Report on the U.S. Program for the International Geophysical Year: July 1, 1957 - December 31, 1958 (1965)

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IX OCEANOGRAPHY PROGRAM I V 1 . . Oceanographer Lowering Nansen B o t t l e from the Research V e s s e l CRAWFORD During the IGY

OCEANOGRAPHY PROGRAM Page A. Organization of Technical Panel on Oceanography 335 B. Summary of Panel Actions 356 C. Project Objectives and Results 359 9.1 Sea Level Studies, P a c i f i c 360 9.2 Oceanic Circulation and Geophysics, P a c i f i c 364 9.3 Sea Level Studies, Atlantic 369 9.4 Oceanographic & Geophysical Investigations - Atlantic 372 9.5 Oceanographic Survey of the Atlantic Ocean 377 9.7 Deep Current, P a c i f i c 381 9.8 Deep Current, Atlantic 383 9.9 Reduction of Bathythermograph Data 385 9.10 CO2 and Radiochemistry Measurements 386 9.11 CO2 and Radiochemistry Measurements 389 9.12 Radiochemistry of Sea Water & CO2 Analysis of the Atmosphere . . . . 395 9.13 CO2 Measurements and Radiochemistry of Sea Water 398 9.14 CO2 Measurements & Radiochemical Analysis of Sea Water 401 9.15 Ster i c Sampling Program - P a c i f i c 403 9.17 Arctic Ice Reconnaissance 404 9.18 Arctic Oceanography 405 9.19 Arctic Sea Ice Physics 407 9.20 Arctic Basin Geophysics 410 Antarctic Oceanography 416 354

IX. OCEANOGRAPHY A. Organization of Technical Panel on Oceanography 1. Establishment of the Panel. L e t t e r s were w r i t t e n i n December 1954-January 1955 asking oceanographers to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the work of the U.S. National Committee by becoming members of the Technical Panel on Oceanography. Rear Admiral Edward H. Smith, USN Ret., of Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n was named as convener. Gordon G. L i l l , Geophysics Branch, O f f i c e of Naval Research, was elected chairman at the second meeting. As the program developed additions were made to the panel membership. John Lyman, U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e , was i n v i t e d to be a member on November 14, 1955. Ad- m i r a l Smith resigned from the Panel on June 4, 1956. Consultants were appointed from various agencies i n t e r e s t e d i n the program and the Department of Defense appointed l i a i s o n members from the three services. 2. Composition of the Panel. ( A f f i l i a t i o n at time of appointment) a. Panel Members Maurice Ewing R.H. Fleming C. O'D. I s e l i n D. F. Leipper G.G. L i l l , Chairman (From Feb. 1955) John Lyman (From November 1955) R.R. Revelle E. H. Smith (To June 1956) Lamont Geological Observatory, Columbia U n i v e r s i t y U n i v e r s i t y of Washington Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n A g r i c u l t u r a l and Mechanical College of Texas O f f i c e of Naval Research U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n Consultants W.D. H.H. L.P. J.R. B.K. A.E. R.C. L.A. Claus Carter Disney Cloyd Couper Maxwell Vetter Walford Atomic Energy Commission U.S. Coast Guard U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey U.S. Army, TRADCOM U.S. Navy, Bureau of Ships O f f i c e of Naval Research O f f i c e of Naval Research U.S. Fish and W i l d l i f e Survey Secretariat (IGY S t a f f ) G.F. S c h i l l i n g (To May 1955) Stanley Ruttenberg (From May 1955) 3. Panel Meetings. Eight meetings of the Panel were held. F i r s t Meeting February 11, 1955 Washington, D.C. Second Meeting February 28 and March 1, 1955 Washington, D.C. Third Meeting May 5, 1955 Washington, D.C. Fourth Meeting February 1, 1956 Washington, D.C. F i f t h Meeting March 2, 1956 Washington, D.C. Si x t h Meeting October 29, 1956 Washington, D.C. Seventh Meeting May 1, 1957 Washington, D.C. Eighth Meeting January 17, 1958 Washington, D.C. 355

OCEANOGRAPHY B. Summary of Panel Action 1. Working Groups. I n the i n i t i a l period of planning, several ad hoc working groups were designated to prepare a recommendation or program f o r the Panel. A f t e r some preliminary discussions at an ad hoc meeting on geochemical problems at the U.S. Weather Bureau, January 31, 1956, the USNC Executive Committee, at i t s t h i r t e e n t h meeting, March 6, 1956, approved the organization of an Advisory Group on Geochemistry. The Advisory Group included representatives of both meteorology and oceanography. At a l a t e r date, during a reorganization of panel working groups, the Advisory Group was made a working group of the Technical Panel on Oceanography. Three meetings were held: F i r s t Meeting March 2, 1956 Washington, D.C. Second Meeting October 28, 1956 Washington, D.C. Third Meeting May 8, 1958 Washington, D.C. Norris W. Rakestraw, Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography, was chairman of the working group. The f o l l o w i n g attended meetings and p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the work o f the group: R.G. Bader U.S. Geological Survey Wallace Broecker Lamont Geological Observatory Marx Brook New Mexico I n s t i t u t e of Mining and Technology A.P. Crary Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e (AFCRL) G.E.R. Deacon National I n s t i t u t e of Oceanography, England R.H. Fleming U n i v e r s i t y of Washington I . I . Friedman U.S. Geological Survey Bruno G i l e t t i Lamont Geological Observatory A. W. Holz U.S. Geological Survey Donald Hood Texas A & M College P.A. Humphrey U.S. Weather Bureau John Kanwisher Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n B. H. Ketchum Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n R.G. Leahy Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n John Lyman U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e R.R. Revelle Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography F.A. Richards Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n F.D. S i s l e r U.S. Geological Survey Harry Wexler U.S. Weather Bureau Stanley Ruttenberg, USNC s t a f f , served as secretary of the working group. Programs of geochemical analyses were discussed i n c l u d i n g carbon-dioxide, ozone, radi o a c t i v e t r a c e r measurements, sediment core analyses, oxygen isotope measurements, etc., o f i n t e r e s t to oceanography. I t appeared from these discussions that i n most of these areas, various research groups had s p e c i f i c problems and needs, and were ex- e r t i n g a l l e f f o r t to implement t h e i r programs. The one area which required the most a t t e n t i o n was coordination of the carbon-dioxide program, and consequently the Work- ing Group, by i t s t h i r d meeting, was devoting a l l of i t s e f f o r t toward t h i s program. Keeling of Scripps v i s i t e d the other i n s t i t u t i o n s and also had conferences w i t h out- side experts from the Bureau of Standards and the U.S. Geological Survey concerning problems of c o l l e c t i o n of samples and c a l i b r a t i o n of instruments. 356

OCEANOGRAPHY The main discussions of the Working Group centered around the carbon-dioxide pro- gram and four objectives were stated: a) atmospheric assay, b) tension o f CO2 i n sea water, c) synoptic study of atmospheric dispersion, and d) mechanisms of atmosphere- ocean interchange. Technical discussions were held on the i n f r a r e d gas analyzer that was proposed f o r use i n t h i s program, and on c a l i b r a t i o n and standardization t e c h n i - ques. Problems of sampling i n evacuated f l a s k s also received a t t e n t i o n . The Working Group recommended t h a t a s t a t i o n be i n s t a l l e d on Mauna Loa, Hawaii, w i t h the sugges- t i o n t h a t a l l i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e some supplies, and tha t the Weather Bureau make up the remaining needs i n order to i n i t i a t e the observations. 2. I n i t i a l CSAGI Program. At the second meeting of CSAGI i n Rome, 1954, a program i n oceanography was incorporated i n t o the IGY. There were two main d i v i s i o n s o f the program: one dealt w i t h observations t h a t could be shore-based, the other w i t h work accomplished m deep water w i t h ships. The shore-based observations were mainly d i - rected to determining the sea surface o s c i l l a t i o n s of frequencies between one per year and one per minute. These r e s u l t from such causes as seasonal s h i f t s i n mean sea lev- e l , t i d e s , tsunamis, surges, and e f f e c t s o f atmospheric disturbances. S t r a t e g i c l o - cations, designated as " i s l a n d observatories," were chosen to expand observations of t i d a l o s c i l l a t i o n s . I t was also recommended to take s t e r i c observations, i . e . , to measure water temperature and s a l i n i t y , to depths of about 900 fee t i n the v i c i n i t y of the i s l a n d observatories. This would make i t possible to determine a true mass change by p e r m i t t i n g volumetric corrections to be made. The program developed f o r ship operations included standard hydrographic work, continuous bathymetry, and marine geology. Emphasis was placed on obtaining b e t t e r information on the general c i r c u l a - t i o n of the oceans p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h reference to sub-surface currents. 3. U.S. Program. Early Planning. The f i r s t several meetings of the Panel, then, were concerned w i t h developing operational aspects of these programs. The Panel welcomed the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the U.S. Coast Guard to obtain observations on weather ships; the U.S. Coast 6e Geodetic Survey f o r c o n t r i b u t i o n of data from selected t i d e s t a t i o n s ; the U.S. Fish & W i l d l i f e Service whose ships i n the P a c i f i c could cooperate i n the deep current and sea l e v e l programs; the U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e and Bureau of Ships, who of f e r e d assistance i n obtaining some equipment, the O f f i c e of Naval Research f o r working w i t h the Panel i n support of the program; and the Atomic Energy Commission f o r assistance i n problems r e l a t e d t o radio-chemical analyses o f sediment cores and water samples. 4. I s l a n d Observatory Program. Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography was made respon- s i b l e f o r the operation of the st a t i o n s i n the P a c i f i c and the Lamont Geological Ob- servatory was assigned t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s t a t i o n s i n the A t l a n t i c . The Honolulu B i o l o g i c a l Laboratory, U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, was asked to undertake a program of s t e r i c observations near Honolulu i n the open sea. I t was also planned that wave meters be i n s t a l l e d at three locations i n the Aleutians by the U n i v e r s i t y of Washington. A f t e r reconnaissance of the s i t e s , however. U n i v e r s i t y of Washington personnel recommended against the i n s t a l l a t i o n because of h i g h l y unfavorable l o c a l conditions and t h i s p r o j e c t was cancelled. The Panel, i n one of i t s l a t e r meetings, recommended t h a t the sea l e v e l program be continued a f t e r the end of the IGY inasmuch as data would be required over several years i n order to make s i g n i f i c a n t headway i n understanding the o s c i l l a t i o n s of the sea surface. 5. Deep Current Program. Projects f o r organization o f cruises were assigned t o Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography, Lamont Geological Observatory, Woods Hole Oceano- graphic I n s t i t u t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of Washington and A g r i c u l t u r a l and Mechanical College of Texas. I t was also understood t h a t the U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e , i n coopera- t i o n w i t h Task Force 43 (which was assigned by the Department of Defense to provide l o g i s t i c support f o r the U.S. program i n A n t a r c t i c a ) , would undertake to c a r r y out observational programs i n the oceans adjacent t o An t a r c t i c a . 357

OCEANOGRAPHY 6. Geochemical Program. The Panel added s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s i n geochemistry to the basic program. Part of t h i s new program was designed to determine the concentration of CO2 m the atmosphere. I t was an t i c i p a t e d that an analyser u t i l i z i n g an i n f r a r e d absorption technique could be used to o b t a i n a p r e c i s i o n o f one pa r t per m i l l i o n . I t was also expected that the same instrument could be adapted to determine the concen- t r a t i o n of CO2 i n sea water by using some kind of e q u i l i b r a t o r system. I t was hoped to begin the study of the sea-atmosphere CO2 exchange mechanism. I n a d d i t i o n to CO2, the geochemical program provided f o r analysis of sea water f o r concentration of H^, C , and other n a t u r a l and man-made ra d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s i n an attempt t o date water masses and determine time scales f o r various c i r c u l a t i o n systems. The program of CO2 was broadened by p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the U.S. Weather Bureau and the A i r Weather Service, U.S. A i r Force, to include use of evacuated f l a s k s to sample a i r f o r l a t e r analysis; s i t e s were selected from USWB st a t i o n s and samples were plan- ned along c e r t a i n meteorological reconnaissance f l i g h t tracks of AWS. 7. Polar Oceanography. Emphasis on work m the A r c t i c led to the establishment of several a d d i t i o n a l p r o j e c t s . The U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e undertook to secure information on ice cover. WHOI was assigned a p r o j e c t f o r oceanographic work on a s t a t i o n to be established on the ice pack and the Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e planned a comprehensive program of marine geophysics i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h Lamont Geo- l o g i c a l Observatory to be c a r r i e d out on Fletcher's Ice Isla n d (T-3) and the pack- i c e s t a t i o n . I n cooperation w i t h the Technical Panel on Glaciology, a program i n sea-ice-atmosphere heat budget was planned f o r the pack-ice s t a t i o n . A recommendation was adopted urging the Navy to support as f u l l y as possible the program of a n t a r c t i c oceanography being undertaken by the Hydrographic O f f i c e . I t was hoped th a t some s p e c i f i c ship time could be all o c a t e d to t h i s work. Some sugges- t i o n s were off e r e d as to the kinds of work that could p r o f i t a b l y be undertaken and the value of the work of the Hydrographic O f f i c e was strongly endorsed. 8. Data and Manuals. The Panel also discussed reduction of oceanographic data i n a form s u i t a b l e f o r submission to data centers. The Panel made recommendations as to which e x i s t i n g forms f o r various kinds of data were most s u i t a b l e and formulated spe- c i f i c a t i o n s f o r data required to be submitted to the data centers. I t was recommended that no oceanographic data as such need be published i n the "Annals of the I n t e r n a - t i o n a l Geophysical Year," but that short reports on aspects of the program would be us e f u l . The question of a manual f o r the oceanographic program was discussed and the Panel decided that the a v a i l a b i l i t y of several documents would be s u f f i c i e n t to guide workers as t o the most acceptable methods and techniques. The Panel recommended H.O. 607 and 614 and USCGS 196 and 215 f o r t h i s purpose. 9. I n t e r n a t i o n a l . The cooperation w i t h other countries i n planning j o i n t cruises and exchanging personnel was discussed at several meetings. The Panel st r o n g l y en- dorsed the exchange of personnel between ships of various countries as a means of im- proving the i n t e r c o m p a t a b i l i t y of data and of encouraging the strengthening of i n t e r - n a t i o n a l oceanographic programs. 10. World Data Center. The Panel endorsed the concept of a World Data Center i n Oceanography and approved the designation of the A g r i c u l t u r a l and Mechanical College of Texas f o r the l o c a t i o n of the oceanographic u n i t of World Data Center A (United States). 358

OCEANOGRAPHY C. Project Objectives and Results 1. Summary of Program. The U.S. program m oceanography was devoted p r i m a r i l y to four categories of work, a) the study of changes i n sea l e v e l ranging from wave ac- t i o n to seasonal v a r i a t i o n s ; b) the study of the water of the deep oceans, p a r t i c u l a r l y I t s c i r c u l a t i o n , and the geophysics of the ocean areas, c) the d i s t r i b u t i o n of carbon dioxide i n the sea and atmosphere and the use of radio-isotope trace elements to study oceanic c i r c u l a t i o n ; and d) the study of the polar seas. I n a d d i t i o n , two s p e c i a l - ized p r o j e c t s were c a r r i e d out, one to purchase bathythermographs f o r the research i n s t i t u t i o n s , the other to process bathythermograph data. The report that follows on s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s does not account f o r a l l of the con- t r i b u t i o n t o the IGY program i n t h i s d i s c i p l i n e . For example, a great number of t i d e gauge s t a t i o n s are operated on a routi n e basis by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Some of these s t a t i o n s , because of t h e i r favorable l o c a t i o n and l o c a l c onditions, were selected as sui t a b l e f o r i n c l u s i o n i n the IGY program. Accordingly, the Coast Survey agreed to supply data from these s t a t i o n s as a c o n t r i b u t i o n to the program. The ocean- ographic work accomplished during the supply expeditions to the A n t a r c t i c was also a c o n t r i b u t i o n , on the part of the U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e . F i n a l l y , several agen- ci e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r the O f f i c e o f Naval Research, continued t h e i r support o f oceano- graphic a c t i v i t i e s during the IGY; thus the special IGY funds a l l o c a t e d to oceanography could be used q u i t e e f f e c t i v e l y as a temporary increase of an already e x i s t i n g and sub- s t a n t i a l research e f f o r t . ONR also made a su b s t a n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n to the program by providing important l o g i s t i c support ( t r a v e l or personnel to and from expeditionary ships and sea l e v e l i n s t a l l a t i o n s and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of explosives, supplies, and bulky water samples). 2. Order of Project Description. The pro j e c t s that are described i n the f o l l o w i n g pages are i n numerical order to correspond w i t h the o r i g i n a l formulation of the pro- gram. For convenience, the p r o j e c t s are grouped below to r e f l e c t s i m i l a r i t y of pur- pose. Sea Level Studies 9.1, 9.3, 9.15 Deep Ocean Studies 9.2, 9.4, 9.5, 9.7, 9.8 Geochemical Studies 9.10, 9.11, 9.12, 9.13, 9.14 Polar Studies 9.17, 9.18, 9.19, 9.20, USNHO Bathythermograph 9.16, 9.9 3. Cancelled P r o j e c t . Project 9.6 was cancelled a f t e r a preliminary survey ind i c a t e d I t was not f e a s i b l e . 359

OCEANOGRAPHY Project 9.1 - Sea Level Studies, P a c i f i c 1. Objectives. This p r o j e c t , organized at the Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography, La J o l l a , C a l i f o r n i a , f o r the study o f sea l e v e l and i t s f l u c t u a t i o n s , was proposed as an IGY pr o j e c t m order to increase our understanding of the water budget o f the oceans. One of the fundamental problems i s to ascertain whether there i s a c t u a l l y a seasonal mass change i n the oceans or i f the sea l e v e l change can be accounted f o r by volumetric considerations. At the same time, i t was desired to study short period changes i n sea l e v e l covering the spectrum from ocean and storm waves, tsunamis, and f l u c t u a t i o n s of several days period. 2. Operations. For the s t e r i c sea l e v e l studies, advantage was taken of the e x i s - tence of standard t i d e s t a t i o n s throughout the world as a basic network upon which to b u i l d . I n the U.S., only a few o f the synoptic t i d e l e v e l s t a t i o n s operated by the Coast and Geodetic Survey are at locations such that l o c a l e f f e c t s do not i n t e r f e r e . There were many areas of the oceans where inadequate i n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e , and new i n s t a l l a t i o n s were planned f o r the IGY by the Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography throughout a large sector of the P a c i f i c Ocean. Standard t i d e l e v e l gauges were i n - s t a l l e d at locations both w i t h i n the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the United States, and i n coop- e r a t i o n w i t h various IGY committees at sta t i o n s i n t e r r i t o r i e s of other countries. Arrangements were made usually w i t h l o c a l personnel f o r pe r i o d i c s e r v i c i n g of the t i d e gauges and shipment of the records to La J o l l a . I n order to check sea l e v e l f l u c t u a t i o n s f o r volumetric e f f e c t s , water tempera- tures were taken by bathythermograph t o depths of 600 f e e t , and water samples were c o l l e c t e d m a simple p l a s t i c vessel e s p e c i a l l y designed f o r t h i s p r o j e c t by J.D. Frautschy. Observations of shorter period waves i n the tsunami range were, of necessity, made from small, topographically i s o l a t e d i s l a n d s , to minimize the e f f e c t s o f l o c a l i n t e r f e r e n c e and enhancement of wave height. I n t h i s study, advantage was taken of a network of e x i s t i n g s t a t i o n s i n s t a l l e d under contract between the Scripps I n s t i t u - t i o n and the O f f i c e of Naval Research, which network was extended through the addi- t i o n of a s t a t i o n at Takaroa A t o l l , and one a t Easter I s l a n d . The special tsunami recorders constructed f o r these observations were designed by W i l l i a m G. Van Dorn. Stations newly established and operated under t h i s p r o j e c t and e x i s t i n g s t a t i o n s where a d d i t i o n a l equipment was i n s t a l l e d are l i s t e d i n Table X. 3. Personnel. This observational program at SIO, La J o l l a , C a l i f o r n i a , was organized and d i r e c t e d by J.D. Frautschy, June G. P a t t u l l o and W i l l i a m G. Van Dorn, w i t h the assistance of Gordon W. Groves. Martin Vitousek was i n charge of the f i e l d operations at Fanning, J a r v i s and Palmyra Islands. Alan Beal c a r r i e d out the i n v e s t i g a t i o n s at Pt. Barrow. Professor Walter H. Munk was also associated w i t h the planning of the p r o j e c t . Reduction and analysis of s t e r i c data was under the t r e c t i o n of June Pat- t u l l o , and W i l l i a m Van Dorn w?s responsible f o r analysis of the long-wave records. 4. Data. A l l data have been sent to the IGY World Data Center A, t i d e gauge data i n the form of monthly means, s t e r i c data on tabular sheets, and as bathythermograph p r i n t s . Hourly t i d e gauge heights have been submitted and the o r i g i n a l records f o r - warded to the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 5. Results. The analysis of Tide Gauge and St e r i c data has confirmed the f a c t t h a t sea l e v e l i s high at the end of summer i n each hemisphere. However, the improved d i s t r i b u t i o n of samples during the IGY led t o the f o l l o w i n g new information: 360

OCEANOGRAPHY a. Sea l e v e l v a r i a t i o n s i n the South P a c i f i c were measurably smaller than those i n the North. b. The seasonal v a r i a t i o n was appreciably larger near the continents than i n the c e n t r a l oceanic regions of the Northern Hemisphere, but t h i s e f f e c t was v i r t u a l l y ab- sent i n the Southern Hemisphere. c. The December-June o s c i l l a t i o n s found previously i n the Gulf of Alaska can now be described i n more d e t a i l . d. The t i d e gauge r e s u l t s are m good agreement w i t h the ISOSTATIC v a r i a t i o n com- puted from the s t e r i c data and the barometric pressure, i . e . the observed v a r i a t i o n s i n mean sea l e v e l were i n i s o s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m over most of the P a c i f i c Ocean. Some 96 months of usef u l wave records were obtained during IGY from the various i s l a n d s t a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g records from two tsunamis and three hurricanes. By f a r the m a j o r i t y of anomalous day-to-day sea-level f l u c t u a t i o n s were r e l a t e d to l o c a l bar- ometric pressure disturbances. Three unusual records are shown i n Fig. 1. The upper record from Kona, Hawaii, shows waves produced by the h i g h - a l t i t u d e hydrogen bomb te s t of August 12, 1958 at Johnston I s l a n d , 750 miles to the southwest. The lower record contains the e a r l i e s t p o r t i o n of the wave series associated w i t h the large tsunami of March 9, 1957, and i s the f i r s t record of a tsunami ever made at a small i s l a n d by an instrument s p e c i a l l y designed f o r t h i s purpose. The center record--at f i r s t , i n t e r p r e t e d as waves emanating from a large but remote storm center i n the n o r t h - c e n t r a l Pacific--was caused by f a i l u r e of the hydraulic sensing hose leading over the reef at Wake I s l a n d i n t o deep water. I t c l e a r l y shows the d i f f e r e n c e i n r e l - a t i v e amplitude of swell when recorded at deep and shallow depths, r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n a l l three records the amplitude scale i s roughly one-third of actual amplitude, as recorded on a chart f i v e inches wide. T y p i c a l d a i l y background precedes the onset o f unusual a c t i v i t y on each record. This background i s p r i n c i p a l l y swell "noise" which c l e a r l y varied seasonally by a fa c t o r of ten between winter and summer i n the north P a c i f i c . Further r e s u l t s of the SIO, IGY program are discussed i n Project 20.3. 6. Bibliography. W i l l i a m G. Van Dorn: "A New Long-Period Wave Recorder." JGR. v o l . 65, no. 3, March 1960, pp. 1007-1012. Eugenie L i s i t z i n and June G. P a t t u l l o : "The P r i n c i p a l Factors I n f l u e n c i n g the Seasonal O s c i l l a t i o n of Sea Level." J. Geophys. Res., v o l . 66, no. 3, March 1961. June G. P a t t u l l o : "The Seasonal V a r i a t i o n i n Sea Level i n the P a c i f i c Ocean During the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year, 1957-1958." J. Mar. Res., v o l . 18, no. 2, 1959. Jean F i l l o u x , Gordon Groves: "A Seasonal Mean Sea Level I n d i c a t o r . " Deep-Sea Res.. v o l . 7, 1961, pp. 52-60. June G. P a t t u l l o : "Results of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year Sea Level Program." Assoc. Oceanogr. Physique, General Assembly at H e l s i n k i , P r e p r i n t , July - August 1960, pp. 28-30. Dorn, P a t t u l l o and Shaw: "Sea Level Fluctuations and Long Waves, Research i n Geophysics. 1964. 361

OCEANOGRAPHY TABLE I SIO ISLAND OBSERVATORIES DURING IGY Name Tide Gauge St e r i c Obs Point Barrow 1/I/56-31/XII/59 I n t e r m i t t e n t 1956 to present La J o l l a (SIO) 1/VIII/57-31/III/59 Kona, Hawaii Canton Isl a n d Johnston Isl a n d Fanning 8/VIII/57-14/H/58 4/IX/57-27/VIII/58 Palmyra 22/VII/57-7/VIII/58 11/IX/57-3/VIII/58 J a r v i s 19/VIII/57-23/XI/57 18/IX/57-6/X/58 Guam Permanent* 11/X/57-29/XII/58 Koror 1/I/58-26/XII/58 None Wake Permanent* 22/VI/57-20/XII/58 Arorae 28/VII/57-15/X/59 None H u l l 5/III/57-31/XII/57 None Ocean 1/X/57-3/I/60 16/VIII/57-9/VIII/59 P i t c a i r n See Note (2) 24/V/57-18/XII/59 Rurutu 1/IX/57-25/I/59 17/V/57-13/XII/58 Takaroa 14/VI/57-13/I/59 11/VI/57-18/XII/58 San C r i s t o b a l 1/II/58-28/VI/58 26/I/58-8/V/58 Marcus Isl a n d LP Wave Recorder I I / 5 7 - V I I I / 5 8 VII/57/XII/58 V/56-III/58 V/56-III/58 V/57-II/58 I/57-IV/57 Note (1) I n a d d i t i o n , cooperation was afforded f o r the i n s t a l l a t i o n of equipment at other locations where operation was under the d i r e c t i o n of the National Connnittees of other countries. Note (2) P i t c a i r n t i d e gauge i n s t a l l e d and operated, some useful record obtained. Analysis incomplete. *Gauge operated throughout 1957-1959 as part of continuing series, by U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 362

Id 6 0.« /t\C- 6 o.vMc I Figure 1.

OCEANOGRAPHY Project 9.2 - Oceanic C i r c u l a t i o n and Geophysics, P a c i f i c 1. Ob.iectives. One of the major aspects of the IGY program was the study of oceanic c i r c u l a t i o n . Under t h i s p r o j e c t at Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography, La J o l l a , C a l i f o r n i a , three separate cruises were organized. The f i r s t of these cruises i n c l u d - ed almost a l l facets of phys i c a l , chemical and b i o l o g i c a l oceanography and marine ge- ology. The second and t h i r d cruises were devoted p r i m a r i l y to the d e t a i l e d study of shallow currents m the Central P a c i f i c . 2. Operations. a. DOWNWIND Cruise. 21 October 1957 to 27 February 1958. Two research vessels of the Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography, the HORIZON and the SPENCER F. BAIRD were employed during t h i s c r u i s e . The expedition track, was confined t o the Southern P a c i f i c , bounded on the west by the Society Islands and on the east by South America, and extended to 45°S. Lat. The expedition included seismic r e f l e c t i o n p r o f i l e s , heat flow measurements i n the ocean f l o o r , coring and dredging, p r e c i s i o n bathymetry, meas- urement of the t o t a l magnetic f i e l d , standard physical oceanography, c o l l e c t i o n of water samples f o r radio-isotope analysis, and measurement of concentrations of carbon dioxide i n the atmosphere. (See Fig. 2 which i s an approximation to the act u a l t r a c k ; see WDC-A Gen. Rep. No. 2 f o r d e t a i l s of the track.) b. Expedition DOLPHIN. 28 March - 9 June 1958. This expedition was designed to examine i n d e t a i l the e q u a t o r i a l undercurrent f i r s t explored several years e a r l i e r by Townsend Cromwell. Observations were made w i t h the Roberts Current meter and Swallow f l o a t s . Standard physical oceanographic techniques were also employed. The HORIZON of Scripps and the HUGH M. SMITH of the P a c i f i c Oceanic Fisheries I n v e s t i g a t i o n were employed i n t h i s work. ( F i g . 3) c. Expedition DOLDRUM, 1 August - 29 September 1958. Expedition DOLDRUM was de- signed t o study i n s i m i l a r d e t a i l the E q u a t o r i a l Countercurrent, Scripps vessels HORIZON, S.F. BAIRD and STRANGER were employed as w e l l as two Columbian f r i g a t e s . 3. Personnel. Several changes of s c i e n t i f i c personnel during the DOWNWIND Expedition afforded the opportunity f o r a large number of Scripps i n v e s t i g a t o r s to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the work. S c i e n t i s t s from Argentina, Chile, Peru and I n d i a were guests during the period covered. Henry W. Menard, J r . , was expedition leader d u r i n g the f i r s t h a l f and Robert L. Fisher served i n t h i s capacity during the second h a l f of the expedition. The two cruises DOLPHIN and DOLDRUM were under the d i r e c t i o n of John A. Knauss. 4. Data. S e r i a l data from 44 hydrographic s t a t i o n s and p l o t t e d soundings from DOWN- WIND are contained i n an SIO r e p o r t , reference 58-85, 15 December 1958, which has been submitted also to the IGY World Data Centers. Data from 35 DOLPHIN and 11 DOL- DRUM s t a t i o n s have also been submitted to the data centers. 5. Results. a. Expedition DOWNWIND. A preliminary report of t h i s e x pedition was published by World Data Center A (General Report Series No. 2, June 26, 1958, "Expedition Down- wind, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography Cruise to the Southeast P a c i f i c " ) . A complete d e s c r i p t i o n of the r e s u l t s of t h i s expedition i s be- yond the scope of t h i s report but several s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s may be mentioned. Of extreme i n t e r e s t to students of the st r u c t u r e of the earth were 32 measure- ments of the heat flow through the ocean f l o o r . This number of measurements almost equalled the t o t a l number taken previously m a l l oceans. I t was found that the heat 364

OCEANOGRAPHY DOWNWIND EXPEDITION OCTOBCR, 19ST - nBRMftT, I9S8 . T R A C K OF R / V S K N C E R F BAIRO T R A C K O F R / V HOR(ZON ^ S E S M I C REFRACTION SnnON ONajUOeS PISTON C O R E ) , HEAT FU3W M E A S U R E M E N T ( I N C L U D E S CORE) • GRAVITY C O R E C ^ R A O I O C A R e O N S A M P L E o HYDROGRAPHIC C A S T 0 D R E D G E H A U L • BUOY STATION P BOTTOM PHOTDQRAPHY MEXICO SOUTH AMERICA TUAMOrU SPECIAL S U I V E Y A R E A S A U Y-GOMEZ SAN F E L I X M A S A F U E R A E A S T PACIFIC RIOGE BUOY STATXJN Figure 2. Dovrnwind Expedition 365

ON ON SAN 0IE6O ^_^HAWAIIAN IS GALAPAGOS IS Dolphin measurements o Roberts meter ond hydrographic station O Anchored buoy HORIZON HUGH M SMITH Previous measurements A HUGH M SMITH (1952) X EASTROPIC (1999) TAHITI I 8 8 Figure 3. Track chart f o r the DOLPHIN Expedition and the l o c a t i o n o f e a r l i e r observations of the P a c i f i c Equatorial Undercurrent.

OCEANOGRAPHY flow followed a very d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n i n r e l a t i o n to ocean bottom topography and t h i s has stimulated some new ideas on c r u s t a l s t r u c t u r e and tec t o n i c phenomena. Several major features of the ocean f l o o r were explored and mapped i n d e t a i l , i n c l u d i n g the South American Trench, the Nasca Ridge, and the East P a c i f i c Rise (also c a l l e d the Albatross Plateau). Measurements of the concentration i n the atmosphere of carbon dioxide revealed a s t r i k i n g u n i f o r m i t y i n the concentration of t h i s substance over a wide range of l a t i t u d e . b. Expedition DOLPHIN. John A. Knauss and Joseph E. King published a pre l i m i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n of the f i n d i n g s of t h i s expedition i n Nature, v o l . 182, Aug. 30, 1958, which confirmed the existence of the undercurrent as suggested by Cromwell. Knauss and King proposed to name the current the Cromwell current i n honor of i t s discoverer who perished i n an a i r c r a f t accident during the IGY. This current i s one of the major features of oceanic c i r c u l a t i o n , w i t h a length of about 6,000 km and w i t h a transport of approximately 30 m i l l i o n cubic meters of water per second. The understanding of the r o l e of t h i s enormous current i n the heat and water budget of the Central P a c i f i c ocean i s a new and important problem f o r the t h e o r e t i c a l oceanographer. The r e s u l t s of the expedition were summarized by Knauss i n Deep Sea Research (1960). c. Expedition DOLDRUM. The Equatori a l Countercurrent had been known previously and I t s extent and transport estimated by Sverdrup, t h i s expedition, by d i r e c t obser- v a t i o n , provided the unexpected information t h a t , while the core of the current was shallow as had been previously suggested, the flow extends to considerably greater depth than estimated and i n f a c t extends w e l l below the thermocline and Indeed most of the transport i s below the thermocline. The new estimate of the transport i s 50 m i l l i o n cubic meters of water per second or approximately two and one-half times the previous estimate. This curren t , l i k e the Cromwell current, i s one of the major c i r - c u l a t i o n features of the P a c i f i c Ocean. A f o l l o w up expedition (Durado, also led by Knauss) was conducted the f o l l o w i n g year as part of the IGC. The transport of the Equatorial Countercurrent was reduced to almost zero during t h i s second expedition. A summary paper describing t h i s and previous work was published by Knauss i n the Jour- n a l of Geophysical Research I n 1961. 6. Bibliography. "Preliminary Report on Expedition Downwind, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography IGY Cruise to the Southeast P a c i f i c . " IGY General Report No. 2. 26 June 1958. John A. Knauss and J.E. King: "Observations of the P a c i f i c E q u a t o r i a l Under- cur r e n t . " Nature, v o l . 182, no. 4635, Aug. 30, 1958, pp. 601-02. John A. Knauss and Robert Pepin: "Measurement of the P a c i f i c E q u a t o r i a l Coun- t e r c u r r e n t . " Nature, v o l . 183, no. 4658, Feb. 7, 1959, p. 380. R. Von Herzen: "Heat Flow Values from the South-Eastern P a c i f i c . " Nature, v o l . 183, no. 4665, March 28, 1959, pp. 882-3. Warren S. Wooster and Gordon H. Volkmann: " I n d i c a t i o n s of Deep P a c i f i c C i r - c u l a t i o n from the D i s t r i b u t i o n of Properties at Five Kilometers." JGR. v o l . 65, no. 4, A p r i l 1960, pp. 1239-49. Margaret K. Robinson: " S t a t i s t i c a l Evidence I n d i c a t i n g No Long Term Climatic Change i n the Deep Waters of the North and South P a c i f i c Ocean." JGR, v o l . 65, no. 7, July 1960, pp. 2097-2116. 367

OCEANOGRAPHY H.W. Menard and C.J. Shopek: "Surface Concentrations of Manganese Nodules." Nature, v o l . 182, pp. 1156-58. John A. Knauss: "Measurements of the Cromwell Current." Deep Sea Research, v o l . 6, 1960, pp. 265-86. John A. Knauss: "The Structure of the P a c i f i c E q u a t o r i a l Countercurrent." JGR. v o l . 66, no. 1, 1961, pp. 143-155. John A. Knauss: "On Some Aspects of the Deep C i r c u l a t i o n of the P a c i f i c . " JGR. v o l . 67, no. 10, 1962, pp. 3943-3954. 368

OCEANOGRAPHY Project 9.3 - Sea Level Studies, A t l a n t i c 1. Obiectives. This p r o j e c t was organized at Columbia University's Lamont Geological Observatory, Palisades, New York, f o r the study of sea l e v e l and i t s f l u c t u a t i o n s , which was proposed as an IGY p r o j e c t i n order to increase our understanding of the water budget of the oceans. One of the fund^lmental problems was to ascertain i f there i s a c t u a l l y a seasonal mass change m the oceans or whether the sea l e v e l change can be accounted f o r by volumetric considerations. At the same time, i t was desired to study short period changes i n sea l e v e l covering the spectrum from ocean and storm waves, tsumanis, and f l u c t u a t i o n s of several days period. I n a d d i t i o n , recording microbarographs and microvariobarographs, as w e l l as short period wave recorders, were i n s t a l l e d f o r the purpose of studying the i n t e r a c t i o n be- tween the pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s i n the atmosphere and e f f e c t s on the sea surface. 2. Operations. I t was o r i g i n a l l y planned to i n s t a l l instrumentation at a number of locations i n the A t l a n t i c Ocean. I t was found, however, t h a t many locations desirable from the s c i e n t i f i c point of view o f f e r e d such d i f f i c u l t i n s t a l l a t i o n and environmental conditions that plans f o r observations had to be abandoned. I n some cases new loca- tio n s were found which were also valuable s c i e n t i f i c a l l y and which permitted i n s t a l l a - t i o n of the equipment. Advantage was taken of the Texas Towers on the c o n t i n e n t a l shelf of Northeastern United States f o r unique i n s t a l l a t i o n s . A recording system was developed at Lamont Geological Observatory to record a l l information on 35 mm f i l m . Stations newly established and operated under t h i s p r o j e c t and e x i s t i n g s t a t i o n s where a d d i t i o n a l equipment was i n s t a l l e d were: St a t i o n SL ST LP OW B Period of Operation Belmar, New Jersey X Aug. 1958 - Dec. 31, 1958 Texas Tower 4 X X X Sept. 1958 - A p r i l 1959 Angra, Azores X X X X July 1957 - Dec. 31, 1958 Barbados X X X X June 1957 - Dec. 31, 1958 Grand Port, Mauritius X July 1958 - Dec. 31, 1958 Port Louis, Mauritius X X July 1958 - Dec. 31, 1958 Grindavik, Iceland X Oct. 1957 - Dec. 31, 1958 Thorlakshofn, Iceland X X X Oct. 1957 - Dec. 31, 1958 Paget I s . , Bermuda X X X X X A p r i l 1957 - Dec. 31, 1958 Note: Although i n c l u s i v e dates of operation are given, frequent gaps occur i n many records owing to temporary instrument f a i l u r e s . 3. Personnel. The organization and the program were under the supervision of W i l l i a m L. Donn, f i e l d i n s t a l l a t i o n of instruments was c a r r i e d out by Wi l l i a m T. McGuinness. Arrangements were made at a l l of the locations f o r operation by l o c a l personnel. 4. Data. Sea l e v e l data f o r the IGY period has been submitted to the data centers. Records from the wave recorders and barographs are retained at Lamont f o r analysis. They are a v a i l a b l e at cost of reproduction to i n t e r e s t e d i n v e s t i g a t o r s . 5. Results. An anomalous drop i n sea l e v e l of .75 feet was observed i n August 1959 at Bermuda. By September the sea l e v e l had returned to i t s July value. This change. I t i s thought, i s probably r e l a t e d to a l o c a l v a r i a t i o n i n the v e r t i c a l ocean s t r u c - t u r e . See pr o j e c t 20.7 f o r discussion of sea l e v e l analysis. The barograph and wave instrumentation, on the other hand, have produced a con- siderable amount of information. From several cases examined during the IGY i t 369

OCEANOGRAPHY appears f e a s i b l e to forecast p o t e n t i a l l y damaging storm surges i n the islands of the Lesser A n t i l l e s . Observations from the Texas Tower No. 4, e i g h t y - f i v e miles south- east of New York C i t y , have provided important data f o r the study of d i r e c t energy coupling between atmospheric phenomena, such as the j e t stream, and the sea surface. Atmospheric pressure records have given i n d i c a t i o n s of gross atmospheric o s c i l l a t i o n s which are suggested to be of solar or t i d a l o r i g i n . Atmospheric waves from Soviet nu- clear explosions which were detected by IGY microbarographs are providing the basis f o r a study of gross atmospheric s t r u c t u r e . Detailed records f o r many locations were analyzed to study the spectrum of long period o s c i l l a t i o n s , surf beat, e f f e c t of coastal resonance and resonance of sheltered bodies of water. See p r o j e c t 20.7 f o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s of the analysis of IGY data. 6. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented at Meetings. W.L. Donn, W.T. McGuinness: "IGY I s l a n d Observatory Program." T h i r t y - N i n t h Annual Meeting, American Geophysical Union, May 5-7, 1958, Washington, D.C. W.L. Donn, W.T. McGuinness: "Some IGY Ocean Wave Results." F o r t i e t h Annual Meeting, American Geophysical Union, May 4-7, 1959, Washington, D.C. W.L. Donn, W.T. McGuinness: "Seiches at Bermuda." F o r t i e t h Annual Meeting, American Geophysical Union, May 4-7, 1959, Washington, D.C. W.L. Donn, W.T. McGuinness- "Barbados Storm Swell." F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Congress, August 31-Sept. 12, 1959, United Nations, New York. W.L. Donn, W.T. McGuinness: "Coupling of Long-Period Waves from the Atmos- phere to the Ocean." F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Congress, August 31- Sept. 12, 1959, United Nations, New York. W.L. Donn: "Microseisms and Ocean Waves." F o r t y - F i r s t Annual Meeting, American Geophysical Union, A p r i l 27-30, 1960, Washington, D.C. W.L. Donn, J.G. P a t t u l l o and D. Shaw: "Sea Level Fluctuations and Long Waves." Symposium on the Results of IGY-IGC, UCLA, August, 1963. b. Papers Published or I n Press. W.L. Donn. "The Microbarovariograph." Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un., v o l . 39, 1958, pp. 366-68. W.L. Donn and W.T. McGuinness: "Barbados Storm Swell." JGR, v o l . 64, 1959, pp. 2341-49. W.L. Donn and W.T. McGuinness: "Some Results of the IGY Is l a n d Observatories Program i n the A t l a n t i c . " IGY B u l l . 22. (National Academy of Sciences), 1959, pp. 9-12. W.L. Donn and W.T. McGuinness: "Air-Coupled Long Waves i n the A t l a n t i c Ocean." Journal of Meteorology, v o l . 17, 1960, pp. 515-21. W.L. Donn and W.T. McGuinness: "Long Waves i n the A t l a n t i c Ocean." Proc. Conf. on Tsunamis. Tenth Pac. Sci. Cong.. lUGG Monogr. 24, 1963, pp. 19-25. 370

OCEANOGRAPHY D.M. Shaw and W.L. Donn: "Sea Level Changes at Iceland and Bermuda." J. Marine Res.. v o l . 22, 1964, pp. 111-22. W.L. Donn, J.G. P a t t u l l o , and D.M. Shaw: "Seasonal Sea Level Fluctuations and Long Period Ocean Waves." Research i n Geophysics, v o l . 2, 1964, pp. 243-64. H. Odishaw, ed., MIT Press. W.L. Donn and M. Ewing: "Atmospheric Waves from Nuclear Explosions." JGR. v o l . 67, 1962, pp. 1855-66. W.G. Van Dorn and W.L. Donn: "Long Waves." Annals of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year ( I n press). 371

OCEANOGRAPHY Project 9.4 - Oceanographic and Geophysical I n v e s t i g a t i o n s - A t l a n t i c 1. Objectives. Under the auspices of the Lamont Geological Observatory of Columbia Un i v e r s i t y three major cruises of the Lamont vessel VEMA were devoted to IGY i n v e s t i - gations to obtain a more complete s c i e n t i f i c understanding of the geologic s t r u c t u r e of continents and ocean basins, to ascertain the large scale c i r c u l a t i o n of the ocean waters, to study the nature and o r i g i n of the sediments on the ocean f l o o r , and t o learn more of the b i o t a l i v i n g i n the ocean and on i t s f l o o r ( F ig. 4 ) . 2. Operations. a. VEMA Cruise 12, 13 December 1956-26 August 1957. This cruise covered the eastern and western p o r t i o n of the South A t l a n t i c , w i t h a southern crossing at about 40°S to Capetown, and the r e t u r n crossing at about S'S to Recife. Continuous bath- ymetry was r e a l i z e d using a p r e c i s i o n depth recorder, a flux-gate magnetometer was towed behind the ship. Sixty-seven large volume water samples were c o l l e c t e d f o r a- nalysis of t o t a l content of dissolved gas, 45 hydrographic s t a t i o n s were occupied, 42 water samples were taken f o r Ĉ ^ analysis and 27 f o r H-̂ analysis; 85 cores were obtained, 100 seismic p r o f i l e s completed, 4 camera st a t i o n s occupied; 54 surface plankton hauls and 15 bottom t r a w l s were made f o r b i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and bath- ythermograph observations were made r o u t i n e l y . The Argentine vessel BAHIA BLANCA joined the VEMA i n a j o i n t program, and 10 Argentine s c i e n t i s t s p a r t i c i p a t e d aboard the VEMA. b. VEMA Cruise 14, 9 November 1957-23 August 1958. This cruise was planned to supplement VEMA-12 i n coverage i n the A t l a n t i c and to i n v e s t i g a t e the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. I n v e s t i g a t i o n s s i m i l a r to those undertaken during VEMA-12 were c a r r i e d out, i n a d d i t i o n , an i n f r a r e d gas analyser was used to monitor CO2 concentration i n the atmosphere and sea water. The B r a z i l i a n vessel FORTE DE QUIMBIA and the Argentine vessel SANAVIRON cooperated w i t h VEMA and made possible the completion of 115 seismic p r o f i l e s along the c o n t i n e n t a l shelf of eastern South Amer- i c a and i n adjacent waters. The geologic s t r u c t u r e beneath bays and estuaries was studied using a sub-bottom depth recorder, an instrument s i m i l a r to an echo sounder but w i t h a stronger pulse. The VRYSTAAT of the Union of South A f r i c a j o i n e d VEMA m seismic work i n the Indian Ocean and the ATLANTIS of Woods Hole cooperated i n seismic work i n the Gulf of Aden, the Red Sea, and Mediterranean. During t h i s c r u i s e , 35,000 miles of topographic and 34,000 miles of magnetic tr a c k were completed, as w e l l as 163 seismic r e f r a c t i o n p r o f i l e s , 150 cores, 14 bottom geologic dredges, 81 water and 10 a i r samples f o r Ĉ ^ analysis, 98 H^ samples, 62 camera s t a t i o n s , 58 biology hauls, 211 surface and 150 oblique plankton hauls, 50 grab samples, and 72 hydrographic s t a t i o n s . c. VEMA Cruise 15. 15 October 1958-15 July 1959. This cruise took the VEMA down the west coast of South America, through the Drake Passage, across the South A t l a n t i c to Capetown, and r e t u r n v i a Recife and the Caribbean. The CASMA of Chile and the SANAVIRON of Argentina again jo i n e d forces w i t h VEMA to accomplish seismic surveys o f f the coast of Chile, i n the S t r a i t s of Magellan and i n the western A t l a n t i c . As m previous cruises, comprehensive data were c o l l e c t e d f o r example, 25 hydrographic s t a t i o n s i n the P a c i f i c , samples f o r Ĉ ^ and H analysis, over 100 seismic p r o f i l e s , nearly 200 cores and bottom t r a w l s , along w i t h continuous bathymetry and magnetic records. 3. Personnel. Maurice Ewing and J,L. Worzel, D i r e c t o r and Assistant D i r e c t o r of Lamont Geological Observatory, served as Chief S c i e n t i s t during portions of the cruises. Other portions were v a r i o u s l y under the d i r e c t i o n of Maurice Davidson, Walter C. Beck- mann, Robert Menzies, A l b e r t Stockel, W i l l i a m Ludwig, J.E. Nafe, C.L. Drake, J . I . Ewing, B.C. Heezen. As noted above, s c i e n t i s t s from other countries also p a r t i c i p a t e d i n 372

OCEANOGRAPHY Figure 4. IGY Cruises R. V. VEMA 373

OCEANOGRAPHY a l l aspects of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n the waters adjoining t h e i r own countries. I n ad d i t i o n , Hellmuth Sievers of Chile and Nestor G r a n e l l i of Argentina were assigned by t h e i r navies to duty at Lament Geological Observatory, where they very e f f e c t i v e l y as- sisted i n the reduction and analysis of the data j o i n t l y obtained. 4. Data. Bathymetry data f o r the three cruises have been worked up and sent t o WDC-A. Bathythermograph data from VEMA-12 were published i n a special report of Lamont, June 1960 by Saul Friedman, other parts of t h i s report are now i n preparation. Oceanographic data from the Indian Ocean, Gulf of Aden, and the Red Sea, VEMA-14, were published by Saul Friedman, A p r i l 1960. 5. Results. Comprehensive geophysical expeditions l i k e those of VEMA produce a great mass of data that cannot be adequately summarized i n a report of t h i s nature, some i n d i v i d u a l f i n d i n g s , however, may be noted as examples of the work accomplished. During VEMA-12, extensive b i o l o g i c a l sampling of the deep ocean basin was under- taken. During t h i s work, m which hundreds of specimens from great depths were ob- tained, two macro-organisms reached the surface a l i v e . A small sand f l e a , a member of the amphipod group of crustaceans, and a worm, survived temperature changes of about 27°C and pressure changes of 6600 and 8100 pounds per sq. inch, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The opportunity to study a l i v i n g creature from oceanic depths of 13,000 to 16,000 feet i s a rare t r e a t f o r the marine b i o l o g i s t . Bottom sampling on VEMA-14 revealed a t h i n layer of pebbles on the ocean bottom having no covering sediments, thus i n d i c a t i n g a recent deposition. B i o l o g i c a l sampling i n the Peru-Chile trench produced during VEMA-15 four speci- mens of a class of Mollusca thought, u n t i l 1957, to have become e x t i n c t i n the Devon- ian . The specimens are considered to represent a new subgenus and species: Neopilina (Vema) ewmgi and the discovery suggests that a d d i t i o n a l r e l i c t types may e x i s t a l i v e i n the deep sea o f f Central and South America. Since the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the p r e c i s i o n depth recorder w i t h a short ping (about 5 m iHisec) sub-bottom r e f l e c t i o n s have been recorded i n the deep sea. During VEMA-15 such an echo was observed over a large area of the eastern part of the t r o p i c a l Pa- c i f i c Ocean. A pis t o n corer was used i n these areas and a layer of clean white ash was encountered at the depth i n d i c a t e d from the PDR trace. The white ash was i d e n t i - f i e d by D.B. Ericson of Lamont as a very fine-grained ash of c l e a r glassy fragments, many of which are needle-like. Since the ash i s f a i r l y near the surface, i s not d i s - colored, and contains nothing but the glassy ash m a t e r i a l , i t i s concluded that i t was l a i d down f a i r l y q u i c k l y . Foraminifera deposits beneath and above the layer a f - for d a p o s s i b i l i t y of dating the deposit. The f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n of t h i s layer and study of the dates and v a r i a t i o n s i n contaminants and i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e should lead to important geophysical information. See Project 20.7 f o r f u r t h e r discussion of r e s u l t s . 6. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented at Meetings. Manik Talwani, J. Lamar Worzel, and Maurice Ewing "Gravity Anomalies and Crustal Sections Across the Tonga Trench." F o r t i e t h Annual Meeting, American Geophysical Union, May 4-7, 1959, Washington, D.C. George H. Sutton, Manik Talwani, and J. Lamar Worzel: "West-East Crust a l Section Through Gravity Anomaly Belt of Lesser A n t i l l e s Along 14°20'N." F o r t y - F i r s t Annual Meeting, American Geophysical Union, A p r i l 27-30, 1960, Washington, D.C. 374

OCEANOGRAPHY C.L. Drake, R.W. G i r d l e r , and M. Landisman: "Geophysical Measurements i n the Red Sea." F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Congress, 31 August-12 September 1959, United Nations, New York. John Ewing and Maurice Ewing: "Seismic Re f r a c t i o n Measurements i n the Scotia Sea and South Sandwich I s l a n d Arc." F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Con- gress, 31 August-12 September 1959, United Nations, New York. John E. Nafe, John F. Hennion and G. Peter: "Geophysical Measurements i n the Gulf of Aden." F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Congress, 31 August- 12 September 1959, United Nations, New York J. Lamar Worzel, Manik Talwani, and Maurice Ewing: "Gravity Studies of Ocean Trenches." X l l t h General Assembly, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union of Geodesy and Geo- physics, H e l s i n k i , 1960. b. Published Papers. J.L. Worzel: "Extensive Deep Sea Sub-Bottom Reflections I d e n t i f i e d as White Ash." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, v o l . 45, no. 3, March 1959, pp. 349-355, Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 337 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) . Maurice Ewing, Bruce C. Heezen, and David B. Ericson: "Significance of the Worzel Deep Sea Ash." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, v o l . 45, no. 3, March 1959, pp. 355-361. Lamont Geological Observatory Co n t r i b u t i o n No. 335 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) . Arthur H. Clarke, J r . , and Robert J. Menzies: "Neopilina (Vema) Ewingi, a Second L i v i n g Species of the Paleozoic Class Monoplacophora." Science, v o l . 129, no. 3355, A p r i l 17, 1959, pp. 1026-1027. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 341 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) . R.J. Menzies, M. Ewing, J.L. Worzel- "Ecology of the Recent Monoplacophora." OIKOS 10:2:59, 1959, pp. 168-182. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 376 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) . Saul Friedman: "Oceanographic Data Obtained i n the Indian Ocean, Gulf of Aden, and the Red Sea During Cruise VEMA-14." Lamont Geological Observatory Technical Report No. 1, IGY Project 9.4, A p r i l 1960. Saul Friedman: "IGY Expeditions of the Research Vessel VEMA, Vol. I I , VEMA-12 Bathythermograph Data." Lamont Geological Observatory (Col. Univ.) Technical Report No. 20-CU-54-60, June 1960. Saul Friedman: "Bathythermograph Data - VEMA-14." Lamont Geological Obser- vatory (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) Technical Report No. 21-CU-57-60-Nobsr 64547. Xavier Le Pichon: "The Deep-Water C i r c u l a t i o n i n the Southwest Indian Ocean." JGR. v o l . 65, pp. 4061-4074. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No, 455 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) . "IGY Expeditions of the Research Vessel VEMA, Vol. 1, VEMA-12, Sediment Care Descriptions, Ocean Bottom Photographs, Marine B i o l o g i c a l Data." ( I n p r eparation). "IGY Expeditions of the Research Vessel VEMA, Vol. 3, VEMA-12, Bathymetric, Geomagnetic, Seismic Refraction Data." ( I n pr e p a r a t i o n ) . NOTE: See also Project 11.8, Seismic Exploration - A t l a n t i c , f o r other papers r e s u l t i n g from VEMA cruises. 375

OCEANOGRAPHY G.W. Mead: "Bathvpterois Pectmatus. a New Bathyal Iniomous Fish From the Eastern P a c i f i c . " Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci.. v o l . 49, pp. 290-292. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 363 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1959. R.J. Menzies: "Priapulus Abyssorum. New Species, the F i r s t Abyssal P r i a p u l i d . " Nature, v o l . 184, pp. 1585-1586. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 387 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1959. R.J. Menzies and M. Tinker: "Haploniscus robinsoni. a New Species of A s e l l o t e Deep Sea Isopod From the Eastern T r o p i c a l P a c i f i c Ocean." P a c i f i c N a t u r a l i s t , v o l . 1, pp. 1-4. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n 405, (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1960. A.H. Clarke, J r . : "A Giant Ultra-Abyssal Cocculina (Mollusca. Gastropoda) From the Argentine Basin." Nat. H i s t . Papers. Nat. Mus. Can. no. 7, pp. 1-4. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 412 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1960. D.F. Squires: "Deep Sea Corals Collected by the Lamont Geological Observa- t o r y . 2. Scotia Sea Corals." Am. Mus. Novitates, no. 2046, pp. 1-48. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 492 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1961. A. H. Clarke, J ^ - . - "Abyssal Mollusks From the South A t l a n t i c Ocean." B u l l . Mus. Comp. Zoology, v o l . 125, no. 12, pp. 345-387. Lamont Geological Ob- servatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 503 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1961. D.J. Robinson and R.J. Menzies: "Munna S p i n i f e r a , a New Species of Isopod Crustacean From Bathyal Regions i n the Gulf of Aden," Crustaceana. v o l . 2, pt . 2, pp. 110-114. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 508 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1961. B. C. Heezen and M. Tharp: "Physiographic Diagram of the South A t l a n t i c Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, the Scotia Sea, and the Eastern Margin of the South P a c i f i c Ocean." Geol. Soc. Amer. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 515 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1961. R. Gerard, M.G. Langseth, J r . , and M. Ewing: "Thermal Gradient Measurements i n the Water and Bottom Sediment of the Western A t l a n t i c . " Jour. Geophys. Res., v o l . 67, no. 2, pp. 785-803. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i - b u tion No. 521 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1962. M. Ewing, W.J. Ludwig, and J . I . Ewing: "Geophysical I n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n the Submerged Argentine Coastal P l a i n . " Geol. Soc. Amer., v o l . 74, pp. 275-291. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n 603 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1963. D.B. Ericson, M. Ewing and G. Wol l i n : "Pliocene-Pleistocene Boundary i n Deep-Sea Sediments." Science, v o l . 139, pp. 727-737. Lamont Geological Observatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 604 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1963. W. Nesteroff, G. Sabatier and B.C. Heezen: "Les Mineraux A r g i l e u x Dans les Sediments du Bassin Occidental de l a Mediterannee." ( I n press). C. L. Drake and R.W. G i r d l e r : "A Geophysical Study of the Red Sea." Geophys. Jour, of the Roy. Astron. Soc, v o l . 8, no. 5, pp. 473-495. Lamont Geo- l o g i c a l Observatory Contribution No. 702 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1964. D. F. Squires: "Deep Sea Corals Collected by the Lamont Geological Obser- vatory. 3. Larvae of the Argentine S c l e r a c t i n i a n Coral Flabellum Curvatum Moseley." Am. Mus. Novitates. no. 2078, pp. 1-11. Lamont Geological Ob- servatory C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 522 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1962. 376

OCEANOGRAPHY Project 9.5 - Oceanographic Survey of the A t l a n t i c Ocean 1. Objectives. The study of the large scale c i r c u l a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y the deep cur- r e n t s , of the ocean was one of the prime objectives of the IGY program. A comprehen- sive survey of the A t l a n t i c Ocean to f u r t h e r t h i s o b j e c t i v e was organized under the auspices of the Woods Hole I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography. 2. Operations. The program f e l l i n t o two p r i n c i p a l p a r t s : a) a study of deep cur- rents by d i r e c t measurements using the n e u t r a l l y buoyant f l o a t w i t h enclosed sound pinger developed by J.C. Swallow, National I n s t i t u t e of Oceanography, England, and b) a systematic c o l l e c t i o n of data on the physical properties of the water over as large a p o r t i o n of the A t l a n t i c Ocean as possible. This l a t t e r part of the program was designed to supplement and be supplemented by the work of other countries, and fo r comparison w i t h e a r l i e r work such as from the METEOR expedition 1925-27. I n March 1957 the Woods Hole vessel ATLANTIS and the NIO vessel DISCOVERY I I co- operated i n an ex p l o r a t i o n of currents at the outer edge of the Blake Plateau, o f f the coast of eastern United States at about the l a t i t u d e of Charleston, S.C. The ATLANTIS occupied 88 oceanographic s t a t i o n s to determine the temperature and s a l i n i t y s t r u c t u r e , while the DISCOVERY I I tracked nine Swallow f l o a t s , set to d r i f t at v a r i - ous depths. Loran f a c i l i t i e s afforded e x c e l l e n t n a v i g a t i o n a l c o n t r o l . I n November 1958 Woods Hole again cooperated w i t h NIO, t h i s time u t i l i z i n g only the DISCOVERY I I , i n a study of the outflow from the Mediterranean Sea i n the Bay of Cadiz, when a thorough study of the thermobaline s t r u c t u r e was made; then at various points on a l i n e south of Cape St. Vincent f i v e Swallow f l o a t s were sent down to 1250 meters, the depth at which was found the core of high s a l i n i t y water. The Woods Hole vessel CRAWFORD c a r r i e d the major burden of sampling the water of the A t l a n t i c . The chart of IGY hydrographic s t a t i o n s . Fig. 5, shows the extent of the coverage. A new vessel, the CHAIN, continued the work i n t o 1959, along w i t h ad- d i t i o n a l sections obtained w i t h ATLANTIS. Well over 150,000 deep water samples were taken f o r determinations of temperature, s a l i n i t y , oxygen, inorganic and organic phos- phate, deuterium, primary production and carbon uptake. Precision depth recordings were made along the track , bathythermograph lowerings were made r o u t i n e l y , and i n some areas special p r o j e c t s were undertaken such as deep coring and dredging, bottom photography, plankton c o l l e c t i o n , and seismic r e f r a c t i o n studies. I n one crui s e , a new underwater stereo camera developed by H.E. Edgerton of M.I.T. was used to obtain several hundred stereo bottom photographs i n the Indian Ocean and Red Sea. 3. Personnel. F.C. F u g l i s t e r , L.V. Worthington, W.G. Metcalf, A.R. M i l l e r , and J.W. Graham served as ch i e f s c i e n t i s t s f o r the various cruises during the IGY. 4. Data. Data from ATLANTIS, DISCOVERY I I and CRAWFORD have been published i n v a r i - ous reports of Woods Hole (see section 6, Bibliography) and submitted to WDC-A. Data from 1959 cruises w i l l be s i m i l a r l y published. Under another IGY p r o j e c t , F.C. F u g l i s t e r of Woods Hole prepared an Atlas of Hy- drographic Sections i n c l u d i n g temperature and s a l i n i t y . This w i l l be followed by si m i l a r p u b l i c a t i o n s f o r other data. 5. Results. The j o i n t ATLANTIS-DISCOVERY I I work near the coast of the United States was a s t r i k i n g success. I t had been suspected by Henry Stommel of Woods Hole, as a r e s u l t of t h e o r e t i c a l considerations, that there should be a deep current running counter to the Gulf Stream m the western A t l a n t i c . The Swallow f l o a t s tracked by DISCOVERY I I confirmed that t h i s current e x i s t s . A layer of v i r t u a l l y no motion was found between 1500 and 2300 meters. Above t h i s layer the water moved to the northeast 377

OCEANOGRAPHY •i*Ai «. DISCOVERY H ...t'-'t'Tt p i * I i | hi s s; s i 1 ' 7 * ^ a S : § a 9 . 8 ATLANTIS 8 a • S . " S O „ . DISCOVERY n , - 5 6 9 ; E « • . ^ t i i l ^ a Is 6:8 8 8 8 • 1370 ;,Qn Z • t • • •̂ •« r™. " *"'" " CRAWFORD s... CRAWFORD Figure 5. Hydrographic s t a t i o n s occupied i n support of the IGY by Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n personnel. 378

OCEANOGRAPHY w i t h expected v e l o c i t i e s , below t h i s layer motion was measured to the southwest, w i t h v e l o c i t i e s ranging between 2.6 and 9.5 cm/sec. At 2800 meters depth v e l o c i t y increased to between 9.7 and 17.4 cm/sec. The volumetric transport was computed to be between 3.5 and 5 x 10^ cubic meters/sec. The deep sampling program has produced a c a r e f u l re-survey a f t e r a period of 30 years of a part of the South A t l a n t i c . A comparison of temperature and s a l i n i t y v a l - ues obtained on t h i s survey w i t h those obtained on the METEOR Expedition of 1925-27 shows that v i r t u a l l y no change has taken place i n these p r o p e r t i e s . These are, of course, only two points on the time scale but the g e n e r a l i t y of the agreement i n space c e r t a i n l y i n d i c a t e s that a quasi-steady state e x i s t s . When a l l of these data have been studied i n d e t a i l there w i l l undoubtedly come to l i g h t some important regi o n a l v a r i a t i o n s but at t h i s stage i t i s the lack of change over a t h i r t y year period r a t h - er than the differences that i s most s t r i k i n g . The accuracy of the s a l i n i t y determinations obtained during t h i s e n t i r e survey was esp e c i a l l y high due to the use of new sea going c o n d u c t i v i t y bridges developed recent- l y , both at Woods Hole and England. The c o n d u c t i v i t y bridge designed and b u i l t at Woods Hole was also successfully employed on the German research vessel ANTON DOHRN during the Polar Front survey during the summer of 1958. The new accurate deep s a l i n i t y measurements enabled Mr. Worthington and Mr. Metcalf to present a new p i c t u r e of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of various deep water masses i n the At- l a n t i c Ocean. At a special meeting of the ICES i n Copenhagen i n October 1959 they presented a paper e n t i t l e d "The Relation Between P o t e n t i a l Temperature and S a l i n i t y i n the North A t l a n t i c Deep Water." I n t h i s paper they show that the d i s t r i b u t i o n of d i f f e r e n t water masses w i t h i n c e r t a i n p o t e n t i a l temperature ranges over the A t l a n t i c Ocean from 60 degrees North to 32 degrees South. Because of the added accuracy of the s a l i n i t y measurements they were able to show that i n the very deep or bottom water there i s a break between the waters south of Newfoundland Banks and north of t h i s area. They also showed that the water overflowing from the Norwegian Sea probably does not form North A t l a n t i c bottom water but rather an intermediate layer. Another point of i n t e r e s t i s the Caribbean Basin which i s uniformly fresher than the water outside the Anegada Passage. This suggests that water i s not at present flowing i n t o the deeper part of the basin. I n the Yucatan Basin, however, there i s evidence that water does flow i n through the Windward Passage i n small q u a n t i t i e s . 6. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented at Meetings. F.C. F u g l i s t e r : "Preliminary Results of a Resurvey of METEOR P r o f i l e s VI and V I I I . " X l t h General Assembly lUGG, September 1957, Toronto. John Swallow and L.V. Worthington: "The Deep Countercurrent of the Gulf Stream o f f South Carolina." F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Congress, 31 August-12 September 1959, United Nations, New York. L.V. Worthington and W.G. Metcalf: "The Relation Between P o t e n t i a l Temper- ature and S a l i n i t y i n the North A t l a n t i c Deep Water." Special Meeting of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Council f o r the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), October 1959, Copenhagen. b. Published Papers. "Southward Flow Under the Gulf Stream." Science, v o l . 125, no. 3255, May 17, 1957, p. 981. 379

OCEANOGRAPHY F.C. F u g l i s t e r : "Oceanographic Data from CRAWFORD Cruise 10 Obtained f o r the IGY 1957-58." Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n Ref. No. 57-54, October 1957. "Bottom Topography from CRAWFORD Cruise 10." Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n Ref. No. 57-60, 1957. L.V. Worthington: "Oceanographic Data from the R.R.S. DISCOVERY I I , IGY Cruises 1 and 2, 1957." Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n Ref. No. 58-30, June 1958. L.V. Worthington. "Oceanographic Data from the R.R.S, DISCOVERY I I , IGY Cruise 3, 1958." Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n Ref. No. 59-54, November 1959. W.G. Metcalf- "Oceanographic Data from CRAWFORD Cruise 16, 1 October- 11 December 1957 f o r the IGY." Woods Hole Qceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n Ref. No. 58-31, June 1958. W.G. Metcalf: "Oceanographic Data from the Caribbean Sea CRAWFORD Cruise 17, February-March 1958 f o r the IGY of 1957-1958." Woods Hole Oceano- graphic I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n Ref. No. 59-9, A p r i l 1959. L.V. Worthington. "Oceanographic Data from the R.R.S. DISCOVERY I I , IGY Cruise 3." Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n Ref. No. 59-54, November 1959. A.G. Norman and Dana Densmore. "Oceanographic Data from Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean, ATLANTIS Cruise 242 f o r the IGY." Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n Ref. No. 60-2, December 1959. W.G. Metcalf: "Oceanographic Data from CRAWFORD Cruise 22, Trans-Atlantic Sections at Equator and 24° South f o r the IGY 1957-58." Woods Hole Oceano- graphic I n s t i t u t i o n Ref. No. 60-3, Jan. 1960. Arthur R. M i l l e r : "Soundings, Bottom P r o f i l e s , and Deep Scattering Layer Observations, ATLANTIS Cruise 247, Jan.-June 1959, f o r the IGY." Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n Ref. No. 60-16, 1960. Arthur R, M i l l e r : "Oceanographic Data from ATLANTIS Cruise 247, Jan.- June 1959, f o r the IGY." Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n Ref. No. 60-40, 1960. F.C. F u g l i s t e r . " A t l a n t i c Ocean A t l a s , Temperature and S a l i n i t y P r o f i l e s and Data from the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year 1957-1958." Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n Atlas Series, v o l . I . D.A. McGill: "A Preliminary Study of the Oxygen-Phosphate D i s t r i b u t i o n i n the Mediterranean Sea." D.S.R.. 8, no. 3/4, December 1961, pp. 259-269. 380

OCEANOGRAPHY Project 9.7 - Deep Current, P a c i f i c 1. Ob.iectives. This p r o j e c t at the U n i v e r s i t y of Washington, Department of Oceanog- raphy, was part of an int e g r a t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l program f o r the study of the c i r c u l a - t i o n of the P a c i f i c Ocean. Part of the work was devoted to the study of parts of the two branches of the North P a c i f i c Current, the A l e u t i a n Current s e t t i n g e a s t e r l y at about 50°N and the North P a c i f i c D r i f t s e t t i n g e a s t e r l y at about 38°N. The other as- pect of the p r o j e c t was to occupy a l i n e of sta t i o n s occupied m 1929 by the research vessel CARNEGIE, as part of a l o n g i t u d i n a l p r o f i l e survey p r i m a r i l y along the 130°W meridian ( F i g . 6 ) . 2. Operations. Two cruises of the U n i v e r s i t y of Washington research vessel BROWN BEAR were made. I n 1957 the cruise was planned i n the area north of 50°N t o reoccupy the northern section of the CARNEGIE l i n e and to i n v e s t i g a t e the deep water underlying the A l e u t i a n Current and the water exchange between the North P a c i f i c and the Bering Sea. Japanese and Russian ships were engaged m complementary work i n the A l e u t i a n area and westward, Canadian ships were also working i n the Gulf of Alaska. I n 1958 the BROWN BEAR worked south of 5G°N reoccupying the southern section of the CARNEGIE l i n e and i n v e s t i g a t i n g the North P a c i f i c D r i f t and the North P a c i f i c Polar Front, the d i s c o n t i n u i t y between the water masses north and south of the D r i f t . B i o l o g i c a l and geochemical work was included on both cruises. 3. Personnel. Dr. Richard H. Fleming, Executive O f f i c e r , Department of Oceanography, was responsible f o r the organization of the cruises, Robert G. Paquette and Maurice Rattray, J r . , served as c h i e f s c i e n t i s t s f o r the cruises. 4. Data. A method was developed by the U n i v e r s i t y of Washington, Department of Ocea- nography, to process many of the s e r i a l observations on shipboard, using punchcard techniques. This enabled the r a p i d p u b l i c a t i o n of the data, which were then d i s t r i - buted m report form to other workers and the World Data Centers. 5. Results. The data from these cruises are under study by members of the Department but i t i s possible to c i t e some preliminary f i n d i n g s . For example, a net flow was found at a l l depths, s e t t i n g southwest along Shelikof S t r a i t w i t h an average v e l o c i t y of 0.5 knot (about 25 cm/sec). This may account f o r a sizable f r a c t i o n o f the i n f l o w - ing water i n the Alaskan g y r a l . The currents on the shelf south of Kodiak were r o - t a r y , net flows, i f any, were not w e l l defined. The Al e u t i a n passes were found to be regions of high currents, where powerful upwellmg and mixing processes were evident on bathythermograms to depths as great as 300 meters. Abrupt decreases i n temperature as great as 5.5°C appeared at the surface. The modified water was r e a d i l y evident at distances of 50 kilometers from the passes and more subtle e f f e c t s probably existed at greater distances. 6. Bibliography. Richard H. Fleming: "Physical and Chemical Data, North P a c i f i c Ocean: BROWN BEAR Cruise 176, July-Sept. 1957 f o r the IGY 1957-58." Special Report No. 29, June 1958, Department of Oceanography, U n i v e r s i t y of Washington. Richard H. Fleming and S t a f f : "Physical and Chemical Data, North P a c i f i c Ocean: BROWN BEAR Cruise 199, July-August 1958 f o r the IGY 1957-58." Special Report No. 30, March 1959, Department of Oceanography, U n i v e r s i t y of Washington. W i l l i a m Aran: "Midwater Trawling Studies i n the North P a c i f i c . " Limnology and Oceanography, v o l . 4, no. 4, pp. 409-418. 381

OCEANOGRAPHY Y.R. Nayodu: "Volcanic Ash Deposits i n the Gulf of Alaska." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology ( I n press). Betty V. Enbysk: "The D i s t r i b u t i o n o f the Foraminifera of the Northeast P a c i f i c . " U n i v e r s i t y of Washington thesis (1960) (Ph.D.). Y.R. Nayodu: "Recent Sediments of the Northeast P a c i f i c . " U n i v e r s i t y of Washington t h e s i s (1959) (Ph.D.). Maurice Rattray, J r . , Cuthbert M. Love and Diane E. Heggarty: " D i s t r i b u t i o n of Physical Properties Below the Level of Seasonal Influence i n the Eastern North P a c i f i c Ocean." ( I n pr e p a r a t i o n ) . S.A. E l Wardani: "Organic Production and Thermosaline Boundaries i n the N.E. P a c i f i c . " AIOP, H e l s i n k i , 1960. i«e> Figure 6. IGY Cruise Tracks, M.V. BROWN BEAR 382

OCEANOGRAPHY Project 9.8 - Deep Current - A t l a n t i c 1. Obiectives. As part of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y i n t e g r a t e d e f f o r t , oceanographic r e - search vessels c a r r i e d out coordinated programs aimed at obtaining i nformation on the deep c i r c u l a t i o n of the oceans. U.S. oceanographers operating i n the A t l a n t i c area coordinated t h e i r cruises to give the desired s p a t i a l and temporal coverage. 2. Operations. The research vessel HIDALGO of the A g r i c u l t u r a l and Mechanical College of Texas c a r r i e d out a cruise between May 13 and June 29, 1958 (Fig. 7). Ninety hydrographic s t a t i o n s were occupied, most of these i n c l u d i n g observations close to the sea bed. Twenty-eight bottom cores were taken and 410 bathythermograph observations made. At a l l s t a t i o n s temperature, s a l i n i t y , dissolved oxygen, pH and a l k a l i n i t y were observed a t each depth, and at the m a j o r i t y of s t a t i o n s phosphate, n i t r a t e , and n i t r i t e samples were taken. A new method f o r analyzing f o r boron i n sea water was t r i e d out on samples from a few selected s t a t i o n s . At eight s t a t i o n s sam- ples were c o l l e c t e d m nonmetallic sampling b o t t l e s of a special design f o r trace met- a l analysis. These samples were taken from the maximum depth, j u s t below the permanent thermocline and from the surface layer. Throughout the cruise continuous recordings of temperature and c o n d u c t i v i t y of the surface waters were made. I n connection w i t h IGY p r o j e c t 9.13, measurements were made throughout the cruise of the carbon dioxide content of the a i r and the surface waters. At s t a t i o n s , ver- t i c a l p r o f i l e s of CO2 content to 200 feet were observed. (The r e s u l t s are reported upon under p r o j e c t 9.13.) Parts of the cruise were coordinated w i t h the oceanography program of the Univer- s i t y of Miami's Marine Laboratory. The crossing of the Yucatan Channel was timed to coincide w i t h a period when the transport of the F l o r i d a Current was monitored by ca- ble from Key West to Habana and when the U n i v e r s i t y o f Miami ship occupied a section from Miami to Cat Cay. Later the vessel GERDA made observations i n the F l o r i d a Cur- rent while the HIDALGO worked i n the A n t i l l e s Current and, f o l l o w i n g t h a t , the two ships combined i n a study of the short term f l u c t u a t i o n s of the F l o r i d a Current using G.E.K.'s. 3. Personnel. The general program was under the supervision of Dale F. Leipper, Chairman, Department of Oceanography and Meteorology. H.J. McLellan served as c h i e f s c i e n t i s t . 4. Data. The IBM 650 computer was programmed f o r r o u t i n e computations and i n t e r p o - l a t i o n s and used to process the data f o r a report (Reference 59-15D) issued i n A p r i l 1959. 5. Results. An extensive study of the hydrographic data i s underway, r e l a t i n g ob- servations to those from previous expeditions i n the same areas and to observations from contiguous ateaa taken by other i n s t i t u t i o n s during the IGY. The g r a v i t y measurements have been worked up and formed the basis of a M.Sc. thesis i n geophysics presented i n June 1959. 6. Bibliography. Hugh J. McLellan: "An IGY Cruise from Texas A & M." I n t e r n a t i o n a l Hydro- graphic Review, v o l . 37, no. 1, 1960, pp. 139-142. Hugh J. McLellan: "The Waters of the Gulf of Mexico as Observed i n 1958 and 1959." A & M College of Texas, Dept. of Oceanography and Meteorology Tech- n i c a l Report 60-14T. 383

OCEANOGRAPHY Hugh J. McLellan: "Data Report f o r Two IGY Cruises." A & M College of Texas, Dept. of Oceanography and Meteorology Technical Report 59-15D. R.E. Kilmer and A.C. Duxbury: "An A n a l y t i c a l System f o r I n t e r p o l a t i o n and Calcu l a t i o n of Dynamic Heights." A & M College of Texas, Department of Oceanography and Meteorology Technical Report 59-24T. CHART OF IGY CRUISE DEP«T«IE11T OF OCEUIIKRAPHT cnuise M - M 4 1 HTOKoguFHIC S1|tTIM BTATlOa I mroROMAPMC « 4 CORINS STATION Figure 7. Hydrographic s t a t i o n s occupied by Texas A&M research vessel HIDALGO during IGY Cruise (13 May - 21 June, 1958). 384

OCEANOGRAPHY Project 9.9 - Reduction of Bathythermograph Data 1. Obiectives. This p r o j e c t at the U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e was designed to speed up the processing of the vast amount of bathythermograph data c o l l e c t e d during IGY. 2. Operations. Bathythermograph s l i d e s were received from A t l a n t i c Weather Ships, cruises to the A n t a r c t i c , and from the s t e r i c sea l e v e l program i n the P a c i f i c ; about 32,000 s l i d e s were processed. A c a l i b r a t i o n g r i d was superimposed on the s l i d e and a p o s i t i v e enlargement made a f t e r c o r r e c t i n g f o r temperature and depth e r r o r s . Spe- c i a l o z a l i d paper, coated on both sides, was used to make copies of the t r a c e / c a l i - b r a t i o n g r i d on one side, w i t h p e r t i n e n t information (ship, date, time, l a t i t u d e , longitude, weather) on the obverse. Some data also were punched on cards. 3. Personnel. The p r o j e c t was organized under the supervision of John Lyman and ca r r i e d out under the d i r e c t i o n of Benjamin S. Riclynond. 4. Data. Some a n t a r c t i c data were presented i n the published Navy Hydrographic Of- f i c e reports of the DEEP FREEZE expeditions. The Hydrographic O f f i c e i s the r e p o s i - t o r y f o r a l l bathythermograph data. Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n holds copies of A t l a n t i c Ocean bathythermograph data and Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography holds copies of P a c i f i c data. 385

OCEANOGRAPHY Project 9.10 - CO2 and Radiochemistry Measurements 1. Objectives. a. Carbon-Dioxide. The r o l e of CO2 i n the energy balance of the earth and the p o t e n t i a l r i s e i n atmospheric concentration of C0_ stemming from large-scale consump- t i o n of f o s s i l f u e l s have been the subject of much speculation i n the l i t e r a t u r e . Re- cent development of su i t a b l e instrumentation made i t possible to plan a program of continuous monitoring of atmospheric COj, d e t a i l e d studies of world-wide occurrence, and study of CO- concentration i n sea water and i t s exchange w i t h the atmosphere. I t was decided t o i n s t i t u t e a program i n which the oceanographic i n s t i t u t i o n and the U.S. Weather Bureau would cooperate w i t h the f o l l o w i n g p r i o r i t y : ( 1 ) atmospheric assay to determine average atmospheric concentration, ( l i ) measurements of the e q u i l i b r i u m v a l - ue of sea water, ( 1 1 1 ) synoptic study of dispersion i n the atmosphere, and ( i v ) mechan- isms of atmosphere-ocean exchange. b. Radiochemistry. Various species of n a t u r a l and man-produced radio-isotopes, such as Ĉ ,̂ Sr89j Sr^^^ can be used t o y i e l d i n f o r m a t i o n on ages and movement of wa- te r masses and also be applied to the geochemical study of the oceans and t e r r e s t r i a l water cycle. 2. Operations. a. Carbon-Dioxide. Under t h i s p r o j e c t at Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography, and i n cooperation w i t h the U.S. Weather Bureau, continuously recording i n f r a r e d gas analysers were procured f o r use at La J o l l a , Mauna Loa, and L i t t l e America. A gas analyser furnished by the U n i v e r s i t y of Washington was used on board Scripps research vessels during cruises f o r which e q u i l i b r a t o r s were constructed to allow measurement of CO2 tension i n sea water as w e l l as to monitor the atmospheric concentration. I n cooperation w i t h the U.S. Weather Bureau evacuated f l a s k s were supplied t o s t a t i o n s from the A r c t i c to the A n t a r c t i c . Through the use of these f l a s k s , a i r samples were co l l e c t e d f o r analysis at La J o l l a . The U.S. A i r Force A i r Weather Service cooperated i n a program of obtaining a i r samples during f l i g h t s of meteorological reconnaissance a i r c r a f t over the P a c i f i c and over A r c t i c Oceans. A c a l i b r a t i o n system, cons i s t i n g of a pr e c i s i o n manometer, was constructed at La J o l l a and tanks of reference gas were prepared as secondary standards and to i n t e r - c a l i b r a t e systems i n use at the other cooperating i n s t i t u t i o n s . b. Rad1ochemistry. Equipment f o r measuring concentration of Ĉ ^ and Sr^*^ was constructed at La J o l l a , where an isotope laboratory was b u i l t containing heavy s h i e l d - ing against cosmic ray background, the usual v a r i e t i e s of counting equipment and a mass spectrometer. For c o l l e c t i o n of water samples at sea, a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l sampler was designed and b u i l t under the supervision of J.D. Frautschy and N.W. Rakestraw, who also develop- ed the ship-board apparatus f o r e x t r a c t i o n of 002- I n t h i s process, approximately 200 l i t e r s of sea water are t r e a t e d , y i e l d i n g about 80 grams of barium carbonate f o r r e - t u r n to the isotope laboratory and subsequent analysis f o r C content. A i r samples f o r COj analysis were taken a t : D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n A, A r c t i c Ocean Fletcher's Ice I s l a n d , A r c t i c Ocean Cape Hatteras, N.C. Stampede Pass, Washington Tatoosh I s l . , Washington 386

OCEANOGRAPHY Raton, N.M. South Pole S t a t i o n , A n t a r c t i c a L i t t l e America S t a t i o n , A n t a r c t i c a Wilkes S t a t i o n , A n t a r c t i c a 3. Personnel. Norris W. Rakestraw and CD. Keeling of Scripps d i r e c t e d and c a r r i e d out the CO2 program w i t h the assistance of Eugene Wi l k i n s , U.S. Weather Bureau. The radiochemistry program was under the d i r e c t i o n of Hans Suess. 4. Results. a. Carbon-Dioxide. With the exception of the work done on the DOWNWIND crui s e , and some samples c o l l e c t e d i n f l a s k s i n the A n t a r c t i c , the systematic monitoring of CO2 concentration and c o l l e c t i o n of f l a s k samples di d not begin u n t i l l a t e i n the IGY period. This was l a r g e l y because i t was desired to measure concentration to a pre- c i s i o n not before a t t a i n a b l e , and many te c h n i c a l problems of s t a b i l i t y and standardi- z a t i o n had t o be overcome. While the basic absolute c a l i b r a t i o n s and standardizations have not yet been completed, enough r e l i a b l e data were obtained i n 1958 and 1959 to assess the achievements of the program. Keeling and Rakestraw reported on the Scripps COj program during a Symposium on Carbon-Dioxide sponsored j o i n t l y by the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Meteorology and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Physical Oceanography during the X I I General As- sembly o f the lUGG at H e l s i n k i , August 1960: ( 1 ) Continuous observation during the DOWNWIND cruise showed a s u r p r i s i n g u n i f o r m i t y i n the atmospheric concentration. CO, tension m sea water was v a r i a b l e and ranged both higher and lower than the atmospheric concentration, showing that CO2 i s being absorbed or released by sea water depending on ocean conditions. ( 1 1 ) Continuous observation at Mauna Loa and L i t t l e America, along w i t h f l a s k samples, have revealed a seasonal v a r i a t i o n of about 5 p.p.m. (parts per m i l l i o n of dry a i r ) i n the Northern Hemisphere, w i t h high values i n w i n t e r . No appreciable sea- sonal v a r i a t i o n i s evident i n the e a r l y data f o r the Southern Hemisphere. ( l i i ) The lowest average concentration was found at Mauna Loa, and the highest at the South Pole, using only data from what was judged to be uncontaminated a i r . The d i f f e r e n c e i n average concentration, however, was very small (about 1 p.p.m.). ( i v ) There i s some evidence of a yearl y increase i n CO2, although the increase, i f I t I S r e a l , i s considerably smaller than the seasonal v a r i a t i o n . About two years of data show an increase of about 1 p.p.m. per year. I t i s estimated that at the pres- ent r a t e o f consumption of f o s s i l f u e l , an equivalent of 1.4 p.p.m. concentration i n a i r I S added yearly to the atmosphere-ocean-biological system. The carbon-14 analyses of the deep sea samples taken during the DOWNWIND Expedition i n d i c a t e d a c t i v i t i e s which, when t r a n s l a t e d i n t o terms of "apparent age," varied from about 1400 years i n the high southern l a t i t u d e s to about 1900 years north of the equator. There i s much evidence to show that such "ages" are not r e a l , but i n t h i s case, at l e a s t , the l a t i - t u d i n a l progression was so regular that i t may very w e l l be a f a i r measure of the r a t e of movement of the deep water. At le a s t , the r a t e so calculated i s consistent w i t h such other imperfect evidence as we may have. b. Carbon-14 Results. Six surface samples and ten deep water samples were ob- tained during the DOWNWIND cr u i s e ; samples were c o l l e c t e d i n s p e c i a l l y designed s t a i n - less s t e e l 50 g a l l o n drums, and care was taken i n t r a n s f e r r i n g and processing the samples to avoid contact w i t h atmospheric CO2. These samples were treated on board to e x t r a c t the carbon dioxide. P r o f i l e s were also taken and the water stored to be processed at Scripps a f t e r the expedition. Results of the surface water analysis 387

OCEANOGRAPHY showed the occurrence of abnormal surface water concentrations of carbon-14, which i n the opinion of the i n v e s t i g a t o r s cannot be a t t r i b u t e d to chemical e f f e c t s during s t o r - age. The v e r t i c a l mixing of surface water w i t h that from depth can r e s u l t i n v a r i a - t i o n s m the C a c t i v i t y of surface water. One measurement gave an abnormally high value, f o r which no explanation i s o f f e r e d . I t i s premature, the i n v e s t i g a t o r s be- l i e v e , to a t t r i b u t e increases i n C^^ a c t i v i t y of surface water to uptake of bomb Ĉ ^ from the atmosphere. Deep water samples showed a d i s t i n c t and regular increase i n the apparent age of deep water from south to north. Many processes, however, c o n t r i b u t e to the C concentration of a p a r t i c u l a r water sample, and consequently one must be cautious i n i n t e r p r e t i n g C concentrations i n terms of age. Nonetheless, the inves- t i g a t o r s suggest that t h e i r measurements show an increase i n age, a f t e r consideration of appropriate f a c t o r s , of 200-300 years as water moves from the A n t a r c t i c Convergence towards the equator. This age dif f e r e n c e may be representative of the t r a v e l time of the water mass, although i t may w e l l be that the actual age i s some 100 years longer owing t o o x i d a t i o n e f f e c t s t h a t are d i f f i c u l t to take i n t o account q u a n t i t a t i v e l y . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s deduce an average northward component of water v e l o c i t y of 0.06 i 0.02 cm/sec. 5. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented at Meetings. CD. Keeling, N.W. Rakestraw: "The Concentration of Carbon Dioxide i n the Atmosphere." F o r t y - F i r s t Annual Meeting, American Geophysical Union, A p r i l 1960, Washington, D.C. CD. Keeling: "Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide i n the Western Hemisphere, Part I * Experimental Procedures, Part I I : Results - Synoptic and Seasonal Relationships." X l l t h Annual Assembly lUGG, H e l s i n k i , J u l y - August 1960. N.W. Rakestraw "Contration of Carbon Dioxide i n the Sea Surface." X l l t h Annual Assembly lUGG, H e l s i n k i , July-August 1960. b. Published Papers. CD. Keeling: "The Concentration and Isotope Abundance of Carbon Dioxide i n the Atmosphere." T e l l u s . v o l . 12, no. 2, 1960. CD. Keeling, N.W. Rakestraw, L.S. Waterman "Carbon Dioxide i n Surface Waters of the P a c i f i c Ocean." Submitted to JGR. 1964. G.S. Bien, N.W. Rakestraw, H.E. Suess: "Radiocarbon Concentration m P a c i f i c Ocean Water." T e l l u s , v o l . 12, no. 4, I960, pp. 436-43. Note: See bibliography of Project 21.1 388

OCEANOGRAPHY Project 9.11 - CO2 and Radiochemistry Measurements 1. Obiectives. a. Carbon-Dioxide. The r o l e of CO2 m the energy balance of the e a r t h and the p o t e n t i a l r i s e i n atmospheric concentration of CO2 stemming from large-scale consump- t i o n of f o s s i l f u e l s have been the subject of much speculation i n the l i t e r a t u r e . Re- cent development of su i t a b l e instrumentation made i t possible to plan a program of continuous monitoring of atmospheric CO , d e t a i l e d studies of world-wide occurrence, and study of CO2 concentration i n sea water and i t s exchange w i t h the atmosphere. I t was decided to i n s t i t u t e a program i n which the oceanographic i n s t i t u t i o n s and the U.S. Weather Bureau would cooperate w i t h the f o l l o w i n g p r i o r i t y : ( i ) atmospheric assay to determine average atmospheric concentration, ( 1 1 ) measurements o f the equi- l i b r i u m value of sea water, ( i i i ) synoptic study of dispersion i n the atmosphere, and ( i v ) mechanisms of atmosphere-ocean-exchange. b. Radiochemistry. Various species of n a t u r a l and man-produced radio-isotopes, such as H3 and Ĉ ,̂ can be used to y i e l d information on ages of water masses and also be applied to the geochemical study of the oceans and the t e r r e s t r i a l water cycle. 2. Operations. The Lamont Geological Observatory of Columbia U n i v e r s i t y was a par- t i c i p a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n i n the CO2 and radiochemistry program. An i n f r a r e d gas analy- ser was obtained f o r measuring CO2 concentration and an e q u i l i b r a t o r was designed and constructed to permit measurement of CO2 tension i n sea water. F a c i l i t i e s f o r H"̂ and Ĉ ^ determination were already i n operation at Lamont, but additions of equipment and enlargement of c a p a b i l i t i e s were c a r r i e d out to f a c i l i t a t e the large number of samples c o l l e c t e d during the IGY. The CO2 gas analyser and e q u i l i b r a t o r were operated during VEMA cruises. Water samples were also c o l l e c t e d and treated on shipboard f o r l a t e r treatment and counting at the geochemical laboratory of Lamont. A mass spectrograph was used at Lamont to analyze the C /C r a t i o of the CO2 assayed f o r C determination. I n t h i s way cor- re c t i o n s were made f o r i s o t o p i c f r a c t i o n a t i o n during shipboard processing of the samples. 3. Personnel. Taro Takahashi c a r r i e d out the CO2 program. Bruno G i l e t t i and Wallace Broecker d i r e c t e d the H and C programs. 4. Results. a. Carbon-Dioxide. Takahashi reported h i s work at the Annual Meeting, AGU, 1959 and at the Symposium on Carbon-Dioxide sponsored by the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Meteorology and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Physical Oceanography during the X l l t h General Assembly of the lUGG, August 1960, H e l s i n k i . I n the A t l a n t i c , he found an increase i n atmospheric COj from higher l a t i t u d e s toward the equator, w i t h a range of about 5 ppm. The p a r t i a l pressure of CO2 i n surface sea water was highest i n equa- t o r i a l waters and decreased toward higher l a t i t u d e s , and between 0° and 30°S (during the summer months i n the Southern Hemisphere) exceeded the atmospheric concentration, i n t h i s region CO2 i s being released from sea water to the atmosphere. I t was con- cluded that CO2 concentration may help to d i s t i n g u i s h currents and water masses. b. Radiocarbon. As part of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year program at Lamont, radiocarbon analyses were made on CO2 extracted from samples of sea water c o l l e c t e d m both the A t l a n t i c and P a c i f i c Oceans. The A t l a n t i c samples were c o l l e c t e d by the s c i e n t i f i c s t a f f o f the Columbia research vessel VEMA and those from the North Paci- f i c by S.A. El Wardani of the U n i v e r s i t y of Washington. The d e t a i l s of the c o l l e c t i o n 389

OCEANOGRAPHY and analysis procedures have been published by Broecker, Tucek, and Olson (1959). A paper dealing w i t h the r e s u l t s obtained on the samples c o l l e c t e d i n the A t l a n t i c Ocean has also been published (Broecker, Gerard, Ewlng, and Heezen, 1960). Results on sam- ples from the Caribbean Sea are dealt w i t h m a separate p u b l i c a t i o n . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of radiocarbon ind i c a t e d by these studies can be summarized as f o l l o w s . Surface waters i n the North A t l a n t i c average ( a f t e r c o r r e c t i o n s have been applied f o r a small r i s e r e s u l t i n g from bomb-produced Ĉ ^ and f o r a decrease r e s u l t i n g from the release of i n d u s t r i a l CO2) about four percent lower i n normalized Ĉ * concen- t r a t i o n than p r e - i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n atmospheric COj (as i n d i c a t e d by tree r i n g a- nalyses). The reason f o r e x t r a p o l a t i n g the r e s u l t s to a period p r i o r to both bomb t e s t i n g and large scale release of f o s s i l f u e l i s that the Ĉ ^ d i s t r i b u t i o n needed f o r evaluating c i r c u l a t i o n rates i s that f o r the system at steady st a t e . Normalization to a common Ĉ-̂ concentration i s necessary to eliminate d ifferences r e s u l t i n g from isotope f r a c t i o n a t i o n . The low l a t i t u d e surface water bicarbonate of the South A t l a n t i c has on the average one percent less C than i t s counterpart i n the North A t l a n t i c . As would be expected the average concentration i n the Caribbean l i e s between that i n the North and that i n the South A t l a n t i c surface water. Proceeding southward a three percent de- crease i n concentration occurs i n the v i c i n i t y of A n t a r c t i c Convergence followed by a steady decrease of an a d d i t i o n a l four to s i x percent as the A n t a r c t i c continent i s ap- proached. No s i m i l a r decrease has been observed i n the northern North A t l a n t i c . With three main exceptions the subsurface waters i n the North A t l a n t i c have about seven percent less Ĉ ^ than the surface waters. These exceptions are as fol l o w s : ( 1 ) the c e n t r a l waters (200-600 m) have concentrations intermediate between t h a t of the o v e r l y i n g surface waters and that of the underlying deep waters, ( i i ) a tongue of water i n the western North A t l a n t i c between 1200 and 2400 meters has a C-'-̂ concentra- t i o n about three percent higher than surrounding (above, below, and S.E. at the same depth) deep waters, and ( i i i ) the water confined to the Eastern Basin by the mid-At- l a n t i c Ridge has a two percent lower C concentration. The subsurface waters of North A t l a n t i c o r i g i n found i n the South A t l a n t i c have Ĉ ^ concentrations s i m i l a r to t h e i r counterparts i n the North A t l a n t i c . On the other hand water masses such as the A n t a r c t i c Intermediate and Bottom Water masses which o r i g i n a t e i n the A n t a r c t i c have Ĉ ^ concentrations r e s p e c t i v e l y 2 and 4 percent lower than che t y p i c a l North A t l a n t i c deep masses consistent With the lower values observed i n t h e i r respective source regions ( i . e . , the A n t a r c t i c Convergence and the Weddell Sea). The Ĉ ^ r e s u l t s discussed above are tabulated on the i d e a l i z e d north-south p r o f i l e through the western basin of the A t l a n t i c given i n f i g u r e 8. The u n i t s are per m i l d i f f e r e n c e from the pre-1900 f r a c t i o n a t i o n corrected atmospheric value. Consistent w i t h the South P a c i f i c deep water r e s u l t s of Bien (see G.S. Bien, N.W. Rakestraw, and H.E. Suess: "Radiocarbon Concentration i n P a c i f i c Ocean Water." Te l l u s . i n press, 1960) and Rafter and Fergusson (see T.A. Rafter and G.J. Fergusson: "Atmospheric-Radiocarbon as a Tracer i n Geophysical C i r c u l a t i o n Problems." Proc. o f the Second United Nations I n t e r . Conf. on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, v o l . 18, pp. 526-532, 1958), the two deep water saii?>les obtained from the A l e u t i a n region of the North P a c i f i c yielded r e s u l t s about 18 percent lower than average steady state surface water. Various simple models have been constructed attempting to incorporate the main features of large scale ocean c i r c u l a t i o n . Regardless of the model selected as long as the system i s assumed to be at steady-state deep water residence times of 300 to 700 years are obtained f o r the deep North A t l a n t i c masses and of 800 to 1600 years 390

•30(3) -35(18) t_ -46(16) t— -121(2) NACW uJ 2000 -104(16) -71 (3) -98 (8) - 72 (8) -105 (15) -92(2) -61 (6) - i l 8 ( 6 ) -102 (5) SASW AAIW -130(3) AABW , -144(3) 60»N 2o« 0* LATITUDE 20* 40" 60»S Figure 8. I d e a l i z e d v e r t l c l e p r o f i l e - Western Basin

OCEANOGRAPHY f o r the deep P a c i f i c . These residence times are defined as the mean number of years a water molecule remains at depth before r e t u r n i n g to the surface. I f the oceans mix on a large scale m a c y c l i c or i r r e g u l a r manner then the actual residence times could be considerably smaller. A hyp o t h e t i c a l example of such non-steady-state mixing i s shown i n f i g u r e 9. The absence of large changes i n the a t - mospheric c l ^ Cl2 r a t i o as recorded by tree r i n g s suggests that the system has remained reasonably close t o steady s t a t e . Because of i t s possible connection w i t h the western boundary countercurrent r e c e n t l y discovered beneath the Gulf Stream by deep f l o a t measurements, the existence of a Ĉ ^ maximum layer i n the deep waters of the Western North A t l a n t i c i s of p a r t i - c ular importance. I t may be that the dense water c u r r e n t l y being formed i n the areas adjacent to Greenland i s being i n j e c t e d at t h i s l e v e l . The sharp decrease i n Ĉ ^ a c t i v i t y of surface waters i n the A n t a r c t i c i s con- s i s t e n t w i t h a large scale upwelling of deep waters from both the A t l a n t i c and the P a c i f i c i n t o t h i s region. Exchange w i t h the atmosphere i s not s u f f i c i e n t l y r a p i d to maintain a high surface Ĉ ^ concentration. I n summary, although the range of Ĉ ^ concentrations i n the A t l a n t i c i s q u i t e small (about 10 percent), the differences which do e x i s t provide valuable boundary conditions f o r theories of oceanic mixing. I n the P a c i f i c , where even larger v a r i a - t i o n s e x i s t , even more valuable i n f o r m a t i o n can be obtained from an extensive Ĉ ^ survey. c. T r i t i u m . The study o f the n a t u r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t r i t i u m was complicated before the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year began by the release during thermonuclear t e s t i n g , of amounts of t r i t i u m comparable to the previous world inventory. As a r e - s u l t , the major emphasis of the Lamont t r i t i u m work was placed on the study of o l d and/or southern hemisphere samples. These would then minimize the contamination prob- lem. However, some Lamont rai n s were examined f o r monitoring purposes, and p r e c i p i - t a t i o n m the Northern and Southern Hemispheres was obtained. Most of these were ra i n s which f e l l i n the period 1951-2. A n a l y t i c a l techniques were s i m i l a r to those described i n G i l e t t i , Bazan, and Kulp (1958). Samples of surface sea water were obtained by the S.S. AFRICAN ENDEAVOR (Far- r e l l Lines, N.Y.C.) and the R.V. VEMA (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) . Deeper l e v e l s of the A t l a n t i c were sampled from R.V. VEMA. Twenty samples of South A t l a n t i c surface water were examined. These cover an area extending from 1° 14'S to 45° 23'S and include both the western and eastern South A t l a n t i c . C o llections were made i n 1956 and 1957. With only a few exceptions, these samples give a t r i t i u m concentration of 0.2 TU ( 1 TU = concentration i n : t r i t i u m atoms divided by t o t a l number of hydrogen atoms XIO^^). This should be compared w i t h the pre-1954 f a l l o u t t r i t i u m content of the North A t l a n t i c Ocean. This averaged 1.0 TU or f i v e times the South A t l a n t i c value. A t o t a l of 23 ra i n s i n the period 1951-2 were measured. These came from Hawaii and the Canal Zone i n the Northern Hemisphere; and Puerto Montt, Chile, and Porto Alegre, B r a z i l , i n the Southern Hemisphere. These samples had a lower t r i t i u m content generally than the values of 8 TU f o r 1953 i n New York ( G i l e t t i , et aL 1958) and Chi- cago (S. Kaufman and W.F. Libby: "The Natural D i s t r i b u t i o n of T r i t i u m . " Phys. Rev., v o l . 93, pp. 1337-1344). Eight r a i n s at Lamont c o l l e c t e d from 1955 through 1957 gave considerably high- er values. I n the spring of 1957, the values ranged from 80 to 155 TU (4 samples). 392

VO MIXING ISOLATION -150 1 200» 400 ATMOSPHERE SURFACE OCEAN MIXING 1 DEEP OCEANn t^J I J . HYPOTHETICAL INDUSTRIAL EFFECT -L 300 200 100 YEARS BEFORE PRESENT 8 Figure 9.

OCEANOGRAPHY Owing to the lower t r i t i u m content of the South A t l a n t i c waters, a r e v i s i o n of the n a t u r a l production r a t e estimate of t r i t i u m i s being c a r r i e d out. This w i l l be published together w i t h d e t a i l s of the data summarized here ( G i l e t t i , i n preparation). I t i s l i k e l y that the new production r a t e estimate w i l l be less than the 0.75 ± 0.4 ^/cm^-sec. calculated i n G i l e t t i e t a l (1958). 5. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented at Meetings. Taro Takahashi: "CO2 Exchange Between the Atmosphere and the North and South A t l a n t i c Oceans." Annual Meeting AGU, May 1959, Washington, D.C. Taro Takahashi: "CO2 Measurements i n the A t l a n t i c . " Symposium on Carbon- Dioxide, X l l t h General Assembly of lUGG, August 1960, H e l s i n k i . b. Published Papers. Bruno J. G i l e t t i , Fernando Bazan and J. Lawrence Kulp: "The Geochemistry of T r i t i u m . " Trans. AGU. v o l . 39, no. 5, Oct. 1958, pp. 807-818. Wallace S. Broecker, C.S. Tucek, and E.A. Olson: "Radio-Carbon Analysis of Oceanic CO2." I n t . Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes, v o l . 7, 1959, pp. 1-8.̂ Wallace S. Broecker and Alan Walton: "Radiocarbon from Nuclear Tests." Science, v o l . 130, no. 3371, Aug. 7, 1959, pp. 309-314. Taro Takahashi: "Carbon Dioxide i n the Atmosphere and A t l a n t i c Ocean Water." F i n a l Report IGY Grant Y/9.11/134, A p r i l 1959, pp. 1-80: JGR, v o l . 66, no. 2, February 1961, pp. 477-494. W.S. Broecker, R. Gerard, W.M. Ewing, B.C. Heezen: "Natural Radiocarbon i n the A t l a n t i c Ocean." JGR, v o l . 65, no. 9, September 1960, pp. 2903-32. 394

OCEANOGRAPHY P r o j e c t 9.12 - Radiochemistry of Sea Water and COj A n a l y s i s of the Atmosphere 1. O b i e c t i v e s . As the d i s t r i b u t i o n of CO- i n the atmosphere i s of co n s i d e r a b l e i n - t e r e s t and i s r e l a t e d to the other ICY p r o j e c t s designed to study the average concen- t r a t i o n , t h i s p r o j e c t a t the Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n was planned to o b t a i n v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l p r o f i l e s of atmospheric CO2 concentration. Radiochemistry a n a l y s e s of deep water samples were planned to obt a i n information on the s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of a v a r i e t y of fission-produced r a d i o i s o t o p e s to provide a base l i n e f o r future a n a l y s e s as the r a t e of i n t r o d u c t i o n of these m a t e r i a l s i n - c r e a s e s and to study the d i s t r i b u t i o n of n a t u r a l and fission-produced r a d i o i s o t o p e s w i t h measurements c o r r e l a t e d w i t h oceanographic data to help r e s o l v e some u n c e r t a i n - t i e s of ocean c i r c u l a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y the deep c i r c u l a t i o n . Measurements were a l s o made of C-14 and s t a b l e isotope c o n c e n t r a t i o n s to help c l a r i f y geochemical processes i n v o l v e d i n the t r a n s f e r of d i s s o l v e d and suspended matter from the water column to the sediments. 2. Operations. a. Carbon-Dioxide. An i n f r a r e d gas a n a l y s e r , s i m i l a r to that used a t the other i n s t i t u t i o n s making COj measurements, was mounted i n the Woods Hole DC-3 a i r c r a f t . F l i g h t s were made over the A t l a n t i c o f f the e a s t e r n coast of the U.S., over the Gulf of Mexico and the Gu l f of Maine, over the Appalachian Mountains, and i n the Caribbean. The recorder was a l s o operated continuously f o r some periods on Martha's Vineyard I s l a n d . b. Radiochemistry. Water samples were taken at the su r f a c e and at depth over the c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f . Samples from deep hydrographic s t a t i o n s i n the A t l a n t i c , obtained by the Woods Hole v e s s e l CRAWFORD during IGY c r u i s e s , c o n s i s t e d of f i v e samples from 10 to 4500 meters depth, and i n a d d i t i o n some other sampling added to the v a r i e t y of water specimens analyzed. A large volume water sampler was designed and co n s t r u c t e d fo r t h i s program. Some samples were a l s o c o l l e c t e d i n the A r c t i c Ocean from I c e I s - land T-3. 3. Personnel. Richard G. Leahy and John W. Kanwisher were r e s p o n s i b l e f or the CO2 program. Vaughan T. Bowen undertook the radiochemical program, w i t h Thomas T. Sugl- hara, C l a r k U n i v e r s i t y , Worcester, Mass., cooperating i n the an a l y s e s and l o w - l e v e l counting. 4. Data. Analyses of the water samples are tabulated f o r a s t a t i o n . The ^informa- t i o n i n c l u d e s the c r u i s e and s t a t i o n number, date of sampling, sonic depth, s t a t i o n p o s i t i o n , and d e t a i l s of the hydrographic sampling ( c o r r e c t e d depth, temperature and s a l i n i t y ) along w i t h the radiochemical data ( c o r r e c t e d depth, Nansen temperature, Nansen s a l i n i t y , sampler s a l i n i t y , Sr-90 i n dpm/lOO l i t e r and Ce-144, and Pm-147 i n dpm/lOO l i t e r c o r r e c t e d to c o l l e c t i o n d a t e ) . These data have been submitted to the World Data Centers. 5. R e s u l t s . a. Carbon-Dioxide. I n records made during a l l seasons at the Woods Hole Oceanog- r a p h i c I n s t i t u t i o n i n Woods Hole and records made during November and December at Gay Head on the i s l a n d of Martha's Vineyard o f f the New England c o a s t , the most outstand- ing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c sample was the c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a b i l i t y of the l o c a l CO2 l e v e l s . T h i s v a r i a b i l i t y i s of the same order of magnitude as has been reported f or recent samples c o l l e c t e d i n the Scandinavian a r e a . The average CO2 l e v e l a l s o appears to be i n the same range as the Scandinavian data. The Gay Head records, which are most i n - t e r e s t i n g due to the s t a t i o n ' s r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n and proximity to the open sea, 395

OCEANOGRAPHY i n d i c a t e a marked tendency f o r the CO- peaks to occur i n the l a t e morning. There i s a l s o a tendency for these peaks to i n d i c a t e a more gradual slope on the r i s e to the high CO2 v a l u e s v s . the g e n e r a l l y sharp decay slope to lower v a l u e s . T h i s COj peak development may be r e l a t e d to d i u r n a l v a r i a t i o n i n the t r a j e c t o r y of the a i r mass mov- ing along the coast l i n e . The magnitude of the t o t a l atmospheric CO2 v a r i a t i o n i s approximately 50 ppm. The m a j o r i t y of the emphasis on the sampling program has been the measurement of v e r t i c a l atmospheric CO2 p r o f i l e s by d i r e c t determination w i t h the spectrometer i n the I n s t i t u t i o n a i r c r a f t . These measurements have been made at a l t i t u d e s from 100 to 10,000 f t . at s e v e r a l l o c a t i o n s along the e a s t e r n coast of North America. One of the e a r l i e s t s e t s of measurements was made to the e a s t of Barbados i n November of 1957. The curves produced by these soundings were t y p i c a l of those made at other times m other areas and m general i n d i c a t e a number of CO2 maxima and minima. D a i l y v a r i a - t i o n s of s e v e r a l p a r t s per m i l l i o n were noted above the marine i n v e r s i o n which was r e l a t i v e l y w e l l developed around the 7000 f t . l e v e l , and a range of over ten ppm was seen during the two week sampling period. F l i g h t s of s e v e r a l hours d u r a t i o n along the t r a j e c t o r y of a s p e c i f i c a i r mass showed a uniform CO2 l e v e l . S i m i l a r v e r t i c a l sound- ings have been made i n other areas along the e a s t e r n coast l i n e w i t h s i m i l a r i n d i c a - t i o n s of CO2 v a r i a b i l i t y w i t h height. The most e x t e n s i v e period of sampling was c a r - r i e d out over Texas Tower #3 on Nantucket shoals during J u l y and August 1958. Again the v e r t i c a l v a r i a b i l i t y was seen w i t h a g r e a t e r range than was i n d i c a t e d by Caribbean soundings. The Texas Tower rec o r d s a l s o show a tendency toward a p e r s i s t e n t minimum between the 1000 and 3000 f t . l e v e l s with a general i n c r e a s e i n CO2 down to the lowest l e v e l measured (100 f t . ) . T h i s i n c r e a s e of CO2 above the s u r f a c e of the water was p a r t i c u l a r l y evident under h i g h l y s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h an i n c r e a s i n g atmospheric wa- t e r content as the sea s u r f a c e was approached. There was a l s o a tendency f o r a given v e r t i c a l CO2 p a t t e r n to p e r s i s t over a period of three or four days when meteorologi- c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n an area were s i m i l a r l y p e r s i s t e n t . The passage of a f r o n t w i t h a r e d u c t i o n i n mixing r a t i o i s u s u a l l y accompanied by reduced CO2 l e v e l s . I n g e n e r a l , the COo measurements made along the e a s t e r n North American coast l i n e to date i n d i c a t e a s i m i l a r i t y to the Scandinavian records r a t h e r than to the uniform l e v e l s reported for the P a c i f i c and A n t a r c t i c . b. Radiochemistry. A r e p o r t , "Strontium-90 i n the 'mixed l a y e r ' of the A t l a n t i c Ocean," by Vaughan T. Bowen and Thomas T. Sugihara, has been prepared and was published i n "Nature." A more extended d i s c u s s i o n of r e s u l t s of the whole f i s s i o n - p r o d u c t pro- gram i s i n p r e p a r a t i o n and should s h o r t l y be completed. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of much of the data i s s t i l l not c l e a r , and we hope ve r y much t h a t the Sr-90 a n a l y s e s on two equa- t o r i a l s t a t i o n s made from R/V CRAWFORD i n 1958, and now i n the l a s t stages of a n a l y s i s , w i l l c l a r i f y the p i c t u r e . The report to "Nature" en5)hasizes that at seven s t a t i o n s , from 16° S. to 36° N., i n the A t l a n t i c , the water column c o n t a i n s below 100 m three to four times as much Sr-90 t o t a l as there i s above 100 m. Considerable amounts are found at 700 m, and i n three out of f i v e samples below 1000 m the r e s u l t s were above our l i m i t of d e t e c t i o n . These s t a t i o n s were a l l made between March 1957 and J u l y 1958, so the times a v a i l a b l e f o r v e r t i c a l p e n e tration, s i n c e June 1954, range from 2-3/4 to 4 y e a r s . I n most c a s e s , these short times seem to have r u l e d out the p o s s i b i l i t y of v e r t i c a l t r a n s p o r t by s i n k i n g along sigma-T s u r f a c e s . Present conventional e s t i m a t e s of the r a t e of d i r e c t v e r t i c a l " d i f f u s i o n " - i n the oceanographic t u r b u l e n t sense - do not move enough water to e x p l a i n the Sr-90 d i s t r i b u t i o n s found. We have, however, no other explanation. I t i s c l e a r and i s emphasized, that the processes which so rap- i d i y move Sr-90 downward must a l s o move C-14, and that consequently these observations, w h i l e making untenable the a s s i g n i n g of "crude ages" i n the 200-300 year range to wa- t e r at 200-500 m, a l s o are h i g h l y p e r t i n e n t to the question of the low s p e c i f i c a c t i - v i t y of ocean s u r f a c e waters. With f u r t h e r study, we are confident t h a t a more r e a l i s t i c , dynamic p i c t u r e of isotope d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the ocean w i l l emerge. Another more unexpected f e a t u r e of the Sr-90 a n a l y s e s i s the f a c t that rough I n t e g r a t i o n of the v e r t i c a l curves of r a d i o s t r o n t i u m content i n d i c a t e s that the f a l l o u t 396

OCEANOGRAPHY per u n i t a r ea of sea s u r f a c e i s much l a r g e r than has been found for land s u r f a c e . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s i s s t i l l open. The s t u d i e s of v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of Ce-144 and of Pm-147 have shown that i n the sea there i s co n s i d e r a b l e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n between these two la n t h a n i d e s . The p a t t e r n s which appear are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the assumption that much cerium i n sea water I S i n the form of f o u r - v a l e n t a n i o n i c complexes. Promethium appears d e f i n i t e l y to be sedimented by a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h p a r t i c l e s , as does cerivmi, but the p a r t i c l e populations and r a t e s of s i n k i n g seem to be d i f f e r e n t . Although the data are by no means yet com- p l e t e , most promethium i s shown to s i n k a p p r e c i a b l y f a s t e r than 100 m per month, whereas much cerium i s sedimented at 90 to 100 m per month. Some i n d i c a t i o n s are seen of a t h i r d p a r t i c l e population s i n k i n g at no more than 50 m per month. No evidence has been obtained of appreciable lanthanide a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h zooplankton c o l l e c t i b l e i n number 2 mesh n e t s . 6. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented a t Meetings. T.T. Sugihara: "Radiochemical Separation of F i s s i o n Products from Large Volumes of Sea Water." American Chemical S o c i e t y Meeting a t San F r a n c i s c o , C a l i f o r n i a , A p r i l 1958. V.T. Bowen and T.T. Sugihara: "Marine Geochemical S t u d i e s w i t h F a l l o u t Radioisotopes." Second United Nations I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on the P e a c e f u l Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, September 1958. John W. Kanwisher: " P a r t i a l P r e s s u r e of CO, i n Sea Water." F i r s t I n t e r - n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Congress, United Nations, New York, September 1959. Richard G. Leahy: "Atmospheric Measurements Along the E a s t e r n Coast of North America." F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Congress, United Nations, New York, September 1959. T.T. Sugihara: "Radioactive Rare E a r t h s from F a l l o u t f o r Study of P a r t i c l e Movement i n the Sea." Conference on the Use of Radioisotopes i n the P h y s i - c a l S c i e n c e s and I n d u s t r y , Copenhagen, September 1960. b. Published Papers. V.T. Bowen and T.T. Sugihara: "Strontitjm 90 i n North A t l a n t i c Surface Waters." Proc. N a t i o n a l Academy of S c i e n c e s , v o l . 43, 1957, pp. 576-580. V.T. Bowen and T.T. Sugihara: "Marine Geochemical S t u d i e s w i t h F a l l o u t R adioisotopes." Proc. 2nd I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference P e a c e f u l Uses Atomic Energy, paper U.N. 403, 1958, 12 p. T.T. Sugihara, H.I. James, E . J . T r o i a n e l l o , V.T. Bowen: "Radiochemical Separation of F i s s i o n Products from Large Volumes of Sea Water, I . Stron- tium, Cesium, Cerium, and Promethium." A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, v o l . 31, 1959, pp. 44-49. Vaughan T. Bowen and Thomas T. Sugihara: "Strontium 90 i n the 'Mixed Layer' of the A t l a n t i c Ocean." Nature, v o l . 186, no. 4718, A p r i l 2, 1960, pp. 71-72. T.T. Sugihara and V.T. Bowen: " I n t e r n a t i o n a l Atomic Energy A u t h o r i t y Pro- ceedings of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on the Use of Radioisotopes i n the P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s and I n d u s t r y ( I n p r e s s ) . 397

OCEANOGRAPHY P r o j e c t 9.13 - CO2 Measurement and Radiochemistry of Sea Water 1. Ob.iectives. T h i s p r o j e c t a t the Department of Oceanography and Meteorology, A g r i - c u l t u r a l and Mechanical College of Texas, was organized as p a r t of a coordinated e f f o r t to assay the CO2 content of the atmosphere and to study i t s exchange between the a t - mosphere and sea water, to study c e r t a i n r a d i o - i s o t o p e s , to date water masses, ob t a i n information on the c i r c u l a t i o n of the oceans, and to study the geochemistry of ocean- ographic p r o c e s s e s . 2. Operations. a. Carbon-Dioxide. An i n f r a r e d gas a n a l y z e r was used aboard the HIDALGO to meas- ure CO2 co n c e n t r a t i o n i n a i r . An e q u i l i b r a t o r was designed and constructed to measure CO2 te n s i o n i n sea water. Measurements were made i n the Gulf of Mexico, and northern Caribbean and during the IGY c r u i s e of the HIDALGO de s c r i b e d under 9.8. Pr e s s u r e c o r r e c t i o n s were not necessary s i n c e a l l the measurements were made w i t h flowing samples and were compared to standards i n an i n f r a r e d absorption c e l l open to atmospheric p r e s s u r e . There was, l i k e w i s e , no c o r r e c t i o n a p p l i e d f o r sample gas temperature s i n c e both the sanqjle and standard gases were preheated uniformly i n the gas flow stream a f t e r d e s s i c a t i o n and metering. The v a l u e s , computed on a dry gas b a s i s , could be c o r r e c t e d f o r absolute humidity; however, the c o r r e c t i o n would have to be ap p l i e d to each sampling period i n d i v i d u a l l y . The c o r r e c t i o n would be s i g - n i f i c a n t i n the case of the p a r t i a l pressure of CO2 i n the sea water; but f o r compar- i s o n between atmospheric and sea su r f a c e pC02 v a l u e s , the c o r r e c t i o n d i f f e r e n c e would only represent that c o r r e c t i o n due to d i f f e r e n c e s I n the r e l a t i v e humidity between the a i r v a l u e and gas sa t u r a t e d w i t h water vapor. Since the r e l a t i v e humidity at the sea su r f a c e i n t e r f a c e , or point of gaseous exchange, i s probably a l s o a t s a t u r a t i o n , there i s some question as to the d e s i r a b i l i t y of making humidity c o r r e c t i o n s . C o r r e c t i o n s , i f made, would r e q u i r e exact r e l a t i v e humidity v a l u e s at each sampling s t a t i o n . I n the shore laboratory under good working c o n d i t i o n s , r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y between i n d i v i d u a l determination was w i t h i n one ppm or one micro atmosphere. Measurements at sea were s u b j e c t to voltag e f l u c t u a t i o n , frequency s h i f t s , and v i b r a t i o n s , but were o r d i n a r i l y reproduced to w i t h i n 2 ppm on the standard gases, 3 ppm on a i r samples, and 3 ppm on the PCO2 te n s i o n of the s u r f a c e . b. Radiochemistry. A l a r g e p a r t of the radiochemical program planned f o r t h i s work was not completed during the IGY. Because of the d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered w i t h the carbon dioxide program, most of the manpower allowed f or the e n t i r e p r o j e c t was used i n t h i s phase of the work. Techniques were developed whereby r a d i o carbon may be determined on both the organic and i n o r g a n i c carbon of sea water. Deep sea sanqilers and process equipment f o r handling these saxnples were designed and con s t r u c t e d , and some p r e l i m i n a r y samples c o l l e c t e d i n the Gu l f of Mexico, Caribbean, and mi d - A t l a n t i c Ocean, a l i q u i d s c i n t i l l a t i o n counter was acquired and operated, and methods for pre- p a r a t i o n of samples f or counting were developed. A l i b r a r y of samples f o r t r a c e element a n a l y s i s was s t a r t e d during the IGY. Some 200 o n e - l i t e r samples were c o l l e c t e d from the Gu l f of Mexico, Caribbean, Mid- A t l a n t i c , and the Weddell Sea. The Weddell Sea samples were c o l l e c t e d on one of the A n t a r c t i c e xpeditions of the Argentine IGY program. Samples c o n s i s t of e i t h e r 6 or 12 separate o n e - l i t e r b o t t l e s c o l l e c t e d from both shallow and deep water and from widely separated s t a t i o n s . The samples were c o l l e c t e d i n 7-gallon a l l - p o l y e t h y l e n e samplers designed to f i t on a standard hydrographic c a s t . The b o t t l e s used f or storage were Pyrex g l a s s spheres w i t h two side arms which were sealed i n the f i e l d w i t h a propane t o r c h . The g l a s s storage b o t t l e s were p r e t r e a t e d w i t h r e d i s t i l l e d n i t r i c a c i d and f i n a l l y washed wi t h t r i d i s t i l l e d water and sea water sample before c o l l e c t i o n of the samples. 398

OCEANOGRAPHY Dr. Yoshimi Morita has completed a n a l y s i s of these samples f or Fe, Cu and Zn. A n a l y s i s of these and c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s of more samples f or tr a c e metals has continued over the past s e v e r a l y e a r s . 3. Personnel. Dale F. Le i p p e r was I n charge of the gen e r a l program; Donald W. Hood and Edward R. I b e r t c a r r i e d out the program. 4. Data. The data have been processed and the f i n a l report submitted to the World Data Center and to the Nati o n a l Science Foundation. 5. R e s u l t s . a. Carbon-Dioxide. The pCO. press u r e of the a i r over the sea su r f a c e was found to be g r e a t e r than that i n the sea water f o r n e a r l y a l l l o c a t i o n s i n the Gu l f of Mex- i c o , Caribbean, and middle A t l a n t i c Ocean. Exceptions were found when c r o s s i n g the F l o r i d a Current between Bimini and Miami during midafternoon, where the pC02 of water exceeded that of the a i r by about 30 ppm. Also m the region of the Bahama Banks, the pCOo of the water was found i n excess to that of the a i r . Some evidence f o r d i - u r n a l e f f e c t s of the pC02 of the a i r and sea surfac e was observed. These e f f e c t s were u s u a l l y confined to regions of r e l a t i v e l y high i n s o l a t i o n during periods of f a i r weather and with low but r e l a t i v e l y steady wind speeds. b. Radiochemistry. Radiochemical work was confined to the c o l l e c t i o n of samples for C ^ ^ / C ^ ^ measurements of su r f a c e and deep ocean water i n the Gulf of Mexico. The Cl4/cl2 program was i n i t i a t e d during the IGY and has been continued s i n c e that time. Measurements are made w i t h a Packard T r i c a r b L i q u i d S c i n t i l l a t i o n Beta Spectrometer, and carbon dioxide c o l l e c t e d from s u r f a c e and deep ocean water i s converted to benzene through the pathway 2 NH^ OH + C O j — ( N H ^ ) 2 CO3 + H2O (NH^)2 CO3 + Sr C I 2 — Sr CO3 + 2 NH^ CI 2 Sr CO3 + S Ca — Sr C2 + SrO + 5 CaO Sr C2 + 2 H j O — C2H2 + Sr(0H)2 3 C, H diborane ^ Cg H (>807. y i e l d ) ^ AI2O3 c a t a l y s t " •c) The chemistry of s y n t h e s i s and pr e p a r a t i o n of the counting laboratory have now been completed and the measurement program has now been i n i t i a t e d . Samples to be used i n measuring the age of the organic m a t e r i a l of sea water have a l s o been c o l l e c t e d . 6. Bi b l i o g r a p h y . a. Papers Presented a t Meetings. J.B. Smith, Mitsonobu Tatsumoto and Donald W. Hood: "The Carbamino Carbox- y l i c Acids as a Source of Carbon i n Photosynthesis by Marine Phytoplankton." F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Congress, New York, 1959. Edward R. I b e r t and Donald W. Hood: "A Mul t i s t a g e E q u i l i b r a t o r f or Use i n Measuring the P a r t i a l P r e s s u r e of Carbon Dioxide i n Sea Water." F o r t i e t h Annual Meeting American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C., 1959. 399

OCEANOGRAPHY Yoshio Sugiura, Edward R. I b e r t and Donald W. Hood: "Mass T r a n s f e r of Carbon Dioxide Across Simulated Sea S u r f a c e s . " F o r t y - F i r s t Annual Meeting American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C., 1960. Donald W. Hood and Edward R. I b e r t : "Comparative Data on C a l c u l a t e d and Measured Carbon Dioxide m Sea Water of D i f f e r e n t Marine Environments." X l l t h General Assembly lUGG, H e l s i n k i , F i n l a n d , 1960. John E. Noakes and Donald W. Hood: "Boron-Boric Acid Complexes i n Sea Water and I t s Use i n I d e n t i f y i n g Water Masses." X l l t h General Assembly lUGG, H e l s i n k i , F i n l a n d , 1960, b. Published Papers. J.B. Smith, Mitsonobu Tatsumoto and Donald W. Hood: "Carbamino Carboxylates i n Photosynthesis." Limnology and Oceanography. Yoshio Sugiura: "Laboratory Studies on CO2 T r a n s f e r Across the Simulated Sea S u r f a c e s . " Master's T h e s i s , Texas A & M College, August 1960. John E. Noakes "The D i s t r i b u t i o n of Boron and Bo r i c Acid Complexes i n the Sea." Master's T h e s i s , Texas A & M College, January 1959. Edward R. I b e r t and Donald W. Hood: " I n v e s t i g a t i o n of the D i s t r i b u t i o n of CO2 Between the Atmosphere and the Sea." Ref. 63-9T, Texas A & M Research Foundation, A p r i l 15, 1963. Yoshio Sugiura, Edward R. I b e r t and Donald W. Hood: " T r a n s f e r Rates of CO2 Through Simulated Sea S u r f a c e s . " J . Marine Research. 21, 1963, pp. 11-24. J.E. Noakes, J . J . St i p p , A.F. I s b e l l and D.W. Hood: "Benzene S y n t h e s i s by Low Temperature C a t a l y s i s f o r Radiocarbon Dating." Geochimica a t Cosmo- chimica Acta, 27, 1963, pp. 797-804. 400

OCEANOGRAPHY P r o j e c t 9.14 - CO2 Measurements and Radiochemical A n a l y s i s of Sea Water 1. O b i e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t at the Department of Oceanography, U n i v e r s i t y of Wash- ington, was part of an i n t e g r a t e d program to determine the average CO2 atmospheric c o n c e n t r a t i o n and to study the exchange of CO2 between sea water and the atmosphere. I n a d d i t i o n , radiochemical a n a l y s i s of sea water was undertaken to provide information on age of water masses, c i r c u l a t o r y p a t t e r n s , and geochemistry of marine p r o c e s s e s . Radiochemistry techniques were a l s o used to determine r a t e o f primary production. 2. Operations. a. Carbon-Dioxide. The i n f r a r e d a n a l y s e r purchased under t h i s grant was used on loan on the v e s s e l HORIZON of Sc r i p p s I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography, during the IGY pe- r i o d . The U n i v e r s i t y of Washington cooperated w i t h the other i n s t i t u t i o n s i n supply- ing equipment f o r use at the Mauna Loa s t a t i o n operated by the U.S. Weather Bureau. Hence no a c t u a l carbon-dioxide observations under t h i s p r o j e c t . 14 b. Radiochemistry. Equipment was const r u c t e d and assembled f or C determination of p r o d u c t i v i t y , and f o r chemical a n a l y s i s of sea water. Experiments were a l s o c a r - r i e d out using the U n i v e r s i t y of Washington c y c l o t r o n to a c t i v a t e sea water m order to make p o s s i b l e the measurement of t r a c e elements. On both c r u i s e s of the BROWN BEAR, water samples were taken, up to 6000 meters i n depth i n the A l e u t i a n Trench, w i t h l a r g e volume samplers. Chemical treatment of the samples was c a r r i e d out aboard ship and the r e s u l t i n g concentrates returned to the laboratory f or a n a l y s i s . Samples were ex- changed w i t h Lamont f o r independent determination of ages. 3. Personnel. The program was under the s u p e r v i s i o n of Dr. Richard- H. Fleming, Exe- c u t i v e O f f i c e r , Department of Oceanography. Dr. Sayed A. E l Wardani, of the Department of Oceanography, and Dr. Arthur F a i r h a l l , Department of Chemistry, c a r r i e d out the program. 4. Data. P e r t i n e n t data were included i n the s p e c i a l r e p o r t s (see p r o j e c t 9.7) de- voted to the data from the 1957 and 1958 c r u i s e s . 5. R e s u l t s . Radiocarbon dating of North P a c i f i c waters, when compared w i t h r e s u l t s reported by Lamont workers, suggest that the North P a c i f i c and A l e u t i a n Trench deep waters may be as much as three times o l d e r than the North A t l a n t i c deep water. A more r e l i a b l e comparison w i l l r e s u l t from the f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s of P a c i f i c deep and su r f a c e water s a n y l e s . The t h i r t y - f o u r radiocarbon samples c o l l e c t e d under t h i s pro- j e c t have a d i s t r i b u t i o n , both i n space and time, that should provide v a l u a b l e I n f o r - mation once h i g h l y p r e c i s e radiocarbon measurements are completed. 6. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented a t Meetings. James A. C a s t and Thomas G. Thompson: "Borate Concentrations i n the Surface Waters of Oceanic Areas." F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Congress, September 1959, United Nations, New York. R.A. Barkley and Thomas G. Thompson: "l o d a t e - I o d i n e and T o t a l I o d i n e Content of Sea Water." I n t e r n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Congress, New York, 1959. S.A. E l Wardani: "Some Recent Chemical Observations i n the Deep Waters of N.E. P a c i f i c . " lAPO, H e l s i n k i , 1960. 401

OCEANOGRAPHY b. Published Papers. Richard A. Bark l e y and Thomas G. Thompson: "Determination of Chemically Combined Iodine i n Sea Water by Amperametric and C a t a l y t i c Methods." A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, v o l . 32, no. 2, pp. 154-158. James A. Cast and Thomas G. Thompson: "Determination of the A l k a l i n i t y and Borate Concentration of Sea Water." A n a l y t i c a l Chemistry, v o l . 30, no. 9, pp. 1549-1551. James A. Cast: "Some F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g the Bo r o n - C h l o r i n i t y R a t i o of Sea Water." U n i v e r s i t y of Washington T h e s i s (1959) (Ph.D.). Sayed A. E l Wardani: " T o t a l Phosphorus i n the Bering Sea, A l e u t i a n Trench, and Gulf of A l a s k a . " Deep Sea Research. ( I n p r e s s ) . 402

OCEANOGRAPHY P r o j e c t 9.15 - S t e r i c Sampling Program - P a c i f i c 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t , undertaken by the Honolulu B i o l o g i c a l Laboratory (HBL), U.S. Bureau of Commercial F i s h e r i e s , was designed to support the sea l e v e l i n v e s t i g a - t i o n s . Using HBL r e s e a r c h v e s s e l s , i t was planned to sample, at monthly i n t e r v a l s , the water column at a p o s i t i o n i n the open ocean near the Honolulu t i d e gauge s t a t i o n i n order to c o r r e c t the mean^ sea l e v e l data for volumetric e f f e c t s . 2. Operations. Eighteen oceanographic s t a t i o n s were occupied a t a p o s i t i o n (21°10'N, 158°20'W) approximately 40 k i l o m e t e r s SW of P e a r l Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii. At each s t a - t i o n , minimal observations a t times of high and low t i d e s included a 500-meter c a s t w i t h 10-12 Nansen b o t t l e s , bathythermograph observations (0-270 meters) at hourly i n - t e r v a l s between the two c a s t s and r o u t i n e meteorological o b s e r v a t i o n s . On some occa- s i o n s c a s t s were made to 2500-3000 meters (depth of water, 3100 meters) and on the f i n a l s t a t i o n , c a s t s were made at two-hour i n t e r v a l s between high and low water. 3. Personnel. A l b e r t T e s t e r and Garth I . Murphy supervised the o r g a n i z a t i o n and im- plementation of t h i s p r o j e c t . 4. " Data. Temperature, s a l i n i t y , d i s s o l v e d oxygen and inorganic phosphate data are g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e for each depth sampled. Samples were analyzed and data processed according to standard oceanographic procedures. Data were submitted to WDC-A. 5. R e s u l t s . The data from t h i s p r o j e c t are a part of the ocean-wide s e a - l e v e l program and as such contributed to the understanding of s e a - l e v e l changes i n the P a c i f i c (see d i s c u s s i o n , s e a - l e v e l changes. P r o j e c t 9.1). P r o j e c t 9.16 - Bathythermograph Procurement 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t provided for coordinated procurement of 40 bathythermo- graphs to be d i s t r i b u t e d to i n s t i t u t i o n s as f o l l o w s : 20 S c r i p p s I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography 5 Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n 5 Texas A. & M. College 5 Lamont G e o l o g i c a l Observatory 5 U n i v e r s i t y of Washington S c r i p p s I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography r e d i s t r i b u t e d instruments to other u s e r s i n the P a c i f i c . 2. Personnel. B.K. Couper, Bureau of Ships, made the arrangements for t h i s procure- ment p r o j e c t . 403

OCEANOGRAPHY P r o j e c t 9.17 - A r c t i c I c e Reconnaissance 1. Ob.iectives. T h i s p r o j e c t of the U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e provided f o r the c o l l e c t i o n of information on the extent and nature of i c e cover of the A r c t i c Ocean. I t was hoped to a t t a i n comprehensive coverage of the A r c t i c B a s i n by means of an a e r i a l s h u t t l e between Alaska and S i b e r i a , agreement could not be reached, however, on t h i s point and the i n v e s t i g a t i o n was t h e r e f o r e r e s t r i c t e d i n coverage. 2. Operations. Photographic equipment was used on reconnaissance a i r c r a f t to compile a record of the i c e cover. Reports a l s o were obtained from ship s operating m the v i c i n i t y of the i c e pack. 3. Personnel. The p r o j e c t was organized under the s u p e r v i s i o n of C.C. Bates and J . J . Schule, Hydrographic O f f i c e . 4. Data. Smooth I c e Track Charts were published by the Hydrographic O f f i c e f or 1957-58 covering Canada, A r c t i c , and Alaskan a r e a s . Ship i c e observations f or 1957 and s e a - i c e photographs for June-July 1957 were a l s o compiled. T h i s m a t e r i a l has been sent to the IGY World Data Centers. 404

OCEANOGRAPHY P r o j e c t 9.18 - A r c t i c Oceanography 1. O b i e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t a t the Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n was planned to provide samples f or determination of temperature, s a l i n i t y , and oxygen at a l l l e v e l s i n an e f f o r t to l e a r n more about the c i r c u l a t i o n of the A r c t i c Ocean and the age of v a r i o u s l e v e l s . Ambient noise l e v e l s were a l s o included. 2. Operations and Personnel. I n connection w i t h the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year s t u d i e s i n the A r c t i c , the Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n undertook to support a modest program of hydrographic observations on the two d r i f t i n g s t a t i o n s w i t h i n the A r c t i c pack. The a c t u a l operation of the program was on a widely cooperative b a s i s w i t h other o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Woods Hole equipment was used by other groups, and Woods Hole observers used much m a t e r i a l supplied by these other groups. The smoothness w i t h which t h i s s o r t of cooperation was worked out i s a t r i b u t e to the great amount of thought and work put i n t o i t by the v a r i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y by the Geophys- i c s Research D i r e c t o r a t e of the A i r Force Cambridge Research Center. On S t a t i o n "Alpha," a d r i f t i n g sea i c e f l o e , two oceanographic s t a t i o n s were occu- pied during the summer of 1957 by g e o p h y s i c i s t s of the Lamont G e o l o g i c a l Observatory before the Woods Hole observer, John S. Farlow I I I , a r r i v e d on the f l o e i n the f a l l . Farlow continued the work and occupied an a d d i t i o n a l e i g h t oceanographic s t a t i o n s i n the course of two separate tours of duty on the f l o e . Ten bathythermograph lowerings were a l s o made. Hydrographic winch trouble which plagued the e a r l y s t a t i o n s was even- t u a l l y overcome, c h i e f l y through the s k i l l and labor of Richar d S. Edwards who made a nimiber of m o d i f i c i a t i o n s to the winch whi l e he was on the s t a t i o n i n connection w i t h ambient noise measurements which w i l l be touched on l a t e r . A good d e a l of d i f f i c u l t y was encountered at f i r s t i n the a n a l y s i s of the d i s s o l v e d oxygen, but t h i s was even- t u a l l y surmounted. I t I S f e l t that s p e c i a l mention should be made of one of the oceanographic s t a t i o n s occupied by Farlow. "Alpha" #9, occupied i n A p r i l 1958 i n n e a r l y 2900 meters of water c o n s i s t s of samples from eighty points w i t h i n the upper 550 meters of the water column. Samples were obtained every f i v e meters down to 250 meters and every ten meters from there to 550 meters. T h i s meant that a c l o s e r p i n p o i n t i n g of the v a r i o u s f e a t u r e s of the water column was obtained from the su r f a c e to below the A t l a n t i c water temperature maximum than ever before attempted i n any oceanic a r e a . I n a d d i t i o n , four samples w i t h i n a spread of ten meters and w i t h i n f o r t y meters of the bottom were obtained. T h i s s t a t i o n may w e l l prove to be one of the most i n t e r e s t i n g and s i g n i f i c a n t ocean- ographic achievements of the Woods Hole program. A f t e r the departure of the Woods Hole observer i n the spring of 1958, the c o l l e c - t i o n of hydrographic data was continued by others on the f l o e , e s p e c i a l l y by T.S. Eng- l i s h of the U n i v e r s i t y of Washington who occupied another f i f t e e n s t a t i o n s . The oceanographic observations from S t a t i o n "Bravo" ( I c e I s l a n d , T-3) were c a r r i e d out much the same as those on S t a t i o n "Alpha." Spencer Apollonio was supported i n par t by Woods Hole and i n pa r t by Cambridge Research Center to do t h i s work i n addi- t i o n to the h y d r o b i o l o g i c a l work which was h i s primary i n t e r e s t . The s e r i e s of ocean- ographic s t a t i o n s from t h i s platform was s t a r t e d i n 1952, and s t a t i o n s twelve through seventeen were occupied by Apollonio. A good d e a l of equipment breakdown held up some of t h i s work, and new equipment had to be hand c a r r i e d to the s t a t i o n from time to time through the kindness and cooperation of Cambridge Research Center. A Canadian observer, Arthur C o l l i n , continued to occupy s t a t i o n s following the departure of Apol- l o n i o i n the spri n g of 1958. 3. Data. Oceanographic data c o l l e c t e d under t h i s Woods Hole p r o j e c t have been pub- l i s h e d and sent to the World Data Centers. 405

OCEANOGRAPHY 4. R e s u l t s . The oceanographic data g e n e r a l l y confirm e a r l i e r r e s u l t s from the P o l a r B a s i n and give a number of a d d i t i o n a l points on which to base computations of water volume t r a n s p o r t and v e l o c i t y , heat and chemical budgets, c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n s and b i - o l o g i c a l and meteorological s t u d i e s . An ambient noise measuring program was c a r r i e d out by Richard Edwards during the f a l l of 1957 and continued i n the spring of 1958 by Farlow. Q u a l i t a t i v e l y , i t was found that noise from mechanical sources such as the grinding together of blocks of i c e appeared to be of r e l a t i v e l y minor magnitude. I t was the noise of f r e e z i n g accom- panying v e r y low a i r temperatures that was the g r e a t e s t . Large volume water samples f or geochemical a n a l y s i s were gathered at the s u r f a c e and the depth of 100 meters at S t a t i o n "Bravo." The Strontium 90 m the s u r f a c e sam- p l e was unexpectedly high (comparable to A t l a n t i c s u r f a c e samples) appearing to i n d i - cate that c o n c e n t r a t i o n by p r e c i p i t a t i o n processes takes p l a c e on the su r f a c e of the i c e . The annual run-off from the i c e s u r f a c e accumulates at the top of the water c o l - umn d i r e c t l y under the i c e . 5. Bibliography. John S. Farlow I I I : " P r o j e c t I c e - S k a t e Oceanographic Data." Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n Reference No. 58-28, June 1958 (wi t h addendum by Spencer Apollonio "Hydrobiological Measurements on T3 1957-58"). T. Saunders E n g l i s h : "Some B i o l o g i c a l Oceanographic Observations i n the C e n t r a l North Pol a r Sea, D r i f t S t a t i o n Alpha 1957-58." AINA Res. Paper 13, A p r i l 1961. 406

OCEANOGRAPHY P r o j e c t 9.19 - A r c t i c Sea I c e P h y s i c s 1. O b j e c t i v e s . The purpose of t h i s p r o j e c t at the Department of Meteorology and C l i - matology, U n i v e r s i t y of Washington, was to determine q u a n t i t a t i v e l y the i n d i v i d u a l components of heat exchange a t the s e a - i c e atmosphere i n t e r f a c e and ice-ocean i n t e r - face, and to r e l a t e the heat, exchange between the pack i c e and i t s atmospheric and oceanic environments to seasonal v a r i a t i o n s i n t h i c k n e s s and thermal regimen of the pack i c e . Aside from t h e i r importance to determining the p h y s i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s which lead to formation and maintenance of the pack i c e , the heat exchange s t u d i e s planned under t h i s program formed a v e r y b a s i c and i n t e g r a l part of the determinations of the heat budget of the A r c t i c Ocean, and of the m o d i f i c a t i o n of a i r masses moving over the A r c t i c B a s i n . T h i s work i s r e l a t e d to P r o j e c t 4.18. 2. Operations. P l a n s c a l l e d for two 2-member s c i e n t i f i c teams to spend a l t e r n a t i n g 3 to 6 month periods c a r r y i n g out o bservations on a d r i f t i n g s t a t i o n i n the a r c t i c pack i c e , " S t a t i o n A," and performing data r e d u c t i o n at the U n i v e r s i t y . A c r y s t a l l o - grapher jo i n e d the f i e l d party for a period of s e v e r a l months to make a study of the s t r u c t u r e of the sea i c e and to analyze these f i n d i n g s i n terms of the h i s t o r y of o r - i g i n and formation of the i c e . Heat budget measurements c o n s i s t e d of the following: ( i ) T r a n s f e r of heat a c r o s s the ice-ocean i n t e r f a c e , ( i i ) Rate of a c c r e t i o n of i c e at the base of the pack, ( i l l ) V e r t i c a l temperature gradient i n the pack, and i t s v a r i a t i o n s throughout the year. ( i v ) V e r t i c a l heat flow w i t h i n the pack. (v) A b l a t i o n and accumulation of snow and i c e at the upper s u r f a c e of the pack, ( v i ) Rate of melting a t the s u r f a c e during the summer, ( v i i ) V e r t i c a l temperature gradient i n the atmosphere from the i c e s u r f a c e up to 1 meter. ( v i i i ) V e r t i c a l p r o f i l e s of wmdspeed from the s u r f a c e up to 2 meters, ( i x ) Incoming and r e f l e c t e d s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , (x) Net long and short-wave r a d i a t i o n . 3. Personnel. T h i s p r o j e c t was organized under the s u p e r v i s i o n of P h i l E. Church, Ex e c u t i v e O f f i c e r , Department of Meteorology and Climatology, U n i v e r s i t y of Washington. Norbert U n t e r s t e i n e r and F r a n k l i n I . Badgley d i r e c t e d the f i e l d program and the reduc- t i o n of data. Walther Schwarzacher conducted the c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Arnold Hanson and W i l l i a m Campbell p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the micrometeorology program. 4. Data. One report on the work has been published and i s a v a i l a b l e at the World Data Centers (see B i b l i o g r a p h y ) . 5. R e s u l t s . a. Surface Accumulation and A b l a t i o n . An average of 40 cm of snow, w i t h a den- s i t y of 0.3-0.4 g/cm3, accumulated during the w i n t e r and spring before melting began. Melting, which s t a r t e d i n mid-June (1957 and 1958) proceeded r a p i d l y a f t e r the f i r s t formation of s l u s h and ponds. The snow cover disappeared by e a r l y J u l y . The l a s t melting i n 1957 was observed i n e a r l y August, whi l e i n 1958 the melting period l a s t e d throughout the month of August. The maximum area covered by ponds during the height of the melt season was estimated to be 307. of the t o t a l a r e a . The t o t a l i c e l o s s from the s u r f a c e was 19.2 g/cm^ during the f i r s t summer, and 41.4 g/cm^ during the second summer. Approximately 10-20% of the meltwater formed at the s u r f a c e was r e t a i n e d i n the form of ponds. The r a t i o of a b l a t i o n i n ponds and on e l e v a t e d s u r f a c e s was about 2.5:1. Bottom a b l a t i o n by heat t r a n s f e r from the ocean was found to be approximately 407

OCEANOGRAPHY 20 cm ( J u l y to Aug./Sept.). Observations of the mass changes were g r e a t l y aided by the use of a t i d e gauge which recorded the h y d r o s t a t i c adjustments of the i c e f l o e as mass was added or subt r a c t e d . A l a y e r of f r e s h i c e was observed to form when f r e s h water was present under the i c e f l o e , due to the d i f f e r e n c e i n f r e e z i n g p o i n t s of f r e s h and sea water. Most of t h i s f r e s h i c e disappears l a t e r i n the season by the same pro- c e s s which causes bottom a b l a t i o n i n g e n e r a l . b. S t u d i e s of the Annual S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . I t was shown that summer l a y e r s are formed by a r r e s t e d growth or f r e s h water i c e . The c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e and the s a l t con- tent of the i c e r e f l e c t the seasonal c y c l e . The pronounced c r y s t a l l i n e o r i e n t a t i o n I S determined by v e r t i c a l as w e l l as h o r i z o n t a l temperature g r a d i e n t s . The s a l i n i t y of the i c e i n c r e a s e s from 0.17. at the s u r f a c e to 4.07, a t 300 cm depth, and remains e s - s e n t i a l l y u n a l t e r e d during the summer melt season. The winter a c c r e t i o n of the i c e i s s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d to the t h i c k n e s s of the f l o e . The i c e on which S t a t i o n A was located was estimated to be 8 y e a r s o l d , and the annual a c c r e t i o n was about 60 cm. c. The Heat Budget. Computation of heat budget was made f o r a s e l e c t e d period during the height of the melt season. The average d a i l y t o t a l s are i n cal/crsr: -H42 from net short wave r a d i a t i o n , -8 from net long wave r a d i a t i o n , +9 from tu r b u l e n t heat t r a n s f e r , and -11 from evaporation. The mean d a i l y s u r f a c e a b l a t i o n during that period was 0.8 cm. About 90% of i t i s due to the absorption of short wave r a d i a t i o n . Only 62% of the t o t a l heat supply i s transformed at the s u r f a c e . 38% i s t r a n s - mitted i n t o the i c e and mainly used to i n c r e a s e the b r i n e volume. The v e r t i c a l d i s t r i - bution of t h i s energy was used to compute the e x t i n c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r short wave r a d i a t i o n . From 40 to 150 cm depth i t i s 0.015 cm"^, somewhat sm a l l e r than t h a t of g l a c i e r i c e . The heat used during the summer to i n c r e a s e the brine volume i n the i c e a c t s as a r e s e r v e of l a t e n t heat during the c o o l i n g season. By the time an i c e sheet of 300 cm t h i c k n e s s reaches i t s minimum temperature i n March, 3000 cal/cm2 have been r e - moved to f r e e z e the b r i n e i n the i n t e r i o r of the i c e and the meltwater ponds, and 1700 cal/cm^ to lower the i c e temperature. Based upon the observed mass and temperature changes of the i c e cover the t o t a l heat exchange at i t s upper and lower boundaries was estimated. During the period May- August the upper boundary r e c e i v e d 8.3 kcal/cm^ w h i l e during the period September-April 12.8 kcal/cm^ were given o f f to the atmosphere. The problem of the e q u i l i b r i u m (unaccelerated) d r i f t of an i c e f l o e (no i n t e r - n a l r e s i s t a n c e ) was solved by Richard J . Reed and W i l l i a m J . Campbell by a treatment s i m i l a r to S h u l e i k i n ' s curves of d r i f t angle, d r i f t speed, and wind f a c t o r as f u n c t i o n s of wind speed was computed f o r two d i f f e r e n t s e t s of parameters and compared wi t h S h u l e i k i n ' s curves for one of the s e t s . As a t e s t of the theory, d r i f t angles, d r i f t speeds and wind f a c t o r s were p l o t t e d a g a i n s t wind speed for 107 periods between J u l y 1, 1957 and August 31, 1958, i n which the d r i f t of s t a t i o n Alpha was e s s e n t i a l l y unaccel-^ e r a t e d . The data e x h i b i t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e s c a t t e r , and i t was necessary to compute mean d r i f t s i n v a r i o u s wind c a t e g o r i e s m order to bring out the e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The observed d r i f t angles were sm a l l e r than the t h e o r e t i c a l i n a l l wind c a t e g o r i e s , though the departures were not as great for our curves as for S h u l e i k i n ' s curve. The graphs of d r i f t speed and wind f a c t o r s a l s o e x h i b i t e d systematic d e v i a t i o n s from the t h e o r e t i c a l curves, the i c e d r i f t i n g f a s t e r than the t h e o r e t i c a l speed i n l i g h t winds and slower i n strong winds. I n e x p l a i n i n g the d e v i a t i o n s between observation and theory s i x sources of e r r o r are considered: n a v i g a t i o n e r r o r s , e r r o r s due to r e s i d u a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s , e r r o r s due to use of averaged data, e r r o r s due to v a r i a t i o n s i n para- meters, e r r o r s caused by gradient c u r r e n t s , and e r r o r s a t t r i b u t a b l e to i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s . Although part of the s c a t t e r i s found to be the r e s u l t of the n a v i g a t i o n e r r o r s , i t i s concluded t h a t gradient c u r r e n t s and i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s are probably the main causes of d r i f t anomalies. Evidence from the present study and from other sources suggests that 408

OCEANOGRAPHY a permanent c u r r e n t of about 3 cm s e c ' e x i s t s i n the region of the d r i f t of Alpha. T h i s would account f o r the above-normal d r i f t i n l i g h t winds. The below-normal d r i f t i n strong winds i s b e l i e v e d to be the r e s u l t of i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e , though t e s t s f a i l e d to show t h i s c o n c l u s i v e l y . A g e n e r a l s t e a d y - s t a t e theory was developed by W.J. Campbell for the c i r c u l a - t i o n of a wind d r i v e n , b a r o c l i n i c , ice-covered ocean and applied to the c i r c u l a t i o n of the A r c t i c Ocean. Because the North Pole i s i n the s o l u t i o n area, the beta-plane approximation cannot be made, thus f i r s t and second order e f f e c t s of the v a r i a t i o n of the C o r f o l i s parameter with l a t i t u d e must be considered. The s o l u t i o n s are governed by the p a t t e r n of wind s t r e s s and the following parameters: the eddy v i s c o s i t y of the i c e , the depth of the l o g a r i t h m i c boundary l a y e r , and the roughness parameter of the ice-water i n t e r f a c e . A n o n - a n a l y t i c a l s t r e s s f i e l d deduced from the f i e l d of mean s e a - l e v e l pressure was used for the numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of the equations. E i g h t s o l u t i o n s for the same a i r s t r e s s f i e l d were i n v e s t i g a t e d . A l l s o l u t i o n s show an a n t i - c y c l o n i c g y r a l i n the s u r f a c e waters on the P a c i f i c s i d e of the ocean. The g y r a l i s d i s p l a c e d to the west as the i c e eddy v i s c o s i t y decreases, and i t i s t h e o r i z e d that an eddy v i s c o s i t y as high as 3.0 x 10 cm^ s e c ' i s necessary i n order for the g y r a l to occupy I t s observed p o s i t i o n . The s o l u t i o n s for i c e c i r c u l a t i o n resemble the ob- s e r v a t i o n s of an a n t i c y c l o n i c c e l l i n the Beaufort Sea region w i t h a broad stream running from the A s i a n coast a c r o s s the pole to Greenland. For a given s t r e s s , i t i s found that the i c e speed i s mainly determined by the depth of the boundary l a y e r , and a value of two meters f i t s the observations best. 6. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented at Meetings. N. U n t e r s t e i n e r : "On the Mass and Heat Budget of A r c t i c Sea I c e . " X l l t h General Assembly lUGG, H e l s i n k i , July/August 1960. b. Published Papers. W.J. Campbell: "On the Steady-State Flow of Sea I c e . " D o c t o r a l T h e s i s , J u l y 1964, Department of Atmospheric Science, U n i v e r s i t y of Washington. R.J. Reed and W.J. Campbell: "The E q u i l i b r i u m D r i f t of I c e S t a t i o n Alpha." JGR. v o l . 67, 1962, pp. 281-297. W. Schwarzacher: "Pack-ice S t u d i e s i n the A r c t i c Ocean." JGR, v o l . 64, 1959, pp. 2357-2367. N. U n t e r s t e i n e r : "On the Mass and Heat Budget of A r c t i c Sea I c e . " Arch. Meteor. Geoph. Bioklim.. Ser. A, 1960 12, 1961, pp. 151-182. N. U n t e r s t e i n e r and F . l . Badgley: " P r e l i m i n a r y R e s u l t s of Thermal Budget St u d i e s on A r c t i c Pack I c e During the Summer and Autumn (1957)." G l a c i o l o g y Report S e r i e s No. 1, J u l y 1958, IGY World Data Center-A: G l a c i o l o g y , Am. Geographical S o c i e t y , New York. 409

OCEANOGRAPHY P r o j e c t 9.20 - A r c t i c B a s i n Geophysics 1. O b j e c t i v e s . T h i s p r o j e c t , organized by the T e r r e s t r i a l S c i e n c e s Laboratory, Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e , A i r Force Cambridge Research L a b o r a t o r i e s , was pl a n - ned as a comprehensive i n v e s t i g a t i o n of s e c t o r s of the A r c t i c Ocean and i t s underlying f l o o r and c r u s t . 2. Operations and S c i e n t i f i c Program. I n order to permit the establishment and main- tenance of two s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s i n the A r c t i c Ocean, the U.S. A i r Force e s t a b l i s h e d " P r o j e c t I c e Skate." Two s i t e s were s e l e c t e d : a large t a b u l a r piece of i c e c a l l e d F l e t c h e r ' s I c e I s l a n d or T-3 and a piece of f l o e i c e c a l l e d S t a t i o n Alpha. T-3 was supplied from Thule, Greenland and from Alaska, and S t a t i o n Alpha from A l a s k a . The d r i f t paths are shown i n Figu r e 10. S t a t i o n Alpha i c e f l o e began to d e t e r i o r a t e i n October 1958 and was abandoned e a r l y m November. As a p a r t i c i p a n t i n IGY P r o j e c t I c e Skate, TSL e s t a b l i s h e d programs at S t a t i o n s Alpha and Bravo that were l a r g e l y an outgrowth of the e a r l i e r TSL work at F l e t c h e r ' s I c e I s l a n d ( T - 3 ) . The r e s e a r c h embodied the g e n e r a l techniques of ge o p h y s i c a l e x p l o r - a t i o n of an unknown area. Seismic and r e s i s t i v i t y techniques were employed to de f i n e the bottom r e l i e f of the ocean, and i t s sub-bottom geology. Magnetic and g r a v i t y v a l - ues were observed r e g u l a r l y . The movement of the i c e and of the ocean waters was i n v e s t i g a t e d , p h y s i c a l and chemical oceanographic p r o p e r t i e s were determined. The i c e was subje c t e d to topographical, s t r u c t u r a l , and chemical a n a l y s i s , s e i s m i c methods were used f or determining i c e l a y e r i n g and inhomogeneities. For many of these s t u d i e s , new techniques and instrumentation were adopted to obt a i n maximum data. The r e s e a r c h personnel and f a c i l i t i e s of s e v e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( e i t h e r under con- t r a c t to the A i r Force or through cooperative arrangements) were employed by TSL to achieve program o b j e c t i v e s . P a r t i c i p a t i n g c o n t r a c t o r u n i v e r s i t i e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s were Lamont G e o l o g i c a l Observatory, Dartmouth College, U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey, A r c t i c I n s t i t u t e of North America, and Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , through the courtesy of the Government of Canada, an oceanographer from the F i s h e r i e s Research Board was made a v a i l a b l e to the T-3 s c i e n t i f i c program. The f o l l o w i n g summary i s intended to present a progress report f or each a r e a of i n v e s t i g a t i o n a t both s t a t i o n s and the s t a t u s of p u b l i c a t i o n s . a. Navigation. Geographic coordinates of the d r i f t i n g s t a t i o n s Alpha and Bravo were f i x e d by observations of the sun, moon, or s t a r s . D a i l y astronomical determin- a t i o n s were attempted, but weather c o n d i t i o n s were not always f a v o r a b l e . The l i s t of l o c a t i o n s for each s t a t i o n and the v a r i a t i o n s i n the h o r i z o n t a l azimuth have been pub- l i s h e d . I n general, s t a t i o n l o c a t i o n s are b e l i e v e d to be r e l i a b l e to w i t h i n one n a u t i c a l m i l e . b. G r a v i t y . The g r a v i t y value was read at both s t a t i o n s at l e a s t once d a i l y to provide information on the c r u s t a l s t r u c t u r e and permit a g r e a t e r bathymetric c o n t r o l . A North American g r a v i t y meter No. 113A was used at I c e I s l a n d T-3, and F r o s t gravim- e t e r s C-39 and C-1-15 were i n operation at S t a t i o n Alpha. Instrument d i f f i c u l t i e s , changes i n the campsite, infrequent t i e s to f i x e d g r a v i t y s t a t i o n s , and the sudden Alpha evacuation complicated the data r e d u c t i o n . However, c o r r e l a t i o n s between the bathymetric and g r a v i m e t r i c p r o f i l e s were used to a i d i n the compilation of the grav- i t y readings, and the data have now been published. c. Oceanography. The TSL program Included occupation of hydrographic s t a t i o n s at standard ocean depths from I c e I s l a n d T-3 throughout the IGY and a l s o from S t a t i o n Alpha i n supplement to the WHOI f a l l and spring program. Measurements included tem- perature, s a l i n i t y , oxygen, phosphate, n i t r a t e , and £H co n c e n t r a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n . 410

l / J / 9 8 6/S/5T NOU The p o i i l l O R o f T-9 M r l b M i t of Pt B a r r o B h o t r t a a i i t c d eeailam f r o a j H l f I960 a s l i l dot* of I b l * nop IHoi 1961) r /M/60 Figure 10b. Complete d r i f t t r a c k of Fletcher's Ice I s l a n d T-3 (BRAVO), 1957-1960. Figure 10a. D r i f t track of ALPHA. 8 8

OCEANOGRAPHY a thermistor l i n e provided by WHOI was used f o r water temperature measurements to w i t h i n 0.01°C. The r e s u l t s of the oceanographic program have been published. Ice movement i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were also c a r r i e d out. Ice d r i f t measurements were co r r e l a t e d to surface wind observations and surface current measurements. The p r o f i l e s of ocean current measurements were found to correspond to the Ekman s p i r a l . Preliminary r e s u l t s of the d r i f t studies are contained i n IGY B u l l e t i n No. 24. Detailed studies of primary p r o d u c t i v i t y i n the open water and under the ice were undertaken at Alpha and T-3; these i n v e s t i g a t i o n s included measurements of Ĉ ,̂ oxygen, and l i g h t penetration. Results are reported i n IGY B u l l e t i n s Nos. 17 and 27. A series of nine bottom trawls was made i n the A r c t i c Ocean from d r i f t i n g sta- t i o n Alpha. The trawls were taken i n the area between 84° and 85° N and between 138° and 152° W. A l l trawls produced high percentages of gra v e l . Macroscopic and micro- scopic analyses showed these gravels to be predominantly sedimentary rocks. Few i g - neous or metamorphic specimens were found. One f o s s i l i f e r o u s sandstone specimen i s Permo-Carboniferous i n age. Bottom cores contained s i m i l a r pebbles at depths i n the sediment of up to 115 cm below the sea f l o o r . Studies of t h e s t r i a t i o n , roundness, and shape of the pebbles reveal them to be t y p i c a l g l a c i a l m a t e r i a l which has undergone l i t t l e or no water transport. I t i s concluded that these gravels have been r a f t e d by ice from a shore containing a c t i v e g l a c i e r s . Considerations of A r c t i c Ocean c i r c u l a - t i o n . Pleistocene g l a c i a t i o n , and l i t h o l o g y make i t probable that the source area was Axel Heiberg I s l a n d , Ellesmere I s l a n d , or the northern coast of Greenland. d. Marine Geophysics. I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of A r c t i c Ocean depths and sub-bottom l a y - e r i n g were made at both s t a t i o n s by seismic r e f l e c t i o n methods and, i n a d d i t i o n , at Ice Island T-3 by e l e c t r i c a l measurements of the bottom r e s i s t i v i t y . S t a t i o n Alpha d r i f t e d over a submarine r i s e , now c a l l e d the Alpha Rise, which has slopes ranging from 0° to 29°. T-3 followed a course along the c o n t i n e n t a l shelf over features such as a n t i c l i n e s , truncated s t r a t a along the c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f , and homoclines. Bathy- metric data c o l l e c t e d during the IGY program contributed to the successful navigation of the submarines NAUTILUS and SKATE under the a r c t i c pack i c e . Bathymetric data have been published. Seismic r e f r a c t i o n techniques were used to provide in f o r m a t i o n about the sedi- ments of the A r c t i c Ocean f l o o r . Photographs of the sea f l o o r and numerous cores and dredgings have been obtained to reconstruct the geologic h i s t o r y . Results i n d i c a t e that the A r c t i c Ocean i s a normal ocean basin w i t h topography and l a y e r i n g not u n l i k e that of the A t l a n t i c Ocean. Preliminary information on t h i s subject i s to be found m IGY B u l l e t i n No. 22. e. G l a c i o l o g i c a l Research. A network of a b l a t i o n stakes set i n t o the ice i n 1952 was read d a i l y as part of the TSL program at T-3. Thermocouples i n holes 30 and 90 feet deep were also read d a i l y to provide measurements of the ice i s l a n d temperatures over an annual cycle. I n the summer of 1958 an intensive study of the v a r i a t i o n s i n , and progressive development of, the ice i s l a n d surface was i n i t i a t e d . One of the T-3 drainage basins was selected as t y p i c a l of the i s l a n d p a t t e r n , and the hydrology of the water d i s - charge was studied i n d e t a i l . The i s l a n d topography was c a r e f u l l y mapped i n t h i s drainage area as the melt season progressed. A b l a t i o n stakes along the selected stream permitted measurements of the t o t a l a b l a t i o n and of the v a r i a t i o n s i n the slopes of the stream v a l l e y . An average of 2-1/2 to 3 feet of ice ablated during the 1958 melt season. The r e s u l t i n g conditions were i d e a l f o r the study and mapping of ice types, surface morphology, and m i c r o r e l i e f . An ice s t r u c t u r e and l i t h o l o g y map was prepared fo r the selected area. Four major ice types were revealed. The o r i g i n and develop- ment of these ice types and t h e i r r e l a t i o n to the Ellesmere Ice Shelf has been inves- t i g a t e d . 412

OCEANOGRAPHY f. Miscellaneous Studies. Several other i n v e s t i g a t i o n s p e r t i n e n t to the basic program but of a non-routine nature were undertaken. Various studies o f the physical p r o p e r t i e s o f ice were conducted. The e l a s t i c i t y of ice was measured sei s m i c a l l y and determinations of the v e r t i c a l density p r o f i l e of ice cores were made. Electromagnetic techniques were employed to measure ice thicknesses. Special seismic waves a r t i f i - c i a l l y generated m the ice were i n v e s t i g a t e d . Samples of cores taken from the pack ic e were analyzed f o r deuterium content. These and many more studies were pursued as time and opportunity permitted. 3. Personnel. The program was organized under the supervision o f James A. Peoples, A.P. Crary, and Louis de Goes. Mrs. Irene Browne C o t e l l and Miss V i v i a n Bushnell were A i r Force Task S c i e n t i s t s . The work at the s t a t i o n s was c a r r i e d out by personnel from TSL and associated i n s t i t u t i o n s . Two Argentine s c i e n t i s t s were exchange workers at T-3. 4. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented at Meetings. I.M. Browne "Ice D r i f t i n the A r c t i c Ocean." Presented at the IGY Symposium of the 125th Annual Meeting of the AAAS, Washington, D.C., December 29-30, 1958. T.S, English: "Primary P r o d u c t i v i t y i n Central North Polar Sea, D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n Alpha, 1957-58." Presented at the F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Oceanographic Congress, New York, August 30-September 12, 1959. K.L. Hunkins- "The Floor of the A r c t i c Ocean." Presented at the IGY Symposium of the 125th Annual Meeting of the AAAS, Washington, D.C., December 29-30, 1958. b. Published Papers. S. Apollonio: "Hydrobiological Measurements on IGY D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n Bravo." Trans. AGU. v o l . 40, no. 3, 1959, pp. 316-319. K. Bennington: "Some Cry s t a l Growth Features of Sea I c e . " JGR, v o l . 4, no. 36, October 1963, pp. 669-688. I . Browne: "Ice D r i f t i n the A r c t i c Ocean." Trans. AGU. v o l . 40, 1959, pp. 195-200. V. Bushnell: "Studies at Fletcher's Ice Isl a n d (T-3) and at S t a t i o n Alpha." Proc. of Third Annual A r c t i c Planning Session, Nov. 1960. GRD Res. Notes No. 55. pp. 67-78, AFCRL 436, 1961. J. Businger: "Research m the A r c t i c by the Univ e r s i t y of Washington." Proc. Third Annual A r c t i c Planning Session. November 1960, GRD Res. Notes No. 55. pp. 52-60, AFCRL 436, 1961. G. Cabaniss: "Recent I n v e s t i g a t i o n s on Fletcher's Ice I s l a n d (T-3)." Proc. Third Annual A r c t i c Planning Session. November 1960, GRD Res. Notes No. 55. pp. 37-44, AFCRL 436, 1961. G. Cabaniss: "Geophysical Data from U.S. A r c t i c Ocean D r i f t Stations, 1957-60." Research Note. AFCRL, AFCRL-62-683, 234 pp., 1962. A.H. Clarke, J r . : " A r c t i c Archibenthal and Abyssal Mollusks from D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n Alpha." Breviora. no. 119, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., March 8, 1960. 413

OCEANOGRAPHY I.M. C o t e l l : "United States Research at D r i f t i n g Stations i n the A r c t i c Ocean." Polar Record, v o l . 10, no. 66, 1960 ( I n press). A.P. Crary: " A r c t i c Ice I s l a n d and Ice Shelf Studies, Part I I . " A r c t i c , v o l . 13, no. 1, 1960. pp. 32-50. W. Cromie: "Preliminary Results from A r c t i c Ocean D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n C h a r l i e . " Trans. AGU, v o l . 43, no. 1, 1962, pp. 110-116. ( S c i . Rep. No. 3, Contract AF19(604)-2030, Lamont Geological Observatory), (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y AFCRC- TN-60-259, 1960). J. Dyer: "Discussion of the U.S. Weather Bureau Operations i n the A r c t i c Ocean Area." Proc. T h i r d Annual A r c t i c Planning Session. Nov. 1960. GRD Res. Notes No. 55. pp. 61-66, AFCRL 436, 1961. T.S. English: " B i o l o g i c a l Oceanography i n the North Polar Sea from IGY D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n Alpha, 1957-58." Trans. AGU. v o l . 42, no. 4, 1961, pp. 518-525. J. Farlow: "Physical Oceanography of the Alaskan Basin of the A r c t i c Sea." Master's Essay, The Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y , 1960. I . Friedman, B. Schoen, and J. Har r i s : "The Deuterium Concentration i n A r c t i c Sea I c e . " JGR, v o l . 66, no. 6, 1961, pp. 1861-1864. K.L. Hunkins, M. Ewing, B.C. Heezen, and R.J, Menzies: " B i o l o g i c a l and Geological Observations on the F i r s t Photographs of the A r c t i c Ocean Deep Sea Floor." Limnology and Oceanography, v o l . 5, no. 2, A p r i l 1960, pp. 154-161. Lamont Geological Observatory Co n t r i b u t i o n No. 411 (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) . K. Hunkins: "Geophysical and Oceanographic Research on A r c t i c D r i f t i n g Stations and Future Dir e c t i o n s f o r Research." Proc. Th i r d Annual A r c t i c Planning Session. Nov. 1960. GRD Res. Notes No. 55. pp. 46-61, AFCRL 436, 1961. K. Hunkins: "Seismic Studies of the A r c t i c Ocean Floor." S c i e n t i f i c Report No. 1. Contract AF19 (604)-2030. Lamont Geological Observatory (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) . AFCRC-TN-60-257, 1960. K. Hunkins: "Seismic Studies of Sea I c e . " JGR, v o l . 65, no. 10, 1960, pp. 3459-3472. S c i e n t i f i c Report No. 4. Contract AF19(604)-2030. Lamont Geological Observatory Co n t r i b u t i o n No. 438, AFCRL 2121. G. K e l l e r and D. P l o u f f : "Geophysical I n v e s t i g a t i o n s at Fletcher's I c e I s l a n d . " T-3, Proc. Second Annual A r c t i c Planning Session. October 1959. GRD Res. Notes 29. pp. 22-55, AFCRL-TN-59-661, 1959. H. Kutschale: "Long-range Sound Transmission i n the A r c t i c Ocean." JGR, v o l . 66, no. 7, 1961, pp. 2189-2198. (Also: Sci. Rep. 6. Contract AF 19(604)-2030, Lamont Geological Observatory, AFCRL 897). U. Nakaya, J. Muguruma, and K. Higuchi: " G l a c i o l o g i c a l Studies on Fletcher's I c e I s l a n d , T-3." Sci. Rep. No. 3. Contract AF19(604)-8343. AINA, AFCRL 62-464, 1962. U. Nakaya and J. Muguruma: "Physical Properties of the I c e on Fletcher's Ice I s l a n d , T-3." Sci. Rep. No. 2. Contract AF 19(604)-8343. AINA, AFCRL 62-462, 1962. 414

OCEANOGIAPHY D. P l o u f f , G. K e l l e r , F. Frischknecht and R. Wahl: "Geophysical Studies on IGY D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n Bravo, T-3, 1958 and 1959." Geology of the A r c t i c , v o l . 1, pp. 709-716, U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto Press, Toronto, 2 v o l s . 1196 pp., 34 maps, 1961. R. Reed and W. Campbell: "The E q u i l i b r i u m D r i f t of the Ice S t a t i o n Alpha." JGR, v o l . 67, no. 1, 1962, pp. 281-297. W. Schwarzacher and K. Hunkins:' "Dredged Gravels from the Central A r c t i c Ocean." S c i e n t i f i c Report No. 2, Contract AF19(604)-2030. Lamont Geological Observatory, (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) . AFCRC-TN-60-258, 1960. D. Smith: "Development of Surface Morphology on Fletcher's Ice I s l a n d , T-3." Sci. Rep. No. 4. Contract AF19(604)-2159. Dartmouth College, AFCRC-TN-60-437, 1960. D. Smith: " O r i g i n of P a r a l l e l Pattern of Meltwater Lakes on Fletcher's Ice Is l a n d , T-3." Proc. XXI I n t . Geol. Congress. Copenhagen, Denmark, Pt. XXI, 1960, pp. 51-59. 415

OCEANOGRAPHY An t a r c t i c Oceanography 1. Obiectives. While a formal program of a n t a r c t i c oceanography was not i n i t i a t e d during the IGY, i t was planned to secure information on the a n t a r c t i c oceans f o r studies of the climate and energy budget of the a n t a r c t i c regions. 2. Operations. U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e oceanographers on board vessels of Task Force 43 were able to carry out oceanographic work on the yearly supply expeditions to the A n t a r c t i c . During the summer months ships also were free on occasion to undertake l i m i t e d surveys. Some oceanographic work also was accomplished during the w i n t e r at coastal s t a t i o n s by wintering-over personnel. 3. Personnel. The work was organized under the supervision of John Lyman, D i r e c t o r , D i v i s i o n of Oceanography, Hydrographic O f f i c e ( u n t i l October 1959), and c a r r i e d out under the d i r e c t i o n of W i l l i s L. Tressler and W i l l i a m H. Lit t l e w o o d . 4. Data. Oceanographic data from the various expeditions were published by the Hy- drographic O f f i c e and submitted to WDC's (see b i b l i o g r a p h y ) . Columbia University's research vessel VEMA worked i n high southern l a t i t u d e s on three successive voyages, during the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year. Topographic, bathythermograph, magnetic studies were made. Photographs of the ocean bottom were taken on the A n t a r c t i c Convergence and south of i t . Sediment cores were taken and C-14 measurements made. 5. Results. The fo l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n i s based p r i m a r i l y on data through Operation DEEP FREEZE I I . The r e s u l t s of subsequent operations have not yet been f u l l y evalu- ated and published. a. Crossings of the A n t a r c t i c Convergence. Since d e t a i l e d sections of the tem- perature s t r u c t u r e of the A n t a r c t i c Convergence have been l a r g e l y lacking i n the past, and since the use of bathythermographs permits obtaining such information i n the top 100 meters of the ocean without delaying the icebreakers on t h e i r primary l o g i s t i c missions, special emphasis has been placed on such work throughout the cruises. One crossing i n the Indian Ocean Sector has been analyzed; here the Convergence was iden- t i f i e d i n the v i c i n i t y of 55°S. Three crossings i n the A t l a n t i c Sector show the Con- vergence near 56°S i n 55°W and near 52°S i n 38°W. The other crossings f o r which data are a v a i l a b l e are a l l near the Date Line ( P a c i f i c Sector) where the Convergence i s found near 62°S. b. Water Masses. Besides t h e i r a b i l i t y to obtain d e t a i l e d bathythermograph sec- t i o n s , the icebreakers have the c a p a b i l i t y to penetrate a n t a r c t i c areas "out of season," and thus some of t h e i r oceanographic samplings have been i n zones or at seasons never before a v a i l a b l e . Figures 75 and 76 of Hydrographic O f f i c e P u b l i c a t i o n 705, Ocean- ographic Atlas of the Polar Seas. Part I (1957), show the locations of a l l a v a i l a b l e oceanographic s t a t i o n s south of 60°S up to July 1957. The DEEP FREEZE s t a t i o n s make a s i g n i f i c a n t a d d i t i o n to the previous coverage of the A n t a r c t i c . For the Weddell Sea, the STATEN ISLAND st a t i o n s o f 1956-57 represent a major advance i n the oceanography of the area. The density gradient i n the deeper water i s almost non-existent. S t a t i o n 13 having a sigma-t value of 27.85 at 2495 meters, and Sta t i o n 15 of 27.86 at 3464 meters. The s t a t i o n s across the head of the sea, 19 to 24, were a l l on the c o n t i n e n t a l shelf. From 100 meters down to 600 meters (the deepest a v a i l a b l e sample), the water was uniformly of a temperature s l i g h t l y above -2.0°C, w i t h s a l i n i t y increasing from 416

OCEANOGRAPHY about 34.60% to 34.75%, and sigma-t from 27.80 to 28.00. Although i t was less than a month past midsummer (11 to 20 January), a i r temperatures ranged from -2.8° to -6.2°C, so that the sea was los i n g heat to the atmosphere. Mosby (1934) concluded t h a t the bottom water of the A n t a r c t i c i s formed from a mixture of heavy, cold surface water, formed on the c o n t i n e n t a l shelf by winter cooling and fre e z i n g , w i t h the warmer Ant- a r c t i c Circumpolar Water. We now know t h a t the s h e l f area of the Weddell Sea i s much greater than i t was thought to be 30 years ago. Hence the r o l e of the head of the Weddell Sea i n the formation of A n t a r c t i c Bottom Water needs to be re-evaluated i n the l i g h t of the IGY data. I n the Ross Sea, the penetration of the second week of November 1956 by the GLACIER I S the e a r l i e s t on record f o r a vessel equipped f o r oceanographic observations. At S t a t i o n 5 the water was nearly isothermal, the temperature ranging from -1.80''C at the surface ( a i r temperature -9.7°) to -.90 at 515 meters, 5 meters above the bottom, but the s a l i n i t y , which was uniformly 34.70% from 0 to 200 m, increased to 34.92% at 515 m. The value of sigma-t at 515 m, 28.14, must be one of the highest ever encoun- tered i n the ocean, and ind i c a t e s that S t a t i o n 5 was probably located over a basin i n which very dense water was trapped. c. Seasonal Cycles. At two locations near United States a n t a r c t i c IGY bases, sta- t i o n s have been reoccupied over a period of months. Both at L i t t l e America V (78°08'S, 162°10'W) and near Hut Point, McMurdo Sound (77°50'S, 166°30'E), there was a ra p i d summer decrease m s a l i n i t y , undoubtedly r e f l e c t i n g melting of pack and shelf i c e , w i t h wanning confined to the upper layers. At the onset of autumn, temperatures r a p i d l y r e v e r t to spring values (near f r e e z i n g ) , but s a l i n i t y i s much slower to respond. At the low temperatures, density depends more on s a l i n i t y than on temperature. I n the course of the w i n t e r , cold brines sink from beneath the thickening pack ice and r a i s e the s a l i n i t y of the waters over the c o n t i n e n t a l shelf. The marked d i f f e r e n c e m the regimes at Hut Point and o f f L i t t l e America i s explainable p a r t l y by the more exposed l o c a t i o n o f the l a t t e r , which f a c i l i t a t e s mixing below the surface, but i s probably mainly due to the prox i m i t y of an ice shelf some 250 meters t h i c k (Poulter, 1947) whereas at Hut Point the ice b a r r i e r i s f o r the most part produced by K o e t t l i t z Gla- c i e r and I S much thinn e r . d. Bottom Sediments. As a part of the oceanographic program, icebreakers have been able to obtain a considerable number of short cores and grab samples of bottom sediments at many of t h e i r s t a t i o n s . Analysis has been made of t h i s m a t e r i a l f o r g r a i n size and major mineralogical and b i o l o g i c a l c o n s t i t u e n t s . The r e s u l t s have agreed w i t h previous i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s d e f i n i n g the zones of g l a c i a l marine sediments, diatom ooze and g l o b i g e r i n a ooze, but have i n d i c a t e d t h a t these are much more i r r e g u l a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d than previously thought. Some r e s u l t s show that the inorganic sediments near shore i n the western Ross Sea appear to be la r g e l y volcanic and the sediments near E l l s w o r t h S t a t i o n i n the Weddell Sea appear to be a w e l l sorted beach sand. Many of the near shore sediments are p r i m a r i l y b i o - l o g i c a l and some of these have high percentage of Globigerina type f o r a m i n i f e r a and Radiolarians. e. B i o l o g i c a l Sampling. I n conjunction w i t h the other observations a modest b i o - l o g i c a l sampling program has been conducted aboard the icebreakers. This has been equipped by the National Museum, Fish and W i l d l i f e Service and George Vanderbilt Foun- d a t i o n of Stanford U n i v e r s i t y . Plankton tows, bottom t r a w l s , and f i s h specimens have been obtained. These have been turned over to the National Museum and George Vander- b i l t Foundation f o r processing. f. DEEP FREEZES I I I and IV. I n v e s t i g a t i o n s and r e s u l t s of DEEP FREEZE Operations I I I and IV (1957-1958 and 1958-1959) were s i m i l a r to those of the previous years. However, a somewhat wider d i s t r i b u t i o n was obtained w i t h observations i n the B e l l i n g s - hausen Sea and Lutzow-Holm Bay areas. Data reduction and p u b l i c a t i o n have not been completed f o r these operations. 417

OCEANOGRAPHY 6. Bibliography. a. Published Papers. U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e : F i e l d Report, "Oceanographic Operations, U.S. Navy A n t a r c t i c Expedition 1954-55 USS ATKA." (USNHO P u b l i c a t i o n H.O. TR-48), March 1956. U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e : "Report on Operation DEEP FREEZE I . " (USNHO P u b l i c a t i o n H.O. TR-33), October 1956. U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e : "Operation DEEP FREEZE I I , 1956-57, Oceanographic Survey Results." (H.O. TR-29), October 1957. U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e A n t a r c t i c Surveys: 1957-58, The M i l i t a r y Engineer, no. 337, September-October 1958. John Lyman: "The U.S. Navy I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year A n t a r c t i c Program m Oceanography." I n t ' 1 . Hydr. Rev.. v o l . 35(2), 1958, pp. 111-126. W i l l i s L. Tressler: "Oceanography, and Hydrographic Observations at Wilkes IGY S t a t i o n , A n t a r c t i c a . " U.S.N. Hydrographic O f f i c e , October 1959. Charles W. Thomas: "Late Pleistocene and Recent L i m i t s of the Ross I c e Shelf." JGR, v o l . 65, no. 6, June 1960, pp. 1789-92. 418