b s e r v a t i o n s , s t a t i o n d e s c r i p t i o n s and per- haps s p e c t r o s c o p i c data. The question was a l s o d i s c u s s e d of what form the a u r o r a l c o n t r i b u t i o n might take to the IGY calendar record of geophysical events which was designated to be prepared by the CSAGI Reporter for World Days, A.H. Shapley. 12. Post-IGY P o l a r Research. The Panel was informed t h a t , m view of the success of the IGY program i n the A n t a r c t i c and the l a r g e investment i n the f a c i l i t i e s there, I t had been agreed to continue a n t a r c t i c observations a f t e r the IGY. The Panel noted t h a t four of i t s members a l s o served on the Upper Atmosphere Panel of the Academy's newly c o n s t i t u t e d P o l a r Research Committee and i t was f e l t t h at consequently most of the Panel's views on a u r o r a l r e s e a r c h m polar regions would be adequately represented m planning the continued program.

AURORA AND AIRGLOW C. P r o j e c t O b j e c t i v e s and R e s u l t s 1. Summary of Program. The aurora program c o n s i s t e d of o b s e r v a t i o n a l networks based on the a l l - s k y camera, v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s , spectrographs, radar and cosmic n o i s e r e - cord e r s . Some p r o j e c t s were e s t a b l i s h e d for area operations and reduction of data. The a i r g l o w program was based on the automatic photometer. 2. Order of P r o i e c t D e s c r i p t i o n . The p r o j e c t s that a r e described i n the fol l o w i n g pages a r e i n numerical order to correspond with the o r i g i n a l formulation of the pro- gram. For convenience, the p r o j e c t s a r e grouped below to r e f l e c t s i m i l a r i t y of pur- pose. A l l - s k y camera V i s u a l observations P a t r o l spectrograph Scanning spectrograph High D i s p e r s i o n Spectrograph Radar Absorption Alaska Operations Thule GRD/Yerkes New Zealand Operations A r c t i c B a s i n A n t a r c t i c Airglow 13, 9 5, 1 .15, L.44 1.1, 1. 1.2, 1. 1.4, 1. 1.6 1.45 1.7, 1.43, 1.14 1.24 1.25 1.34 1.42 1.18, 1.38 1.3, 1.10, 1.17 11 1.16, 1,38 1,12, 1,20 3. C a n c e l l e d P r o i e c t s . Former p r o j e c t s bearing the following numbers were e l i m i n - ated from the program or combined with other p r o j e c t s : 1.19, 1,21 to 1.23, 1.26 to 1.33, 1.35 to 1.39 and 1.41.

AURORA AND AIRGLOW P r o j e c t 1.1 - A l l - S k y Camera C o n s t r u c t i o n 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t provided for the development and c o n s t r u c t i o n of a cam- era to photograph the complete overhead hemisphere (hence the term " a l l - s k y camera") for use a t U.S. aurora s t a t i o n s and a t c e r t a i n s t a t i o n s operated i n cooperation with other c o u n t r i e s . 2. Operations. A prototype design was made i n 1955j of s e v e r a l cameras b u i l t then, three continued to operate s u c c e s s f u l l y i n Alaska during the IGY, supplementing the more ela b o r a t e camera constructed under t h i s p r o j e c t . For the f i n a l design, the prototype was modified to conform with an instrument constructed by the Swedish s c i e n - t i s t , W. Stoffregen, I n which a folded o p t i c a l system r e s u l t e d i n a more compact design. Twenty-nine cameras of t h i s improved design were cons t r u c t e d under c o n t r a c t by Photomechanlsms, I n c . F i g . 1 i s a photograph of the camera assembly; F i g . 2 i s a schematic diagram of the o p t i c a l system ( f o r a complete d i s c u s s i o n see r e f e r e n c e c i t e d i n b i b l i o g r a p h y ) . Photographic t e s t s l e d to the adoption of EK T r i - X f i l m , developed i n D-19 f o r 7 minutes a t 68°F. P l a s t i c h emispherical domes were supplied f or each of the instruments except f or those i n the A n t a r c t i c , where the domes were a p a r t of the c o n s t r u c t i o n program there. I n s u l a t e d wooden housings were constructed f o r the cam- eras operated i n Alaska and heating systems provided a c i r c u l a t i o n of hot a i r around the base of the domes to i n h i b i t f r o s t formation. Programing mechanisms were provided to f i x exposure time and r e p e t i t i o n r a t e . Each frame contained information on s t a t i o n , time and date. Cameras were supplied to v a r i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s r e s p o n s i b l e f or operation of f i e l d s t a t i o n s , as follows: Geophysical I n s t . Alaskan Network 5 GRD/AFCRC A n t a r c t i c a and New Zealand 9 GRD/AFCRC A r c t i c B a s i n 2 C o r n e l l U.S. Network, E a s t e r n Canada 8 Stanford Pullman, Wash. S t a t i o n 1 CRPL-NBS, Boulder F r i t z Peak, Rapid C i t y 2 Yerkes Observatory Williams Bay, Shingleton 2 29 As noted above, three prototype instruments were a l s o used i n A l a s k a . 3. Personnel. The p r o j e c t was under the s u p e r v i s i o n of C.T. E l v e y , D i r e c t o r , Geo- p h y s i c a l I n s t i t u t e . A. Belon and T.N. Davis were a s s o c i a t e d with the work. 4. Bibliography. C.T. E l v e y , A. Belon: " D e s c r i p t i o n of the A l l - S k y Camera, I t s Method of Operation, An Instrument (Ascagraph) for Measuring the F i l m . " S c i e n t i f i c Report No. 1, 1957, IGY P r o j e c t 1.1, Geophysical I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y of A l a s k a . T.N. Davis, C.T. Elvey: "Construction of an A l l - S k y Camera." Geophysical Research Report No. 2, 1955, Geophysical I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y of A l a s k a . C.T. E l v e y , W. Stoffregen, A. Belon, S. Chapman, N. Herlofson: "Aurora and Airglow - Aur o r a l Photography by A l l - S k y Camera." Annals of the I n t e r - n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year, V ol. 5, P a r t 2, 1957. 10

AURORA AND AIRGLOW F i g u r e 1. The A l l - S k y Camera: A - s p h e r i c a l m i r r o r ; B-plane m i r r o r ; C - s t a t i o n , d a t e c o d i n g lamps; D-quarter hour lamp; E - z e n i t h d i s t a n c e lamps; F-geomagnetic l a t i t u d e lamps. LANE MIRROR C A M E R A S U P P O R T LASTIC DOME SPHERICAL MIRROR •ST^e" Ê TA-'R '^:.'ur^.S - S O L E N O I D DRIVE MECHANISM F i g u r e 2, O p t i c a l System o f t h e A l l - S k y Camera. 11

AURORA AND AIRGLOW P r o j e c t 1.2 - V i s u a l Aurora Observations 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y provided for systematic s y n o p t i c v i s u a l observations of the aurora i n the United S t a t e s , Alaska and the A n t a r c t i c , and assured the coordination of observations both I n the United S t a t e s and Canada. 2. Operations. During the IGY there were about 700 volunteer observers of whom about 350 p a r t i c i p a t e d a c t i v e l y . Through the cooperation of the U.S. Weather Bureau, r e - ports were a l s o r e c e i v e d from about 120 weather s t a t i o n s . The USWB used cards (mark sense) which reported on aurora over 5° of l a t i t u d e . A system of graphic r e p o r t i n g was developed by C.W. G a r t l e i n and D.S. Kim b a l l of USA and P.M. Millman of Canada for use by vol u n t e e r s i n the United S t a t e s and a l l observers i n Canada. T h i s graphic report allows r e p o r t i n g of the e n t i r e sky. The report form i s divided i n t o spaces to make for easy coding of data. On the a n t a r c t i c continent the programs began using a l i d a d e and mark sense cards of the type used i n the United S t a t e s i n 1955-56 i n a program sponsored by the USIA. Gradually t h i s program changed to Incorporate use of the graphic report form. The US vol u n t e e r s were supplied with simple i n c l i n o m e t e r s to enable e l e v a t i o n angles to be marked on the back of the cards. These c o s t approximately f o r t y cents each ( f o r a l o t of about 400). F i l t e r s of s t a i n e d g e l a t i n e on heavy p l a s t i c were obtained from Eastman Kodak Company. They were mounted i n g l a s s by Evaporated Metal F i l m s Company of I t h a c a . I n a d d i t i o n to supplying a l l US observers, i n c l u d i n g those i n the A n t a r c t i c , over 400 were sent to Canada i n exchange for aurora p l o t t i n g maps prepared t h e r e , and quan- t i t i e s of f i l t e r m a t e r i a l were supplied to A u s t r a l i a , New Zealand, Great B r i t a i n , Denmark, Sweden, R u s s i a , and Argentina. A data processing system was s e t up a t headquarters, C o r n e l l , to handle the r e - p o r t s . T h i s allowed an i n c r e a s e i n handling e f f i c i e n c y of about one hundred times over previous v i s u a l programs. T h i s i s described i n d e t a i l under P r o j e c t 1.9. 3. Personnel. T h i s work was under the s u p e r v i s i o n of C.W. G a r t l e i n and Gale Sprague, C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y . 4. Data. A l l observations were put on punch cards, which were used to p r i n t o f f l i s t s of data for compact storage. Data were p l o t t e d from the o r i g i n a l observations on p l o t t i n g maps showing a u r o r a l form, i n t e n s i t y and d i s t r i b u t i o n (see P r o j e c t 1.9). 5. R e s u l t s . Newsletters were sent to a l l observers and about 50 other i n t e r e s t e d persons from the beginning of the IGY to date. The l e t t e r s contain a d d i t i o n a l h i n t s on observing, r e s u l t s of observations and p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s e s . P r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s c a r r i e d out on P r o j e c t 1.9 shows a c l o s e r e l a t i o n between the magnetic K-lndex and l o c a t i o n of the overhead zone of aurora. I t a l s o shows a d i u r n a l e f f e c t causing auroras to be f a r t h e s t south a t midnight. 12

AURORA AND AIRGLOW 6. Bibliography. Newsletters No. 1 through 38. (Continued a f t e r the IGY under support from the National Science Foundation.) C.W. G a r t l e i n , Gale Sprague ( e d i t o r s ) - "IGY V i s u a l A u r o r a l Observations." IGY World Data Center-A General Report No. 12, November 1960, National Academy of Sc i e n c e s . " V i s u a l A u r o r a l Observations", IGY Annals. Vol. 4, pa r t I I , pp. 41-103. "Auroral Photography", IGY Annals. Vol. 4, part I I I , pp. 104-109. "Handbook for Reporting Auroras", C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , p. 25, 1957. "The V i s u a l A u r o r a l Program", IGY B u l l e t i n . No. 12, pp. 6-11, June 1958. "Auroral Observations a t the South Pole", IGY B u l l e t i n . No. 26, pp. 4-7, August 1959. "R e l a t i o n s h i p s between Auroras i n the Northern and Southern Hemispheres", IGY B u l l e t i n . No. 44, pp. 7-14, February 1961. " C o r r e l a t i o n of V i s u a l and Subvisual Arcs with Changes i n the Outer Van A l l e n R a d i a t i o n Zone", Jou r n a l Geophysical Res.. Vol. 65, pp. 2759-2766, September 1960. (IGY B u l l e t i n No. 45, pp. 1-6, March 1961) ( S t a t e Univer- s i t y of Iowa Report SUI-60-9.) "41 Mc/s IGY Auro r a l Radar a t I t h a c a , N.Y.", Jour n a l Geophysical Res.. Vol. 65, pp. 2255-2259, August 1960. "Auroral Absorption of Radar S i g n a l s " , J o u r n a l Geophysical Research. Vol. 67, pp. 3393-3396, August 1962. " V i s o p l o t s " , Annals of IGY. Volume 29. "Polar P l o t s of S e l e c t e d Northern Hemisphere Auroras", IGY Annals ( I n p r e s s ) , C.W. G a r t l e i n , D.S. K i m b a l l , Gale Sprague: "The O r i g i n and Morphology of the Aurora." P h y s i c s Department, C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1965. 13

AURORA AND AIRGLOW P r o j e c t 1.3 - Photometer Procurement 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t a t the C e n t r a l Radio Propagation Laboratory (CRPL), Boulder L a b o r a t o r i e s of the Nati o n a l Bureau of Standards, was organized i n order to co n s t r u c t photometers f o r air g l o w and aurora observations. 2. Operations. Two photometers were developed: (a) a b i r e f r i n g e n t f i l t e r u n i t f o l l o w i n g a design by Richar d Dunn, (b) a c a l i b r a t i o n photometer using i n t e r f e r e n c e f i l t e r s . S i x of the former and seven of the l a t t e r have been completed. The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of the b i r e f r i n g e n t f i l t e r a r e described i n a paper by Dunn and Manring. A modified Lyot f i l t e r i s o l a t e s the s p e c t r a l l i n e s [01] 5577, [01] 6300 and Nal 5890-96. Sky background l i g h t i s el i m i n a t e d i n s t r u m e n t a l l y . The mount per- mits scanning the sky i n e i t h e r v e r t i c a l c i r c l e s or almucantars. A complete survey o f the sky i n one c o l o r i s made i n f i v e minutes. The c a l i b r a t i n g photometer i s f i x e d i n p o s i t i o n and four s u c c e s s i v e f i l t e r s i n conju n c t i o n with a s i n g l e t e l e s c o p e give readings on four c o l o r s every f i v e minutes. Instruments were provided to operating agencies f or d i s t r i b u t i o n as fol l o w s : B i r e f r i n g e n t F i l t e r Photometers Geophysical I n s t . , U. of Al a s k a CRPL, NBS CRPL, NBS GRD, AFCRC A u s t r a l i a I n s t . Geophys. de Huancayo C o l l e g e , A l a s k a F r i t z Peak, Colorado Rapid C i t y , South Dakota Sacramento Peak Obs., New Mexico Camden, A u s t r a l i a Huancayo, Peru C a l i b r a t i o n Photometers GRD, AFCRC GRD, AFCRC GRD, AFCRC NBS (Boulder) NBS (Boulder) U n i v e r s i t y of Hawaii Thule, Greenland A n t a r c t i c a ( H a l l e t t ) Sacramento Peak F r i t z Peak (2 instruments) Laboratory Maui 3. Personnel. The p r o j e c t was tinder the s u p e r v i s i o n of F.E. Roach, CRPL. The i n - struments were constructed i n the NBS shops by A. Borgesson and R.C. Darr under the s u p e r v i s i o n of L.R. M e g l l l and CM. Purdy. 4. Bibliography. Ric h a r d Dunn and E.R. Manring: "J.O.S.A.". V o l . 46, no. 573, 1956. 14

AURORA AND AIRGLOW P r o j e c t 1.4 - P a t r o l Spectrograph - Prototype Development 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t a t Yerkes Observatory, U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago, was i n i - t i a t e d to provide for the development of a p a t r o l spfectrograph with automatic opera- t i o n that could then be manufactured under c o n t r a c t for the U.S. s t a t i o n network. 2. Operations. The design of the spectrograph was c a r r i e d out a t Yerkes and a proto- type was developed. S p e c i f i c a t i o n s were prepared for the manufacture of a number of Instruments and a r e as f o l l o w s : C o l l i m a t o r , P e t z v a l , Two Separated Doublets F o c a l Length, 24 inch Working Aperture, f/8 Transmission G r a t i n g , 600 lines/mm, blazed for 1 s t order a t 5100 A Camera, Semi-Solid Schmidt Aperture, 3-inch, f/0.625 D i s p e r s i o n , 1 s t order, 350 A/mm T e s t i n g of the prototype was done a t Yerkes. Observers for the A n t a r c t i c were t r a i n e d a t Yerkes i n the use of the spectrograph. 3. Personnel. The p r o j e c t was organized under the d i r e c t i o n of A.B. Melnel a t Yerkes Observatory and N.J. O l i v e r a t the A i r Force Cambridge Research Center. J.W. Chamber- l a i n r e placed Dr. Melnel when the l a t t e r moved to K l t t Peak Na t i o n a l Observatory i n Tucson. 15

AURORA AND AIRGLOW P r o j e c t 1.5 - P a t r o l Spectrograph - Procurement 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t was organized by the Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e , A i r Force Cambridge Research L a b o r a t o r i e s (AFCRL) to s u p e r v i s e the manufacture by Perkin-Elmer Corp. and procurement of the P a t r o l Spectrograph developed under P r o j e c t 1.4. The program was developed with the following o b j e c t i v e s : a. A p r o f i l e of s p e c t r a l f e a t u r e s of the aurora along a l o n g i t u d i n a l l i n e would be obtained. T h i s p r o f i l e was expected to y i e l d information on the production of a u r o r a l luminosity i n the E a r t h ' s atmosphere by primary protons (and perhaps other p a r t i c l e s ) and by r e s u l t a n t secondary p r o c e s s e s . b. A study of the behavior of the a u r o r a l hydrogen spectrum and the c h a r a c t e r of I t s components was expected to be of p a r t i c u l a r importance, e s p e c i a l l y as a f u n c t i o n of l a t i t u d e , type and height. I t was hoped t h a t t h i s study would prove very v a l u a b l e for the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a u r o r a l processes and a s s i s t i n the e v a l u a t i o n and develop- ment of var i o u s t h e o r i e s of a u r o r a l formation. c. A d d i t i o n a l information would be provided on the i n t e n s i t i e s of atomic l i n e s and bands, and t h e i r v a r i a t i o n s with a u r o r a l height and type a s a fun c t i o n of l a t i t u d e , time of day, magnetic and s o l a r c o n d i t i o n s . d. Data from w i t h i n , on, and ou t s i d e the southern zone of maximum a u r o r a l occur- rence a t IGY s t a t i o n s were to be gained. E s s e n t i a l l y no spectrographic data on the aurora a u s t r a l i s were i n e x i s t e n c e . These data alone were expected to be extremely v a l u a b l e i n themselves; moreover, c o r r e l a t i o n s t u d i e s of simultaneous events o c c u r r i n g i n both polar regions would be i n v a l u a b l e for a b e t t e r understanding of the t h e o r i e s of a u r o r a l formation and the behavior of charged p a r t i c l e s i n the E a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d . 2. Operations. S i x t e e n instruments were covered by t h i s p r o j e c t and two instruments were provided by GRD. Seven spectrographs were shipped to D a v i s v i l l p f o r t r a n s p o r t to a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s ; the remainder to GRD and a c t u a l s t a t i o n l o c a t i o n s , which were: A r c t i c D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n A Co l l e g e , A l a s k a Bedford, Massachusetts F r i t z Peak, Colorado I t h a c a , New York Rapid C i t y , South Dakota Sacramento Peak, New Mexico Shingleton, Michigan Williams Bay, Wisconsin Amundsen-Scott (South P o l e ) , A n t a r c t i c a Byrd S t a t i o n , A n t a r c t i c a E l l s w o r t h S t a t i o n , A n t a r c t i c a L i t t l e America S t a t i o n , A n t a r c t i c a (plus spare) Wilkes S t a t i o n , A n t a r c t i c a H a l l e t t S t a t i o n , A n t a r c t i c a (coop, with New Zealand) Thule, Greenland Awarua, New Zealand (coop, w i t h New Zealand) 3. Personnel. T h i s p r o j e c t was under the d i r e c t i o n of N.J. O l i v e r , GRD. 4. Data. Spectra were processed and examined with a microdensitometer, and logs prepared. For d e t a i l s see p r o j e c t 1.11. 5. R e s u l t s . P a t r o l spectrographs were operated as a p a r t of a u r o r a l programs of s e v e r a l agencies. For example, see p r o j e c t 1.14 for a d e s c r i p t i o n of some spectro- s c o p i c observations of the Feb. 10-11, 1958 aurora. 16

AURORA AND AIRGLOW P r o j e c t 1.6 - Scanning Spectrometer - Procurement 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t a t the Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e , A i r Force Cambridge Research L a b o r a t o r i e s (AFCRL) was organized to procure two scanning spectro- meters, based on the design of D.M. Hunten, for the U.S. program. AFCRL supplied two a d d i t i o n a l instruments. The scanning spectrometer program was designed to provide information on the r a - pid changes of a u r o r a l s p e c t r a during periods of high geomagnetic a c t i v i t y such as were expected during the period of IGY. The l a t i t u d e v a r i a t i o n of short l i v e d auro- r a l s p e c t r a l f e a t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y the O2 bands, would provide much u s e f u l information on the c o n s t i t u e n t - a l t i t u d e p r o f i l e where records could be c o r r e l a t e d with height mea- surements. Studies of r a p i d v a r i a t i o n s of sodium and other atomic l i n e s would y i e l d new information, i n c l u d i n g probable energies involved, on e x c i t a t i o n p r o c e s s e s . Placement of these instruments a t d i f f e r e n t geomagnetic l a t i t u d e s . I n c l u d i n g Antarc- t i c a , would provide adequate geographical coverage f or t h i s p r o j e c t . During periods of no a u r o r a l a c t i v i t y and during t w i l i g h t i n the po l a r r e g i o n s , much data on the behavior and height of the sodium emissions could be obtained. 2. Operations. AFCRL and D.M. Hunten supervised the c o n s t r u c t i o n of Instruments and shipment to s t a t i o n s . The instruments under t h i s p r o j e c t were i n s t a l l e d a t C o l l e g e , A l a s k a ; Williams Bay, Wisconsin; Bedford, Massachusetts; and L i t t l e America ( i n 1958), A n t a r c t i c a . P r o j e c t 1.7 - Auro r a l Radar - Procurement 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t , a t the Geophysical I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y of A l a s k a , was o r i g i n a t e d to design and c o n s t r u c t , or have constructed under c o n t r a c t , ten radars f o r a u r o r a l observation. The a u r o r a l radar echoes a r e not n e c e s s a r i l y c o i n c i d e n t with the o p t i c a l auroras as the s i g n a l i s returned from e l e c t r o n s a s s o c i a t e d with the auro- r a . Research i n A l a s k a using pulsed s i g n a l s has demonstrated that echoes from auro- r a l i o n i z a t i o n a r e fr e q u e n t l y c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d with the v i s u a l a u r o r a l forms. 2. Operations. A prototype radar was constructed a t the Geophysical I n s t i t u t e . A c o n t r a c t to b u i l d nine a d d i t i o n a l u n i t s was awarded to L e v i n t h a l E l e c t r o n i c s Products, I n c . , Palo A l t o . The Instruments were I n s t a l l e d a t : C o l l e g e , Kotzebue, F a r e w e l l , King Salmon, Unalaska, and Barrow, A l a s k a . Three were shipped to the U.S. f o r i n s t a l l m e n t a t Pullman, Washington; Rapid C i t y , South Dakota; and I t h a c a , New York. An instrument was a l s o I n s t a l l e d i n cooperation with A u s t r a l i a , a t McQuarle I s l a n d , approximately the magnetic conjugate point to Kotzebue, A l a s k a . Arrangements were made with the C i v i l Aeronautics A d m i n i s t r a t i o n to provide housing and e l e c t r i c a l power for the equipment a t King Salmon, F a r e w e l l , and Kotze- bue, A l a s k a . The A r c t i c Research Laboratory supplied housing and e l e c t r i c a l power for the s t a t i o n a t Barrow, Al a s k a . Operation of the s t a t i o n a t Unalaska was made p o s s i b l e through the cooperation of the U.S. Navy. 3. Personnel. The p r o j e c t was under the d i r e c t i o n of C.T. E l v e y , D i r e c t o r , Geophy- s i c a l I n s t i t u t e , who was a s s i s t e d by R.S, Leonard of the r e s e a r c h s t a f f , T. N e l l Davis, coordinator of f i e l d o perations, made the necessary f i e l d arrangements. 4. Bibliography. R.S. Leonard: "A Low Power VHF Radar for A u r o r a l Research". Proc. I.R.E, Vol. 47, No. 2, February 1959, p. 320. 17

AURORA AND AIRGLOW P r o j e c t 1.9 - Aurora Data A c q u i s i t i o n and Pr o c e s s i n g 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y was s e t up to reduce to punch card form data from a l l - s k y cameras and v i s u a l o b s e r v e r s , prepare synoptic maps and s t a t i s - t i c a l t a b l e s , and d i s t r i b u t e l a r g e numbers of m u l t l l l t h c o p ies. 2. Operations. V i s u a l observations were sent to C o r n e l l i n diagram form and a l s o i n mark-sense form. Where data were not supplied I n mark-sense form, punch cards were made and processed. L i s t s of data were run o f f the punch cards and submitted to WDC-A: Aurora ( V i s u a l ) f o r tr a n s m i s s i o n to other WDC's. O r i g i n a l r e p o r t s from v o l u n t e e r s and l i s t s of data from the USW6 cards were prepared f or p l o t t i n g the US po r t i o n of the aurora d i s t r i b u t i o n map made by WDC-A: Aurora ( V i s u a l ) . The USWB cards for a l l the s t a t i o n s f or each n i g h t were used by the IBM 407 accounting machine to p r i n t a u t o m a t i c a l l y the bri g h t n e s s and form of aurora i n l a t i - tude-longitude a r r a y . These sheets were used to p l o t the Weather Bureau data on the f i n a l maps. A d d i t i o n a l s e t s of the sheets were given to World Data Center-A f or t r a n s - m i t t a l to WDC-B and WDC-C. T h i s p r o j e c t , i n e f f e c t , supplied the raw m a t e r i a l s f or the Auro r a l Data Center where they were f u r t h e r processed and analyzed. 3. Personnel. T h i s work was under the s u p e r v i s i o n of C.W. G a r t l e i n and Gale Sprague, C o r n e l l , and c a r r i e d out by Mrs. Mary De Long, Mrs. Lorena Jump and Miss Marcia Van Dusen. 4. Data. IGY IGC-59 O r i g i n a l Volunteer Data O r i g i n a l USWB Cards A n t a r c t i c Weather Bureau P l o t t e d Data US Maps US V i s o p l o t s - aurora p o s i t i o n and form versus UT hours 30,000 p o s i t i v e 120,000 negative 100,000 53,000 mark-sense and a l i d a d e plus o r i g i n a l notebooks 3,900 sheets 3,400 420 sheets 10,000 p o s i t i v e r e p o r t s only 50,000 25,000 3,000 pages 1,400 5. R e s u l t s and Bibliography. (See P r o j e c t 1.2) 18

AURORA AND AIRGLOW P r o j e c t 1.10 - Data Reduction - Airglow 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t was s e t up a t the C e n t r a l Radio Propagation Laboratory, of the National Bureau of Standards, for the r e d u c t i o n of data from the r a p i d - scanning quadruple-telescope photometers d e s c r i b e d I n P r o j e c t 1.3. 2. Operations. The data reduction was c a r r i e d out I n two steps: (a) the r o u t i n e determination of the a b s o l u t e z e n i t h i n t e n s i t y f o r each hour of o b s e r v a t i o n , (b) the systematic determination of i n t e n s i t i e s over the e n t i r e sky for 80 points plus the z e n i t h . I n both c a s e s , the o r i g i n a l records were d i g i t i z e d and the readings put on punched cards with a Benson-Lehner u n i t . The z e n i t h readings a r e included I n the "Annals of the IGY" volume of a i r g l o w o b s e r v a t i o n s . The more e x t e n s i v e m a t e r i a l covering the observations over the sky was used i n v a r i o u s r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s . The l a r g e problem of mass data p r o c e s s i n g was f a c i l i t a t e d by the use of an IBM 650 e l e c t r o n i c computer. The complete work included not only the IGY-IGC data from F r i t z Peak and Rapid C i t y but a l s o s e v e r a l y e a r s of data from Cactus Peak ( C a l i f o r n i a ) . The e n t i r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l f o r the a i r g l o w volume of the Annals was put on cards from which the book was d i r e c t l y p r i n t e d . 3. Personnel. T h i s work was under the d i r e c t i o n of F.E. Roach; J.M, McCaulley and E. Marovich a s s i s t e d . 4. Bibliography. F.E. Roach: "Manual for Photometric Observations of the Airglow During the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year". NBS Report 5006, 1956. F.E. Roach: "IGY Airglow Data". Annals of the IGY. V o l . 25. 19

AURORA AND AIRGLOW Th i s information was published i n the Annals f o r the IGY and d i s t r i b u t e d to the IGY World Data C e n t e r s . The o r i g i n a l f i l m s a r e stored a t WDC-A: Aurora ( I n s t r u m e n t a l ) , Geophysical I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y of A l a s k a . 3. Personnel. T h i s work was supervised by N.J. O l i v e r and Ann L. C a r r l g a n , GRD; the photometric a n a l y s i s was c a r r i e d out under the s u p e r v i s i o n of Rev. F r . D e v l i n , S.J., Boston C o l l e g e . 4. Bibliography. F r a n c i s D e v l i n , S.J., N.J. O l i v e r , Ann L. C a r r l g a n : "Auroral Spectro- graph Data", Annals of the IGY. Vol. 25, 1964. 22

AURORA AND AIRGLOW Pro j e c t 1,12 - Airglow Headquarters 1, Oblectlves. This p r o j e c t a t Central Radio Propagation Laboratory (CRPL), National Bareaa of Standards, provided f o r coordination of IGY photometer observations, supply of the airglow network, and operation of s t a t i o n s a t Rapid C i t y , S, D,; F r i t z Peak, Colorado; and cooperative work a t Hoancayo Geophysical Observatory, Peru, 2, Operations, Headquarters operations a t Boulder included the making of arrange- ments f o r f i e l d operations and the supervision of f i e l d a c t i v i t i e s , which were as f o l l o w s : a. The undertaking a t F r i t z Peak, Colorado, of a major aurora and air g l o w obser- v a t i o n a l program i n c l u d i n g t e s t i n g and operation of the f i r s t IGY scanning photoelec- t r i c photometer and operation of an a l l - s k y camera, and a p a t r o l spectrograph, b. Operation of an aurora and airglow s t a t i o n a t Rapid C i t y , South Dakota—a po i n t between F r i t z Peak and the Canadian s t a t i o n a t Saskatoon. I n a d d i t i o n t o an a l l - s k y camera and p a t r o l spectrograph, an a u r o r a l radar experiment was i n s t a l l e d i n cooperation w i t h Stanford U n i v e r s i t y (see P r o j e c t 1,16), c. A t the permanent geopt^rsical observatory a t Huancayo, Peru, a recording a i r - glow photometer was operated during IGY. NBS re t a i n e d the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e responsi- b i l i t y ; the s c i e n t i f i c supervision was by E. R. Manring o f the Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e , AFCRL. Personnel under t h i s p r o j e c t also v i s i t e d the A u s t r a l i a n i n s t a l l a t i o n and assisted i n i n s t a l l a t i o n and preparation f o r the IGY observations. F, E. Roach v i s i t e d a irglow i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n A u s t r a l i a , Japan, I n d i a , USSR and France t o i n t e r c a l l b r a t e i n s t r u - ments. Dr. Roach also acted as co-chairman of a working group (under CSAGI and CIG) on airglow data t o prepare and e d i t the data f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i n the "Annals of the IGY" 3, Personnel. This work was under the supervision of F, E. Roach, CRPL. Also en- gaged p r o f e s s i o n a l l y i n the p r o j e c t were Manfred Rees, Lawrence R. M e g l l l , Edward Marovich, J. W. McCaulley and C M , Purdy, 4, Data, Data from the IGY have been processed and submitted t o the IGY World Data Centers. 5, Results. a. S t a t i s t i c a l . I n a series of papers [ 2 , 3, 4, 5] the d i s t r i b u t i o n of z e n i t h i n t e n s i t i e s of the airglow r a d i a t i o n 5577 of atomic oxygen has been studied. As a r e s u l t of these studies the hypothesis has been advanced t h a t the 5577 airglow and the 5577 aurora have a common physical o r i g i n . I l l u s t r a t i o n s of the k i n d of informa- t i o n used i n the argument are shown i n Figures 3 and 4 (4 s t a t i o n histograms). I t i s seen t h a t there I s a steady gradation of d i s t r i b u t i o n s from the sub-anroral zone (FP and RC), t o the gecmagnetic pole (Thule) and t o the a u r o r a l zone (College). Farther- more, there i s no evidence o f a bl-modal d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n t e n s i t i e s as might be ex- pected f o r two d i s t i n c t and separate modes of e x c i t a t i o n . b. Synoptic. An i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of our F r i t z Peak observations i s t h a t the o p t i - c a l l y observed s t r u c t u r e of 5577 i n the nlghtglow i s due t o the existence of " c e l l s " of size about 2500 km [ l l ] located a t a height of about 100 km. Evidence has been brought out suggesting t h a t these c e l l s move i n a s i m i l a r fashion as do cy c l o n i c storms a t the Earth's surface, w i t h speeds of about 100 meters/second [ 1 2 ] , A series of drawings o f such c e l l s made a t one hour i n t e r v a l s during a n i g h t I s shown i n Figure 5. 23

AURORA AND AIRGLOW 2 3 4 LOG Q IN RAYLEIGHS Figure 3. Relative Occurrence o£ 5577 Radiation f o r Rapid C i t y , S.D.; F r i t z Peak, Colorado; Thule, Greenland; and College, Alaska. J" 1 \ THULE o 20 AURORAm AURORA I AURORA! FRrrZ PEAK RAPID CITY 3 4 LOO 0 IN RAVLEIOHS Figure 4. Percent Occurrences of 5577 Radiation. Aurora I , I I , I I I represent increasing i n t e n s i t i e s of auroral displays. 24