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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
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5

Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline

Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
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Throughout the workshop, the presentations and discussions touched on finances in different ways. In the first panel (see Chapter 2), Dr. Louis Sullivan spoke of family financial situations as a barrier to Black students entering medical school. In the second panel (see Chapter 3), several participants discussed how financial disparities affected their own pathways, while in the third panel (see Chapter 4), Dr. Lester Young raised the implications of basing much of public school funding on local property taxes. In this session, Zahava Stadler and Ivy Smith Morgan of the Education Trust (Ed Trust) co-presented on disparities of finances in K–12 settings. Dowin Boatright, M.D., assistant professor of emergency medicine, and Mytien Nguyen, M.D./Ph.D. student, discussed research conducted at their institution, the Yale School of Medicine, about pre-med and medical student income levels and debt. Zenephia Evans, Ph.D., Purdue University, concluded this panel session with comments on how household resources affect individual students. Charles R. Bridges, Jr., M.D., Sc.D., Janssen Pharmaceuticals, moderated the session.

K–12 SCHOOL FUNDING

Ms. Stadler and Ms. Morgan focused on the impact on the science, technology, engineering, and medicine (STEM) pipeline created by racial disparities in funding in K–12 education. Ms. Stadler began by emphasizing the need to consider these earliest years of schooling in considering the STEM pipeline. “Money in education does matter,” she stated. She continued:

There has been quite a lot of research over the past 20 years, through new methodology, taking advantage of changes in school funding systems, and court-ordered changes in school funding, to determine that the differences of money in schools impact test scores in K–12, scores on achievement tests for college access, and ultimately it correlates with the years of education completed in the child’s future and their adult earnings. The connection here should be obvious. Future involvement in STEM careers, a student getting into medical school, getting into a Ph.D. program, getting into preparatory programs in college, simply completing the advanced coursework in high school—all of these things are predicated on a foundation of having enough resources to make this possible.

Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×

Ms. Morgan then shared data to connect money with racial gaps in achievement and outcomes. According to an Ed Trust analysis using data from the National Center for Education Statistics and the Census Bureau, the nation’s highest-poverty districts receive, on average, about $1,000 less per student in state and local funds than the lowest-poverty districts (Morgan and Amerikaner, 2018). In 4 states (Alabama, Michigan, Missouri, and New York), the disparity is particularly significant; in 23 states, spending is about equal. However, she stressed, equal is not equitable. Spending in high- and low-poverty districts should not be the same, she urged, a point she returned to later in her presentation.

Education Trust’s Funding Gaps Analysis further shows when comparing differences in funding between school districts with higher and lower percentages of students of color, the gaps average $1,800 per student (Morgan and Amerikaner, 2018; e.g., see Figure 5-1).

She noted that the conversation about racially-based, as opposed to just poverty-based, differences in funding is relatively new. EdBuild calculated a $23 billion gap between districts of comparable size that mostly serve white students compared with non-white students (EdBuild, 2019). This analysis, she pointed out, “changed the national conversation around disparities in funding based on race between districts.” The analysis found the average revenue per students is $2,200 less in districts serving primarily students of color than it is in districts serving predominantly white students. Some people may hear this and assume it is driven by differences in wealth, she said, but that is not the case. The racial gaps exist even when comparing districts with similar levels of economic resources. The gap between high-poverty white and high-poverty non-white students is about $1,500 per student, according to the EdBuild analysis. Comparing low-poverty districts shows a gap of about $1,900 per student. These are race-based funding gaps exclusive of income, she stressed. “The bottom line is that after decades of litigation around equitable school funding, we’ve made some progress, but the country still spends substantially less money to educate Black and Hispanic students than white students,” she said.

Ms. Stadler pointed to systemic and structural racism to explain funding levels, which has been manifested in years of policies, especially in the realm of redlining and other housing policies in the 20th century. Using Tacoma, Washington, as an example, she traced the impact of racist housing policies on property values, school funding, and ultimately student performance. In Tacoma, as in most other locales, the federal government and financial institutions defined neighborhoods by perceived risk level.

Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
Image
FIGURE 5-1 Disparity in school funding by enrollment of students of color.
SOURCE: Ivy Smith Morgan, Workshop Presentation, September 2, 2020, from Education Trust analysis. Available at https://edtrust.org/map/?mapname=byminorty.

Residing in so-called riskier areas affected access to credit, property values, and other ways to build wealth. Often the presence of a single Black family in a neighborhood was enough for federal regulators and bankers to define a neighborhood as “declining.” Racism in housing policy reverberated in other ways, including racial covenants, the closure of suburbs to Black

Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×

veterans, and federal subsidies for suburban construction that specifically mandated racial segregation in order to receive funds. These policies created a situation in which the United States sabotaged the possibility of Black families building wealth in their homes, Ms. Stadler said.

This redounds to the present time, she continued. Again, using Tacoma as an example, the geography of the past is reflected in housing and educational patterns today, with Black families still concentrated in certain areas of the city. School zones are drawn so that white neighborhoods and Black neighborhoods attend different middle schools.

There is a direct line from racist housing policies to school funding today, Ms. Stadler stated. Public school funding comes, in general, 45 percent from local, 45 percent from state, and 10 percent from federal sources. Most local money comes from property taxes. If more than a century of policy resulted in Black communities unable to build the same wealth in their homes as white communities, a radically unequal tax base results. States try to make up for this discrepancy with policies that provide more funding to districts with greater need, she said. But as wealthier communities ratchet up their spending, states cannot keep up. As long as this radically unequal foundation is maintained at the local ground level, significant inequalities in the total funding picture for schools will result. “No matter how much states try to paper over the problem, they cannot keep up…. There’s never been a state that has directly tried to compensate by directly supporting at a higher level Black students or students of color, or has specifically tried to redress a history of discrimination in an explicit way,” she said.

Ms. Morgan expanded on work at Ed Trust on the states’ role. The current “corona crash” will affect state funding. State budgets rely on income and sales tax revenues, which are crashing because of COVID-19. States are making choices that will be hard to reverse. A little over 20 percent of state funding is spent on elementary and secondary education, and state funding barely recovered from the last recession 12 years ago. “If states are seeing declines in revenue sources, it is hard to see a world where there will not be cuts,” she said. Districts serving the most Black and Brown students are most at risk because they rely on compensatory policies for additional funding. “States need to make very intentional policy decisions to protect the funding for these districts,” Ms. Morgan said.

Equal is not equitable, she reminded participants, and Ed Trust is advocating to ensure that Black and Brown communities who are bearing the brunt of the pandemic are also not taking on more than their fair share of education cuts. Recognizing that some cuts may be necessary, she called

Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×

for an equitable solution in which cuts are proportional to local revenue and student poverty. This could shield the most vulnerable districts or students from the worst consequences, she suggested. “The ways that we address problems—the current problems related to the pandemic and recession, and the structural problems—lay the groundwork for opportunities for students of color and impact their educational attainment and postsecondary outcomes,” she concluded.

IMPACT OF FINANCES ON THE MEDICAL SCHOOL PIPELINE

Dr. Boatright and Ms. Nguyen discussed how finances and debt influence career choices, including the decision about whether to study to become a physician. As noted by others and according to data compiled by the Peter G. Peterson Foundation, a large racial income and wealth gap exists in the United States.1 The median income of Black and Hispanic households is about 50 percent less than white and Asian households. The wealth gap is even more striking. In 2008, the median household wealth of a Black family was one-sixteenth that of a white family and that gap is increasing. This has translated into a lack of diversity in the physician workforce, Ms. Nguyen said, which has remained stagnant since 1978. Socioeconomic status (SES) diversity has also remained stagnant over the last several decades. People from the lowest three income quintiles have never made up more than 30 percent of medical school matriculants. In contrast, the highest quintile (families making $200,000 or more) make up at least 50 percent of medical school matriculants.

The intersectionality between race and SES reveals a starker divide. A higher percentage of Black medical school matriculants come from low-income households, which leads to inequality in the burden of premedical education debt. About 80 percent of white students enter medical school without debt, compared with only 40 percent of Black students. Conversely, about 20 percent of Black students are entering medical school with $50,000 or more of debt compared with about 5 percent of white students, and this is before they take on the additional burden of medical school education. Just applying to medical school costs on average $8,600 per student (about one-quarter of the Black average annual income of $40,000), given admission fees, MCAT (Medical College Admission Test)

___________________

1 See, for example, https://www.pgpf.org/blog/2021/11/Income-Inequality-Has-Beenon-the-Rise-since-the-1980s-and-Continues-Its-Upward-Trajectory.

Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×

preparation and exams, travel, and other costs. Hidden costs for a student to be a competitive applicant include unpaid volunteering, shadowing experiences, and research activities. The cost of medical school itself has been steadily increasing. At about $60,000 per year at Yale, tuition in 2020 has doubled since 2003.

Medical student debt has increased from an average of $70,000 in 1986 to $190,694 in 2017, with a disproportionate impact on Black students (see Figure 5-2). More than three-quarters of Black students assume, on average, more than $150,000 of debt, significantly higher than other groups.

Entering school with debt, taking on more debt, and considerations of income and social class affect students’ medical education experiences when they do enroll. A study in Canada (Beagan, 2005) asked students about the extent that their social class influenced their medical school experiences. Thirty percent of working class and poor students reported their SES negatively affected their medical school experiences, a much higher number than those in other classes. Low-income medical students are also more likely to take a leave of absence compared with high-income peers, according to unpublished data co-produced by Ms. Nguyen and Dr. Boatright with Dr. Hyacinth R. C. Mason of Albany Medical College. Taking a leave of absence was associated with higher attrition and lower graduation rate, Ms. Nguyen explained.

Medical education debt also affects career choices. She described a study that looked at all medical students and the amount of debt they incurred. Those with the highest debt said that debt affected their career

Image
FIGURE 5-2 Disproportionate burden of medical school debt on Black students.
SOURCE: Workshop Presentation, Mytien Nguyen, September 2, 2020, from Dugger et al., 2013.
Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×

choices. They expressed less intention to work in primary care, but rather in surgery and other specialties. Students with higher debt levels did say they planned to work in underserved areas, in part to address health inequities but also as part of the requirement of loan forgiveness programs.

An Association of American Medical Colleges study (Youngclaus et al., 2013) modeled the challenges in paying off medical education debt. They found most physicians can pay off debt with two notable exceptions: those from lower-income households and primary care physicians. Students with higher debt—many of whom are underrepresented minorities—reported effects on their personal lives, such as delays in getting married, and many said they would not become a physician if they had to choose again (Rohlfing et al., 2014).

In summary, Ms. Nguyen said, underrepresented minority students are more likely to have a large amount of medical education debt, which influences their career choices. Educational debt among underrepresented minority students may indirectly exacerbate health disparities. She said their research points to potential changes: (1) decrease the cost of medical education by shortening the duration (e.g., the Sophie Davis Biomedical Education Program at City University of New York and the University of California, Davis, Accelerated Competency-based Education in Primary Care Program) or by reducing tuition and fees (e.g., New York University) and (2) reduce the level of debt through loan forgiveness programs or income share agreements.

Efforts must be done holistically, she said. Decreasing debt burden must be accompanied by purposeful admissions policies to promote diversity in medicine.

HOUSEHOLD RESOURCES AND THE IMPACT ON STUDENT LEARNING

Dr. Evans elaborated on her earlier presentation (see Chapter 4) about the role of resources in equipping students to learn. She described what she called the “zip code phenomenon,” or “where you lay your head because of your parents’ financial stability will determine how educational resources will make a difference.” She looked at three things in particular: preparation of children when they enter kindergarten, how summer months are spent between academic years, and the ability to navigate the college financial aid process.

The Center on Children and Families has found that less than one-half of poor children are ready for school by age 5 (Isaacs, 2012). This

Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×

starts a downward spiral, Dr. Evans explained, when children do not have the opportunity to catch up to grade level. “Children who are financially disadvantaged have been taken off the express train and put on the local, and it will never catch up to the express,” she said.

“Summer melt” describes what can happen to students between school years. Family resources can make a difference in what children do over the summer to decrease the effects of the summer melt, such as enrichment programs and camps.

The third differentiator is knowledge to navigate the financial aid process. “It is not intuitive, especially for first-generation students,” she commented. College decisions are often based on current financial pressures, even if they may have negative impacts down the road. For example, students may choose schools that eliminate or reduce application fees, even if another school might provide better value in the long term. They may not access financial aid for which they would be eligible. As a result, some students drop out, at various levels from high school through doctoral studies, to earn money to contribute to household support.

DISCUSSION

The first area of discussion centered on the funding gap between predominantly white and non-white districts discussed by Ms. Stadler and Ms. Morgan. A participant referred to a line of argument that funding will not close the achievement gap. Ms. Stadler responded, “I would ask a student whose [classroom] ceiling is falling down about the impact on learning; you would get a pretty definitive answer.” She also referred to the history of this debate for a more academic response. In the 1980s and 1990s, an initial wave of research said money would not close gaps, but in the last 20 years, new and longer-term panel data and experiences show an accumulation of evidence that money matters in education. There is also a simple justice question, she added, in which some school systems invest $8,000 per student while a system nearby may invest many times that amount per student. “You see as a child how society has invested in you or not,” Ms. Stadler commented. Ms. Stadler and Ms. Morgan explained the study methodology behind the Ed Trust and EdBuild analyses in greater detail. With continued reliance on property taxes as the principal source of local school funding, Ms. Stadler added, “ultimately, the ground level is where this problem is being created and where it needs to be solved.” Echoing Dr. Young (see Chapter 4), she said, “We take for granted that it is local property taxes, but

Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×

does it have to be this way? We’ve stacked the situation on top of a radically unequal foundation.”

Dr. Malcom agreed and commented that current debates are based on the world as it exists. “We have not talked about systemic adjustments or policy rearrangements,” she said. She urged thinking about virtual learning, school consolidation, or other policy experimentation to “think very differently,” rather than just move money around. Ms. Stadler responded that the point about consolidation is powerful. New Jersey, she noted, has 600 school districts, drawn around town boundaries, while Nevada has 17 county-based districts. The smaller New Jersey districts segregate students from each other and from opportunities, she said, while larger, county districts provide at least the opportunity to send money and students across broader areas.

In addition to a larger tax base, schools in affluent communities can tap into families’ personal contributions in addition to a larger tax base, observed another participant. Ms. Morgan said there are not good data to fully understand the contours of families’ financially supplementing students’ experiences in public schools, for example, when parent associations fund school programs. “Private dollars are mostly in the dark, and they are hard to deal with in policy,” Ms. Stadler noted.

Referring to medical school costs, reducing the cost of medical school tuition is a policy decision that could be made, suggested Ms. Nguyen. She said the Yale Medical Student Council, of which she is a member, was told that tuition is only a small percentage of the overall budget. Alumni and philanthropic donations contribute the far larger share. Dr. Boatright added that tuition contributes less than 2 percent of Yale School of Medicine’s annual revenue, as reported to the council by the medical school dean. In other words, while the impact of tuition on a student is large, the overall contribution to school operations is relatively small. “Medical schools can be more cognizant of the burden on students,” he said. “Each school has different endowment levels, but many could remove tuition or go to debt-free education tomorrow.”

Dr. Bridges concluded by noting that creative approaches are needed at all levels, and pilot programs show what funding can accomplish if done in the right way. The next panel considered some of these approaches (see Chapter 6).

Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×

REFERENCES

Beagan, B. 2005. Everyday classism in medical school: Experiencing marginality and resistance. Medical Education 39(8):777–784. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02225.x.

Dugger, R. A., A. M. El-Sayed, A. Dogra, C. Messina, R. Bronson, and S. Galea. 2013. The color of debt: Racial disparities in anticipated medical student debt in the United States. PLOS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074693.

EdBuild. 2019. Nonwhite School Districts Get $23 Billion Less than White Districts Despite Serving the Same Number of Students. https://staging.edbuild.org/content/23-billion.

Isaacs, J. 2012. Starting School at a Disadvantage: The School Readiness of Poor Children. Social Genome Project, Center on Children and Families at Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/0319_school_disadvantage_isaacs.pdf.

Morgan, I., and A. Amerikaner. 2018. Funding gaps: An analysis of school funding equity across the U.S. and within each state. Education Trust, Funding Gaps 2018 (article, February 27). https://edtrust.org/resource/funding-gaps-2018.

Rohfling, J., R. Navarro, O. Z. Maniya, B. D. Hughes, and D. K. Rogalsky. 2014. Medical student debt and major life choices other than specialty. Medical Education Online. DOI: 10.3402/meo.v19.25603.

Youngclaus, J. A., P. A. Koehler, L. J. Kotlikoff, and J. M. Wiecha. 2013. Can medical students afford to choose primary care? An economic analysis of physician debt repayment. Academic Medicine 88: 16–25. DOI: 10.3402/meo.v19.25603.

Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×

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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
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Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
Page 57
Suggested Citation:"5 Impact of Finances on the Educational Pipeline." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Educational Pathways for Black Students in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26391.
×
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Academic preparation is critical to increase Black representation in Science, Engineering, and Medicine, but so, too, are such interrelated factors as providing mentoring and role models in sufficient numbers, adequately funding school and community support services, and analyzing the intentional and unintentional consequences of a range of policies and practices. To address these issues, the Roundtable on Black Men and Black Women of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine convened a virtual workshop on September 2 and 3, 2020. Titled "Educational Pathways for Blacks in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Exploring Barriers and Possible Interventions," the workshop provided a platform to explore challenges and opportunities, beginning in the earliest years of life through K-12 schooling, undergraduate and postgraduate education, and into the workforce. Presenters throughout the workshop provided perspectives from research and from their own experiences to discuss the need for systemic solutions inside and outside of formal education institutions. This publication summarizes the presentation and discussion of the workshop.

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