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XX ANTARCTIC RESEARCH PROGRAM Byrd S t a t i o n , A n t a r c t i c a
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH PROGRAM Page A. Organization and Membership of USNC-IGY A n t a r c t i c Committees and Working Groups 853 B. A n t a r c t i c S t a t i o n s 856 C. A n t a r c t i c Mapping Program 0.1 P r e p a r a t i o n of Master Map of A n t a r c t i c a 860 0. 2 P r e p a r a t i o n of A n t a r c t i c Maps 860 D. A n t a r c t i c S c i e n t i f i c Programs 1. Aurora 861 2. Cosmic Rays 861 3. Geomagnetism 861 4. G l a c i o l o g y 862 5. G r a v i t y 865 6. Ionospheric P h y s i c s 865 7. Meteorology 866 8. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Weather C e n t r a l 866 9. Oceanography 867 10. Seismology 867 11. Biology and Medicine 867 E. L o g i s t i c Support 868 F. S c i e n t i f i c Personnel 868 852
XX. ANTARCTIC RESEARCH PROGRAM The U.S. Nati o n a l Committee for the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year noted espe- c i a l l y the recommendations of the Rome CSAGI meeting held September 30-October 4, 1954 and the recommendations and r e s o l u t i o n s of subsequent CSAGI meetings, i n e s t a b l i s h i n g the U.S. a n t a r c t i c s c i e n t i f i c program. S i x major s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d i n A n t a r c t i c a to c a r r y out the U.S. s c i e n t i f i c program during the IGY. P r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s and government agencies (con- cerned with s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h ) conducted s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h a t these s t a t i o n s . (See Table I for l i s t of agencies and i n s t i t u t i o n s . ) L o g i s t i c support for the a n t a r c t i c program was furnished by the Department of Defense. A. Organization and Membership of USNC-IGY A n t a r c t i c Committees and Working Groups 1. USNC-IGY A n t a r c t i c Regional Committee. T h i s committee was e s t a b l i s h e d by the USNC- IGY i n mid-1953 to consider U.S. p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the IGY a n t a r c t i c geophysical r e - search program and to prepare a report o u t l i n i n g the number of s t a t i o n s r e q u i r e d , scope of the s c i e n t i f i c program, required l o g i s t i c support for the program, and per- sonnel requirements. I t s membership included: N.C. Gerson, Chairman F i n n Ronne Bernt Balchen Paul A. S i p l e E l l i o t B. Roberts I n October 1953, the Committee completed i t s study which recommended that: a. the U.S. should p a r t i c i p a t e i n the IGY a n t a r c t i c program, b. a t l e a s t three U.S. s t a t i o n s should be e s t a b l i s h e d on the a n t a r c t i c continent, c. the Department of Defense should be requested to supply l o g i s t i c support and h o u s e k e e p i n g j e r s o n n e l , and d. the s c i e n t i f i c program should i n c l u d e meteorology, ionospheric p h y s i c s , aurora, geomagnetism and cosmic r a y s . Having completed i t s task, the Committee was disbanded e a r l y i n 1954. 2. USNC-IGY A n t a r c t i c Committee. E s t a b l i s h e d i n mid-1954 by the USNC-IGY to imple- ment and augment, as app r o p r i a t e , the recommendations of the A n t a r c t i c Regional Com- mittee ( d i s s o l v e d i n e a r l y 1954), the USNC-IGY A n t a r c t i c Committee was charged with the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for a l l matters p e r t a i n i n g to the U.S.-IGY a n t a r c t i c s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h program. I t s membership included: Laurence M. Gould, Chairman George Dufek Richard E. Byrd, Honorary Chairman Nathan C. Gerson Harry Wexler, Vice-Chairman Grant H i l l i k e r Bernt Balchen Hugh Odishaw Richard B. Black Alan H. Shapley A l b e r t P. Cr a r y Paul A. S i p l e Edwin Crowley A. L i n c o l n Washburn 853
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH Consultants J . Glenn Dyer W i l l i a m 0. F i e l d F i n n Ronne S e c r e t a r i a t (IGY S t a f f ) Gerhard S c h i l l i n g ( t o March 1955) John Hanessian (from Mar. 1955 to J u l , John M. Jones (from J u l y 1957) 1957) a. Summary of Committee Work. The work of the Committee included ( i ) formula- t i o n and implementation of f i n a l p lans f o r the U.S.-IGY a n t a r c t i c program, ( l i ) pre- p a r a t i o n of budget estimates and j u s t i f i c a t i o n s i n support of the s c i e n t i f i c program, ( i i i ) s e l e c t i o n , screening, o u t f i t t i n g and i n d o c t r i n a t i o n of a l l s c i e n t i f i c personnel who were u l t i m a t e l y assigned to the a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s , ( i v ) l i a i s o n with p r i v a t e i n - s t i t u t i o n s , government and m i l i t a r y agencies concerning s c i e n t i f i c programs and equip- ment, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , communications, housing and command r e l a t i o n s h i p s , (v) l i a i s o n w ith other c o u n t r i e s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the IGY a n t a r c t i c program, i n c l u d i n g U.S. r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the Committee a t appropriate i n t e r n a t i o n a l conferences. E i g h t meet- ings were h e l d by the A n t a r c t i c Committee; a l l were held i n Washington, D.C. on the fol l o w i n g dates: October 13, 1954 January 20, 1955 A p r i l 7, 1955 May 19, 1955 August 24, 1955 October 14, 1955 March 12, 1956 J u l y 13, 1956 b. Working Groups. To expedite the work of the A n t a r c t i c Committee, the follow- ing ad hoc groups were appointed: ( i ) Panel on A n t a r c t i c P o l i c i e s : e s t a b l i s h e d to consider problems and make r e - commendations to the Committee concerning (a) i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation i n the Antarc- t i c and (b) p o l i c i e s a f f e c t i n g the USNC-IGY r e l a t i o n s with the Operations Coordination Board of the N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l and the Department of Defense. Membership i n - cluded: A. L i n c o l n Washburn, Chairman Grant G. H i l l i k e r Hugh Odishaw Alan H. Shapley Lloyd V. Berkner ( E x - O f f i c i o ) S e c r e t a r i a t (IGY S t a f f ) John Hanessian ( i i ) Panel on L o g i s t i c s ; e s t a b l i s h e d to review the l o g i s t i c s requirements for the a n t a r c t i c program, review and coordinate DOD plans to f u l f i l l the needs of the s c i e n t i f i c program and review proposals submitted by the USNC A n t a r c t i c Planning S t a f f of the P o l a r Operations O f f i c e , U.S. Weather Bureau, which was i n i t i a l l y charged with developing l o g i s t i c s requirements for the s c i e n t i f i c program. Membership i n - cluded: Paul A. S i p l e , Chairman Bernt Balchen Ric h a r d Black J . Glenn Dyer W i l l i a m 0. F i e l d Nathan G, Gerson S e c r e t a r i a t (IGY S t a f f ) Gerhard S c h i l l i n g (to Feb. 1956) R.C. Peavey (from Feb. 1956) ( l i i ) Personnel S e l e c t i o n Board: e s t a b l i s h e d to (a) s e t p o l i c i e s r e l a t i n g to s e l e c t i o n of s c i e n t i f i c personnel for a n t a r c t i c assignments, (b) i n s t i t u t e procedures for s c r e e n i n g of candidates for f i n a l approval by the A n t a r c t i c Committee, ( c ) assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f or determining n o n - t e c h n i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of candidates, and (d) serve i n an a d v i s o r y c a p a c i t y to the A n t a r c t i c Committee i n regard to recruitment of s c i e n t i s t s for the program. 854
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH Membership included: Paul A. S i p l e , Chairman A l b e r t P. Crary R i c h a r d B. Black J . Glenn Dyer W i l l i a m 0. F i e l d Alan H. Shapley L . J . Thompson S e c r e t a r i a t (IGY S t a f f ) Henry S. F r a n c i s , J r . W i l l i a m M. Smith ( i v ) Study Group on Cold Weather C l o t h i n g : e s t a b l i s h e d to determine the type and q u a n t i t y of co l d weather c l o t h i n g r e q u i r e d to o u t f i t the U.S. IGY a n t a r c t i c s c i e n t i s t s and make recommendations to the A n t a r c t i c Committee concerning methods of procurement and d i s t r i b u t i o n . Membership included: A l b e r t P. Cr a r y R i c h a r d B. Black Robert Forbes E.E. Hedblom A l b e r t P r i c e F i n n Ronne Paul A. S i p l e E.A. Wood ( f o r J.G. Dyer) S e c r e t a r i a t (IGY S t a f f ) Henry S. F r a n c i s , J r . George R. Toney Pet e r H. Wood 855
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH B. A n t a r c t i c S t a t i o n s With recommendations of the CSAGI i n mind, the USNC-IGY A n t a r c t i c Committee (with the approval of the USNC-IGY) e s t a b l i s h e d a network of s i x s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s i n Ant- a r c t i c a . Two were located deep m the i n t e r i o r of the Continent and four a t widely separated c o a s t a l a r e a s . F i n a l s i t e s e l e c t i o n s were coordinated with other p a r t i c i p a - t i n g n a t i o n s m order to provide maximum geophysical coverage. (Table I I l i s t s the U.S. IGY A n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s , t h e i r l o c a t i o n , and s c i e n t i f i c program.) 1. L i t t l e America S t a t i o n : e s t a b l i s h e d i n January 1956 on the Ross I c e S h e l f a t K a i - nan Bay, edging the Ross Sea. I t served as the headquarters s t a t i o n for the U.S. IGY a n t a r c t i c s c i e n t i f i c program and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l A n t a r c t i c Weather C e n t r a l , i n c l u d i n g f a c i l i t i e s f o r the a s s o c i a t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l communications network. The s t a t i o n was a l s o used as a base of operations f or the Ross I c e S h e l f t r a v e r s e party during 1957-58. 2. Amundsen-Scott South Pole S t a t i o n ; e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n a thousand yards of the geo- graphic south pole, 90''S, November 1956. The l o c a t i o n o f f e r e d a unique opportunity for r e s e a r c h on g l a c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , the e f f e c t s of ionospheric a c t i v i t y , and a u r o r a l phenomenon w i t h i n the maximum a u r o r a l zone. As the extreme southern high l a t i t u d e met- e o r o l o g i c a l observation s t a t i o n , i t was the terminal s t a t i o n to the i n t e r n a t i o n a l pole- to-pole meteorological network. 3. Byrd S t a t i o n ; located i n the i n t e r i o r of Mane Byrd Land, the s t a t i o n f a c i l i t a t e d the study of "pressure surges" from the area of 80°S, 20°W rev e a l e d by observations taken by S c o t t E x p e d i t i o n a h a l f - c e n t u r y ago. Together with other s t a t i o n s near the edge and w i t h i n the maximum aurora zone, Byrd S t a t i o n provided an e x c e l l e n t opportunity for comprehensive observations of the aurora a u s t r a l i a . The s t a t i o n a l s o served as a home base f or stag i n g one of the over-snow s c i e n t i f i c t r a v e r s e s . 4. E l l s w o r t h S t a t i o n : e s t a b l i s h e d January 1957 on the F i l c h n e r I c e S h e l f e a s t of Gould Bay i n the Weddell Sea, the s t a t i o n served as another base f o r t r a v e r s e operations conducted during the 1957-58 and 1958-59 a u s t r a l summers. The second t r a v e r s e from E l l s w o r t h terminated a t the Byrd S t a t i o n . " W h i s t l e r " s t u d i e s were conducted here for c o r r e l a t i o n with a conjugate point i n Laborador. The s c i e n t i f i c program was coordin- ated with those of the neighboring Argentine and United Kingdom s t a t i o n s . 5. H a l l e t t S t a t i o n : e s t a b l i s h e d January 1957 and operated j o i n t l y with New Zealand. I t f i l l e d an extremely important r o l e i n the meteorological network on the A n t a r c t i c Continent. I n a d d i t i o n to geophysical programs m aurora, ionospheric p h y s i c s , geo- magnetism, and seismology, H a l l e t t a l s o proved v a l u a b l e as an emergency landing f i e l d for a i r c r a f t operating between New Zealand and the Naval A i r F a c i l i t y , McMurdo Sound and communications r e l a y s t a t i o n . 6. Wilkes S t a t i o n ; e s t a b l i s h e d during January 1957 on C l a r k I s l a n d i n Vincennes Bay o f f the Knox Coast. T h i s s t a t i o n was placed between the French s t a t i o n , Dianont d' U r v i l l e and the So v i e t s t a t i o n Mimy. Easy a c c e s s to the i c e cap permitted e s t a b l i s h - ment of a small s t a t i o n (S-1) some 50 m i l e s i n l a n d which was used for m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and g l a c i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s . I n a d d i t i o n , the presence of bedrock a t the main s t a t i o n s i t e made an e x c e l l e n t l o c a t i o n f o r s e i s m i c s t u d i e s . Because of i t s proximity to the geomagnetic pole, Wilkes S t a t i o n was s e l e c t e d as the l o c a t i o n of s p e c i a l cosmic ray equipment. S p e c i a l s t u d i e s i n oceanography and zoology were a l s o c a r r i e d out. 7. Naval A i r F a c i l i t y , McMurdo: The Naval A i r F a c i l i t y , l o c a t e d on Ross I s l a n d i n McMurdo Sound, served as the main base f or a i r c r a f t operations between New Zealand and the A n t a r c t i c . I t was used e x t e n s i v e l y for a i r c r a f t maintenance, f i e l d party opera- t i o n s , t r a n s i e n t housing, meteorological observations and as a communications cent e r . From t h i s F a c i l i t y , s u p p l i e s and m a t e r i a l were a i r - l i f t e d for the c o n s t r u c t i o n , main- tenance, and resupply of the South P o l e and Byrd S t a t i o n s . During the summer months, McMurdo was augmented by a u x i l i a r y a i r c r a f t f a c i l i t i e s a t the foot of the Beardmore G l a c i e r . 856
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH Table I INSTITUTIONS AND AGENCIES WITH ANTARCTIC RESEARCH PROGRAMS The f o l l o w i n g l i s t i n c l u d e s those i n s t i t u t i o n s and government agencies which sponsored programs or were concerned with the r e d u c t i o n or p u b l i c a t i o n of s c i e n t i f i c data c o l l e c t e d during the U.S.-IGY a n t a r c t i c r e s e a r c h program. Aurora A i r Force Cambridge Research Center, L.G. Hanscom F i e l d , Bedford, Mass. (in s t r u m e n t a l ) C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , I t h a c a , New York ( v i s u a l ) Geophysical I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y of A l a s k a , C o l l e g e , A l a s k a Cosmic Rays U n i v e r s i t y of Maryland, C o l l e g e Park, Maryland U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley, C a l i f o r n i a U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota, School of P h y s i c s , Minneapolis, Minnesota Geomagnetism U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Geophysics D i v i s i o n , Washington, D.C. (geomagnetism, g r a v i t y and seismology) U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin, A n t a r c t i c Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin American Geographical S o c i e t y , Broadway a t 156th S t r e e t , New York 32, NY G l a c i o l o g y U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin, A n t a r c t i c Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Research Foundation, Columbus, Ohio American Geographical S o c i e t y , Broadway a t 156th S t . , New York 32, NY G r a v i t y U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin, A n t a r c t i c Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Geophysics D i v i s i o n , Washington, D.C. Ionosphere and W h i s t l e r s C e n t r a l Radio Propagation Laboratory, NBS, Boulder, Colorado Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth C o l l e g e , Hanover, New Hampshire ( w h i s t l e r s ) Meteorology U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. (data r e duction for r a d i o a c t i v i t y ) S c r i p p s I n s t i t u t e of Oceanography, La J o l l a , C a l i f o r n i a (data r e duction f o r CO2) U.S. Weather Bureau, N a t i o n a l Weather Records Center, A s h v i l l e , N. C a r o l i n a (data r e duction for meteorology and n u c l e a r r a d i a t i o n ) 857
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH Table I , continued Oceanography U.S. Hydrographic O f f i c e , D i v i s i o n of Oceanography, Washington, D.C. Texas A & M, Department of Oceanography and Meteorology, C o l l e g e S t a t i o n , Texas Seismology U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Geophysics D i v i s i o n , Washington, D.C. C a l i f o r n i a I n s t i t u t e of Technology, S e i s m o l o g i c a l Laboratory, Pasadena, C a l i f . Lamont G e o l o g i c a l Observatory, Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , P a l i s a d e s , New York B i o l o g i c a l Sciences Botany - AINA, 1530 P S t r e e t , N.W., Washington, D.C. Farlow Herbarium, Harvard Univ., Cambridge 38, Mass. Ichthyology - Long Beach C o l l e g e , D i v i s i o n of S c i e n c e s , Long Beach, C a l i f . V i r g i n i a F i s h e r i e s Laboratory of W i l l i a m & Mary, Glou c e s t e r P o i n t , V i r g i n i a Medical - Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene, Dept. of Pathobiology, Baltimore, Maryland U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit 1, Univ. of C a l i f . Berkeley, C a l i f . Ornithology - Bureau of Sport F i s h e r i e s , F i s h & W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e , Dept. of I n t e r i o r , Washington, D.C. Po l a r Research Branch, Army Research O f f i c e , A r l i n g t o n H a l l , A r l i n g t o n , V i r g i n i a P a r a s i t o l o g y - Bureau of Sport F i s h e r i e s , F i s h & W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e , Dept. of I n t e r i o r , Washington, D.C. Physiology - U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin, Dept. of Anthropology, Madison, Wise. Psychology - George Washington U n i v e r s i t y , Department of Psychology, Washington, D.C. Zoology - U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey, Alaskan Branch, C o l l e g e , A l a s k a P o l a r Research Branch, Army Research O f f i c e , A r l i n g t o n H a l l , A r l i n g t o n , V i r g i n i a 858
Table I I SUMMARY U.S.-IGY ANTARCTIC SCIENTIFIC PROGRAM 1957-58 00 VO Program Amundsen-Scott 90°S Byrd 120°01'W 79°59'S E l l s w o r t h 41°07'W 77''43'S H a l l e t t ( / N Z ) 170"18'E 72''18'S L i t t l e America 160°10'S 78°11'S Wilkes 110°31'E 66"'15'S McMurdo 166''37'E 77''51'S Aurora X X X X X X Cosmic Rays X X Geomagnetism X X X X X G l a c i o l o g y X X X X X G r a v i t y * X X X X X X X I o n o s p h e r i c P h y s i c s X X X X X X Meteorology X X x X X X X Oceanography X X Seismology X X X X T r a v e r s e Base X X X X S p e c i a l S t u d i e s Biology/Medicine X X X X X X X Geology X X Cartography X * G r a v i t y t i e s were made at a l l U.S. s t a t i o n s . A g r a v i t y pendulum s t a t i o n i s l o c a t e d at McMurdo.
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH C. A n t a r c t i c Mapping Program E a r l y i n the planning for the IGY program i n A n t a r c t i c a , i t was recommended that maps of A n t a r c t i c a be prepared from a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l and be used as base maps to which could be added the car t o g r a p h i c information obtained by the IGY e x p l o r a t i o n s . Two p r o j e c t s were subsequently approved by the USNC for t h i s purpose. The maps p r i n t e d as a r e s u l t of these p r o j e c t s were widely used i n the planning and c a r r y i n g out of the IGY exp e d i t i o n s , and were given wide i n t e r n a t i o n a l c i r c u l a t i o n . P r o j e c t 0.1 - Pr e p a r a t i o n of Master Map of A n t a r c t i c a 1. O b i e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t a t the American Geographical S o c i e t y was undertaken to compile a map of A n t a r c t i c a on the s c a l e of 1:3,000,000 to be used f or i n i t i a l IGY planning, and a master copy of t h i s map was kept under continuing r e v i s i o n as i n f o r - mation was r e c e i v e d from IGY operations. 2. Operations. Cartographic data were gathered and evaluated from many sources, i n - clu d i n g published and unpublished surveys, maps and c h a r t s , a s t r o n o m i c a l l y determined points and f i x e s , e t c . Named fe a t u r e s were included, as approved bv the U_.S. Board on Geographic Names. S e l e c t e d data were p l o t t e d on a polar s t e r e o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n , s c a l e 1:30,000,000, a t 71°S, i n four s h e e t s , and inked f or reproduction. Contact p r i n t s were made a v a i l a b l e as r e q u i r e d for f i e l d or o f f i c e use, each copy r e p r e s e n t i n g the l a t e s t information a v a i l a b l e to the S o c i e t y a t the time of p r i n t i n g . 3. Personnel. T h i s work was c a r r i e d out by the Cartographic Department of the American Geographical S o c i e t y , under the d i r e c t i o n of W i l l i a m B r i e s e m e i s t e r , i t s Senior Cartographer. P r o j e c t 0.2 - P r e p a r a t i o n of A n t a r c t i c Maps 1. O b i e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t a t the American Geographical S o c i e t y provided f or the r e - v i s i o n and maintenance of the a n t a r c t i c map developed under the preceding p r o j e c t and for the p u b l i c a t i o n of a one-sheet, two-color map, s c a l e 1:6,000,000. An h i s t o r i c a l e d i t i o n , on the same s i z e and s c a l e , to i n c l u d e major a i r photo f l i g h t s and sledge routes was a l s o d i s c u s s e d . 2. Operations. Using the master map prepared under P r o j e c t 0.1, AGS published 1000 copies of the map of A n t a r c t i c a , s c a l e 1:6,000,000, i n one sheet i n March 1956, one of the i n s e t maps being "Mapping the A n t a r c t i c a s of December 1955," s c a l e 1:36,000,000. A second r e v i s e d e d i t i o n of t h i s map appeared i n October 1958. For the f i r s t time, important sledge routes were then shown, and both e l e v a t i o n s and i c e t h i c k n e s s e s a t t r a v e r s e s t a t i o n s were i n d i c a t e d . The i n s e t on mapping was r e v i s e d to October 1958. I n a sense, though not s p e c i f i c a l l y planned as an h i s t o r i c a l map, t h i s new e d i t i o n served the purpose o r i g i n a l l y considered. F u r t h e r grants from the Nati o n a l Science Foundation permitted c o n t i n u a l r e v i s i o n of the ir a s t e r drawing m four s h e e t s , s c a l e 1:3,000,000, and con t a c t p r i n t s of the var i o u s quadrants were provided as re q u i r e d . I n 1962, a new map, with s i m i l a r content, s c a l e 1:5,000,000, i n two c o l o r s was i s s u e d . Among new i n s e t maps were included a map of McMurdo Sound, 1:1,000,000, and a map of s u b g l a c i a l and submarine r e l i e f , 1:40,000,000. L a t e r i n 1962, a s l i g h t l y augmented tour-sheet map of A n t a r c t i c a , s c a l e 1:3,000,000, was i s s u e d . Names on a l l e d i t i o n s of t h i s map on v a r i o u s s c a l e s were checked and approved by the United S t a t e s Board on Geographic Names. 3. Personnel. T h i s work was undertaken by the Cartography Department of the Ameri- can Geographical S o c i e t y under the s u p e r v i s i o n of W i l l i a m B r i e s e m e i s t e r , Senior Cartographer. 860
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH D. A n t a r c t i c S c i e n t i f i c Programs 1. Aurora - (See Chapter I , P r o j e c t s 1.2, 1.18, 1.38) a. O b j e c t i v e s . The a n t a r c t i c aurora program afforded a unique opportunity to attempt simultaneous aurora observations i n both hemispheres u s i n g e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l equipment. Three important types of data were observed on a synoptic b a s i s : the l o c a t i o n s of auroras by o p t i c a l means, the l o c a t i o n s of the i n c i d e n c e of s o l a r protons, and the l o c a t i o n of the i o n i z e d regions a s s o c i a t e d with the v i s i b l e auroras u s i n g radar techniques, b. Program. Mem e l - O l i v e r photographic p a t r o l spectrographs and a l l - s k y cameras (16 mm f i l m ) were operated a t L i t t l e America, Byrd, South Pole, Wilkes, H a l l e t t , and E l l s w o r t h S t a t i o n s , except during periods of d a y l i g h t . A s e n s i t i v e p h o t o e l e c t r i c photometer, u t i l i z i n g a narrow-band i n t e r f e r e n c e f i l t e r was used a t E l l s w o r t h S t a t i o n s , except during periods of d a y l i g h t . A s e n s i t i v e p h o t o e l e c t r i c photometer, u t i l i z i n g a narrow-band i n t e r f e r e n c e f i l t e r was used at E l l s w o r t h S t a t i o n for study of H-beta emissions of the aurora, and a scanning spectrometer operated a t L i t t l e America a t the South Pole the p a t r o l spectrograph was used for t w i l i g h t sky s t u d i e s . V i s u a l s t u d i e s of aurora and meteors were c a r r i e d out a t a l l s i x s t a t i o n s u s i n g a l i d a d e s , diagram c a r d s , mark-sense punch cards and simple narrow- band i n t e r f e r e n c e f i l t e r s . An observer was assigned to each s t a t i o n and u s u a l l y other personnel aided w i t h the v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s . c. P r e l i m i n a r y R e s u l t s . While observations have made p o s s i b l e a b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n of the-southernaurora zone, more study i s necessary to b r i n g present knowledge i n l i n e with that of the northern aurora zone. I t has been t e n t a t i v e l y concluded that auroras occur i n the same hour m both hemispheres at conjugate p o i n t s . However, the low d e n s i t y of s t a t i o n s and higher l a t i t u d e i n A n t a r c t i c a make comparisons and c o n c l u s i o n s d i f f i c u l t . 2. Cosmic Rays - (See Chapter I I , P r o j e c t s 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 2.9, 2.32, and Chapter XVI, P r o j e c t 22.5). a. O b j e c t i v e s . The program augmented the U. S. and g l o b a l cosmic-ray program for e x p l o r a t i o n of the v a r i a t i o n s i n mass and energy of the primary cosmic r a d i a - t i o n and the r e c o r d i n g of v a r i a t i o n s i n cosmic-ray i n t e n s i t y . b. Program. S t a t i o n observations were taken at Wilkes with a meson telesc o p e and a t E l l s w o r t h w i t h a neutron monitor. Ship o b s e r v a t i o n s , u s i n g a neutraon monitor, were taken on board the USS ARNEB during 1956-57 and 1957-58. Rockoons, for cosmic-ray s t u d i e s , were launched from the USS GLACIER w h i l e i n a n t a r c t i c waters, 1957-58. During the 1957-59 season, b a l l o o n f l i g h t s , w i t h small counter t e l e s c o p e s , were made from the USS STATEN ISLAND whil e en route to and from the a n t a r c t i c . The l a t t e r f l i g h t s were coordinated with s i m i l a r f l i g h t s from I n v e r c a r g i l l , New Zealand. Observations a t Wilkes and E l l s w o r t h were taken by s c i e n t i s t s a s s igned p r i m a r i l y to other d i s c i p l i n e s . F u l l - t i m e observers were assigned to the shipboard programs. c. P r e l i m i n a r y R e s u l t s . Data have shown that the seasonal v a r i a t i o n of the secondary cosmic-ray a c t i v i t y , as measured a t ground l e v e l , i s probably due to atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s r a t h e r than to v a r i a t i o n s m the primary cosmic-ray f l u x . 3. Geomagnetism - (See Chapter I I I , P r o j e c t s 3.2, 3.8, 3.9, 3.13). a. O b j e c t i v e s . Studies c o n t r i b u t e d to a f u l l e r understanding of the e a r t h ' s zonal c u r r e n t systems and determination of a more r e l i a b l e l o c a t i o n of the southern 861
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH a u r o r a l zone. I n connection w i t h other s t u d i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y aurora and ionospheric p h y s i c s , geomagnetic s t u d i e s permitted i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the time r e l a t i o n s h i p and s p a t i a l comparisons of simultaneous disturbances i n both the Southern and Northern Hemispheres. b. Program. Ruska "quick-run" magnetographs recorded changes i n magnetic d e c l i n a t i o n , h o r i z o n t a l i n t e n s i t y and v e r t i c a l i n t e n s i t y a t L i t t l e America, Byrd and Wilkes. Absolute measurements were made with a CIW No. 25 magnetometer-earth inductor. At L i t t l e America a v i s u a l recording H variometer provided immediate i n d i c a t i o n s of commencement or term i n a t i o n of unusual magnetic a c t i v i t y . I n a d d i t i o n , programs were conducted at H a l l e t t and Amundsen-Scott where semi-portable t h r e e - component (D, H and Z) Askania variographs of f a i r l y low s e n s i t i v i t y were maintained to measure t r a n s i e n t v a r i a t i o n s of the eart h ' s magnetic f i e l d . c . P r e l i m i n a r y R e s u l t s . These data have emphasized the m t e r - d i s c i p l i n a r y nature of upper atmosphere d i s t u r b a n c e s . I n a d d i t i o n , data i n both the a r c t i c and a n t a r c t i c have show evidence of a disturbance c a l l e d the "cuped bay" which should be i n v e s t i g a t e d as a supplement to the use of hourly v a l u e s . 4. G l a c i o l o g y - (See Chapter IV, P r o j e c t s 4.4, 4.5, 4.7, 4.8, 4.10, 4.12, 4.20, S p e c i a l and Contributed; and Chapter XVI, P r o j e c t 21.3, 21.11) a. O b j e c t i v e s . The main o b j e c t i v e s of the U. S. g l a c i o l o g i c a l program i n a n t a r c t i c a were to gather information on the volume of a n t a r c t i c i c e , the topography of the i c e s u r f a c e , and the land beneath the i c e ; a s c e r t a i n the present s t a t u s of the a n t a r c t i c i c e sheet (whether i t i s gaining or l o s i n g i n mass and volume and the manner i n which t h i s gain or l o s s i s taking p l a c e ) ; obtain information r e l a t i n g to the h i s t o r y of the a n t a r c t i c i c e , determine i t s trend and how i t w i l l r e a c t to changes i n s o l a r r a d i a t i o n and ocean temperatures. To accomplish these o b j e c t i v e s an e x t e n s i v e g l a c i o l o g y program was c a r r i e d out i n c l u d i n g s t a t i o n programs, deep core d r i l l i n g , i c e deformation s t u d i e s and major oversnow and airborne t r a v e r s e s . b. Programs. ( i ) S t a t i o n : G l a c i o l o g i c a l observations made a t L i t t l e America, E l l s w o r t h , Amundsen-Scott, Byrd and Wilkes included s t u d i e s i n s u r f a c e movement of i c e , both r e l a t i v e and ab s o l u t e , accumulation or a b l a t i o n , deep p i t s t u d i e s to determine s t r a t i g r a p h y r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and the age of the i c e at v a r i o u s depths through t r i t i u m content measurements. I c e sheet l i m i t s were mapped to a s c e r t a i n i t s present extent f or futu r e r e f e r e n c e and to determine what changes have occurred during the i n t e r v a l s i n c e previous o b s e r v a t i o n s . P i t study equipment included c o r i n g tubes, t r i p l e beam balance, hardness gauge, ramsonde penetrometer, thermohm s t r i n g s , Wheatstone bridge, c r y s t a l - s i z e r i n g , hand l e n s e s , and hand d r i l l i n g equipment. Microscopes and u n i v e r s a l stages were provided for i c e c r y s t a l c h arac- t e r i s t i c s s t u d i e s a t L i t t l e America and Wilkes. At L i t t l e America (1957-58) and Amundsen-Scott (1958-59) micrometeoro- l o g i c a l o b servations were taken. Equipment included a 12-point r e c o r d e r , thermo- couples thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y meters and p r e c i s i o n potentiometers. Other s t u d i e s included Chlorine-36 a n a l y s i s and paleomagnetic s t u d i e s of rock specimen a t H a l l e t t and lichenology and g l a c i a l geology s t u d i e s at McMurdo Sound. Three g l a c i - o l o g i s t s each were assigned to L i t t l e America and Wilkes and two each at Byrd, Amundsen-Scott and E l l s w o r t h . The g l a c i o l o g i s t s a t Byrd, L i t t l e America, Wilkes and E l l s w o r t h p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the over-snow t r a v e r s e s during the summer season. 862
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH ( i i ) Deep Core D r i l l i n g ; A deep core d r i l l i n g program, using modified F a l l i n g w e l l - d r i l l i n g equipment, was c a r r i e d out at Byrd S t a t i o n (1957-58) and a t L i t t l e America (1958-59). An 11-man d r i l l team from SIPRE obtained undisturbed core samples of i c e to depths of 330 m. and 244 m. r e s p e c t i v e l y . The f o u r - i n c h diameter i c e cores were used f o r s t r a t i g r a p h i c studies and density measurements. Microscopic examination and photography of t h i n sections permitted studies of c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e and o r i e n t a t i o n at d i f f e r e n t depths. Portions of the core ygre melted and f i l t e r e d f o r p a r t i c u l a t e s ; studies were made also of the r a t i o 0 /O to determine changes of ice and entrapped a i r as a f u n c t i o n of depth. ( l i i ) Ross Ice Shelf Deformation Studies; These studies were conducted during the 1957-58 and 1958-59 summer seasons. The area selected was approximately 35 miles southwest of L i t t l e America. A party of four s c i e n t i s t s using Wheatstone bridges, t r a n s i t s , brunton compasses, microscope and Rigsby stage, density tubes, cor i n g augers, thermocouples, alidade t h e o d o l i t e , etc. mapped, measured and sampled the area w i t h special reference to both macro- and micro- s t r u c t u r a l features. ( i v ) Over-snow Traverses; Long-range, over-snow, s c i e n t i f i c traverses, o r i g i n a t i n g from L i t t l e America, E l l s w o r t h and Byrd S t a t i o n , and short-range traverses from Wilkes S t a t i o n , were completed during the 1957-58 and 1958-59 summer seasons. The main program f o r long-range traverses included studies i n g l a c i o l o g y , geomagnetism, seismology, g r a v i t y and surface meteorology. I n some cases, where outcropping occurred, studies i n geology and ground c o n t r o l surveys were undertaken. During the Byrd S t a t i o n traverse of 1957-58 special note was taken of penguin tracks b i r d s sighted and, where possible, l i c h e n were c o l l e c t e d . (Che routes of these traverses were shown i n Figure 1 ) . Traverse p a r t i e s usually consisted of two g l a c i o l o g i s t s , two seismologists, and a mechanic, but t h i s v a r i e d w i t h the area t o be covered and the observations t o be taken. The traverse vehicles used were the Tucker Sno-Cat Model 743 powered w i t h a 180 hp Chrysler V-8 engine equipped w i t h heated cabs designed t o provide both l i v i n g quarters and laboratory space. Each "Cat" was capable of towing a loaded two and one-half ton s l e d . S c i e n t i f i c equipment used included n a v i g a t i o n a l instruments portable gravimeters and seismograph u n i t s , explosives and g l a c i o l o g i c a l instruments f o r p i t studies. (v) Airborne Seismic-Glaciologic Program; An airborne seismic-glaciologic program was c a r r i e d out t o augment the over-snow traverse program. Three landings were made on the V i c t o r i a Land Plateau during the 1957-58 season and seven landings were made along the 130 W meridian during the 1958-59 season. Observations taken i n V i c t o r i a Land included seismic r e f r a c t i o n s tudies, g r a v i t y measurements, meteoro- logy, and glaciology observations. The studies i n Mane Byrd Land during 1958-59 included G r a v i t y , Glaciology, and Seismology, I n a d d i t i o n , an airborne geomagnetic p r o f i l e was taken m Marie Byrd Land during December 1958, Two s c i e n t i s t s c a r r i e d out the airborne program i n 1957-58. I n 1958-59 three s c i e n t i s t s were assigned. S c i e n t i f i c instruments aboard the airplanes included portable gravimeter and seismograph u n i t , nuclear precession magnetometer and necessary g l a c i o l o g i c a l instruments. c. Preliminary Results, Studies reveal that previous estimates of the volume of the a n t a r c t i c i c e cap have been underestimated, possibly by as much as 40 per cent. Temperatures taken by the over-snow traverses at ten-meter depths have been demonstrated t o be c l o s e l y equal t o those of the average annual surface temperature. Results concerning the sub-ice topography of A n t a r c t i c a show a great channel between the Ross & Bellingshausen Seas, b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n of the boundaries of the Ross and Filchner Ice Shelves, and discovery of an extensive area i n V i c t o r i a Land, West of the A n t a r c t i c Horst, where the rock surface i s below or close t o sea l e v e l . 863
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH 90»W L80» , SENTINAL \f\ MTS WEDDELL SEA FILCHNER J ICE SHELF BYRD ELLSWORTH L I T T L E AMERICA HORLICK ROSS ROSS SEA SHELF AMUNOSON- SCOTT HALLETT McMURDO WILKES US- IGY ANTARCTIC T R A V E R S E S E N D JAN-FEB 1957 LITTLE AMERICA-BYRD TRAVERSE '57-'58 OVERSNOW TRAVERSE '58-59 OVERSNOW TRAVERSE â -O- '57-58 AIRBORNE TRAVERSE 0 '58-159 AIRBORNE TRAVERSE ⢠US-IGY SCIENTIFIC STATION Figure 1. US-IGY A n t a r c t i c Traverses 864
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH 5. Gravity - (See Chapter V, Projects 5.1, 5.2, 5.4, 5.6, 5.8, 5.16, 5.18 and Chapter XVI, Project 20-1). a. Ob.1 a c t i v e s . An extensive g r a v i t y program was c a r r i e d out during the IGY i n A n t a r c t i c a t o form a common and permanent g r a v i t y base f o r use as a reference f o r the gravimetry programs of the United States and those of other nations. I n a d d i t i o n , g r a v i t y measurements were used t o augment the seismology ice thickness programs. b. Program. A U. S. s c i e n t i s t , using a Gulf quartz pendulum g r a v i t y meter made measurements at McMurdo Sound and determined the value of g r a v i t y on the Potsdam datum. Operating from t h i s base, g r a v i t y t i e s were made t o a l l U. S. s t a t i o n s , except E l l s w o r t h . A second order connection between the United States, South America and Ellswo r t h was established using a high-range geodetic meter. Other g r a v i t y measurements were taken on the over-snow and airborne traverses, and t i e s were made at Mirny, Scott Base, Shackleton, Roi Baudoin, and Duke Ernst Bay. La Coste lA, Frost 47, or Wordin gravimeters were used t o make the t i e s . c. Preliminary Results. Gravity data m the a n t a r c t i c i s being used i n con- j u n c t i o n w i t h other observations taken on the over-snow traverses to delineate the thickness of the ice and character of the sub-ice topography. 6. Ionospheric Physics - (See Chapter V i , Projects 6.1, 6.3, 6.7, 6.11) a. Objectives. The objectives of the IGY a n t a r c t i c ionospheric program were to enhance an understanding of the sources, nature, s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and dynamical of the ionized regions of the solar system. A major problem i n ionospheric physics I S accurately p r e d i c t i n g the f u t u r e state of the ionosphere and a world-wide network of ionospheric observation s t a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g a n t a r c t i c and a r t i c regions, was e s s e n t i a l . b. Program. Ionospheric Physics observations were taken at a l l U. S. a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s during the IGY'. The program consisted of three general phases: ( i ) v e r t i c a l incidence sweep frequency soundings, using the C-3 and C-4 lonosonde, ( i i ) atmospheric radio noise recordings were made a t Byrd S t a t i o n , using an automatic instrument designed by NBS, and ( i l l ) observations of w h i s t l i n g atmospherics made at Ellswo r t h and Byrd f o r conjugate point studies using a s p e c i a l l y designed low noise VLF receiver and p r e a m p l i f i e r . At le a s t one ionospheric observer was assigned t o each U. S. a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n . I n some cases observers from other d i s c i p l i n e s aided the ionospheric observer. c. Preliminary Results. Observations show that the polar ionosphere r e t a i n s considerable i o n i z a t i o n throughout the dark period of winter and, moreover, shows a weak d i u r n a l v a r i a t i o n even though the sun remains at a f i x e d angle below the horizon. Whistler and VLF recordings were observed Byrd S t a t i o n more frequently than at corresponding northern magnetic l a t i t u d e s , presumably as a con- sequence of the very low noise l e v e l i n A n t a r c t i c a . I n a d d i t i o n , i t i s i n f e r r e d that the frequency c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the signals are dependent upon magnetic l a t i t u d e . 865
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH E. L o g i s t i c Support The Department of Defense was dir e c t e d by the Executive branch of the government to provide l o g i s t i c support f o r the U. S. IGY A n t a r c t i c program. This support i n - cluded p r o v i s i o n , i n s t a l l a t i o n and maintenance of required b u i l d i n g s and f a c i l i t i e s , transport of s c i e n t i f i c personnel t o , from and w i t h i n A n t a r c t i c a and implementation of annual s t a t i o n resupply and p r o v i s i o n of year-round medical, communications, and messing f a c i l i t i e s at the s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s . This assignment required the use of icebreakers, cargo ships, tankers, a squadron of USAF cargo planes and other a i r c r a f t ranging from large passenger four-engine t o single engine reconnaissance planes and he l i c o p t e r s . The U. S. Navy constructed an a i r operations f a c i l i t y a t McMurdo Sound and established an operations headquarters i n Christchurch, New Zealand. The McMurdo Sound f a c i l i t y had a 6500 foot ice runway equipped w i t h GCA and other modern a i r nav i g a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s as w e l l as extensive a i r c r a f t maintenance f a c i l i t i e s t o accommodate large wheel-equipped cargo planes. Emergency landing s t r i p s were main- tained at H a l l e t t S t a t i o n and at the foot of the L i v Glacier. Another a i r base was constructed at L i t t l e America to accommodate ski-equipped a i r c r a f t . During the summer months approximately 3000 m i l i t a r y personnel were involved i n these operations. Navy personnel were assigned t o each s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n on a year-round basis fo r p r o v i s i o n of medical, communications, messing and maintenance f a c i l i t i e s . * D i s t r i b u t i o n of Navy personnel by s t a t i o n was: L i t t l e America - 71* H a l l e t t - 10 Byrd S t a t i o n - 10 Wilkes - 17 Pole S t a t i o n - 8 Ellswo r t h - 26 *Includes a v i a t i o n personnel assigned to s t a t i o n F. S c i e n t i f i c Personnel S c i e n t i f i c S t a t i o n Leaders were assigned t o each s t a t i o n t o provide a senior representative f o r the s c i e n t i f i c program and t o provide a leader and senior l i a i s o n l i n k w i t h the m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l s i n matters p e r t a i n i n g to s c i e n t i f i c , l o g i s t i c s or personnel p o l i c y . He was a d i r e c t representative of the USNC-IGY and was responsible to the Executive D i r e c t o r f o r the o v e r - a l l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the s c i e n t i f i c program and conduct of s c i e n t i f i c personnel. Each S c i e n t i f i c S t a t i o n Leader made a monthly report t o the USNC-IGY by radio on the progress of the s t a t i o n s c i e n t i f i c program and s i g n i f i c a n t events occuring at h i s s t a t i o n . A f i n a l w r i t t e n r e p o r t , covering the e n t i r e season, was w r i t t e n when he returned t o the U. S. S c i e n t i f i c personnel, other than the s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n leader, were selected and assigned by the respective government agencies or p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s and the IGY A n t a r c t i c Personnel Selection Board. 868