National Academies Press: OpenBook

Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter (2022)

Chapter: Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery

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Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
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Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery

The Antarctic is like nowhere else on Earth. From the earliest days of human exploration, generations of intrepid researchers have ventured onto its icy expanses, plumbed its formidable waters, and gazed into its endless skies, yielding new discoveries for all to share.

Antarctica’s extreme environment and isolation make it a singular place for investigating the limits of life’s adaptations and peering into the depths of the Universe. The Antarctic is also a crucial focal point for better understanding global climate change, which is driven by increasing concentrations of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in our atmosphere.4 Antarctica is also a place that is changing rapidly, with new forces reshaping landforms and ecosystems never touched by human hands, thus increasing the urgency of research to understand and protect these extraordinary places.

Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×

A Linchpin in the Global Climate System

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The edge of the Ross Ice Shelf, which is the main outlet for several major glaciers draining from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.

The frozen Antarctic landscape may seem like a simple, static expanse, but a deeper look reveals a complex and dynamic system of interactions among air, sea, ice, and solid Earth. The size and movement of Antarctica’s ice sheet and glaciers are affected by the underlying bedrock, by the surrounding atmosphere and ocean waters, and by the input of new snow. Researchers are striving to better understand how the warming global climate is affecting these factors and, in turn, affecting the fate of the ice sheet.

ICE SHEET DYNAMICS AND SEA LEVEL RISE

Nearly the entire Antarctic continent is covered in ice, in many places reaching more than 3.5 kilometers (more than 2 miles) in thickness. The Antarctic ice sheet holds about 70% of the planet’s fresh water, making it by far the largest potential source of global sea level rise as warming temperatures lead to widespread ice sheet melting.5 According to the 2021 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment, global sea level rise is likely to be in the range of 0.28 to 1 meter (about 1–3 feet) by 2100, depending on the amount of greenhouse gases that are emitted over the coming decades. The IPCC also suggests, however, that one cannot rule out more extreme scenarios, in which global average sea level rise approaches 2 meters (6.5 feet) by 2100 and 5 meters (16 feet) by 2150—enough to pose serious risks to coastal cities and communities around the world. These extreme scenarios are driven primarily by the possible impacts of warming on the Antarctic ice sheet.

Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×

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Satellite observations reveal that the Antarctic ice sheet has been losing mass (i.e., ice) at an accelerating pace, and this loss already accounts for about 10% of total sea level rise. While this current contribution to sea level rise is relatively small, it is likely to increase as the planet warms, with the possibility of reaching “tipping points” that could set off rapid, essentially irreversible processes of ice sheet disintegration.

The largest part of the ice sheet covers East Antarctica, a vast ice plateau. The smaller part of the ice sheet covering West Antarctica includes some areas that rest below sea level—on land sloping toward the center of the ice sheet—which makes it particularly vulnerable to risk of rapid collapse. There is growing concern however, that some coastal parts of the ice sheet in East Antarctica may have similar vulnerabilities. The third main region of the ice sheet, over the Antarctic Peninsula, comprises hundreds of mountain glaciers. While the Peninsula is being strongly affected by climate warming, overall it does not contain enough ice to affect sea level significantly.

Observations, computer models, and studies of Earth’s past climate have yielded important insights, but more research is needed to reduce uncertainties in projections and improve our understanding of these potential changes.

Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×

OCEAN DYNAMICS

Climate warming and the changing Antarctic ice sheet also profoundly influence the dynamics of ocean water. Where Antarctica’s continental ice sheet meets ocean water, the warmer upper layer of water sinks to become a dense, cold layer called Antarctic bottom water. This interaction is a key link in the deep ocean currents that propel water throughout the world’s oceans, which in turn affects climate worldwide.

The wind-driven Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), the strongest and largest ocean current on the planet, is another pivotal feature of ocean circulation. Extending for around 20,000 kilometers (more than 12,000 miles), it is the only current to completely encircle the globe, connecting the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans into one global system.

CLIMATE SYSTEM DYNAMICS

Antarctica is inextricably linked to global climate. The continent helps to reduce global temperature and heat absorption thanks to the high reflectivity of its ice and snow cover. In addition, Earth’s polar regions receive far less solar radiation than regions near the equator, creating a temperature gradient that causes heat to flow from the equator to the poles. This heat flow has a major effect on oceanic and atmospheric circulation and on weather and climate around the globe. At the same time, the intense cold of the Antarctic ice sheet affects the global climate system through changes in circulation, moisture, clouds, and precipitation in the atmosphere. Moreover, the cold ocean waters surrounding the continent, and the formation of extensive sea ice cover around Antarctica each winter, drive circulation patterns in the global ocean. Because of these linkages, changes in Antarctica can affect the climate dynamics of the entire planet.

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ACC plays an important role in the exchange of heat and carbon dioxide (CO2) between the sea and the atmosphere. In some places, the current brings water from deep ocean layers to the surface, releasing CO2 to the atmosphere. In other places, it causes surface water to sink, removing CO2 from the atmosphere and sequestering it in the deep ocean. Scientists estimate that about 30% of total human-caused CO2 emissions annually are absorbed by the ocean, providing a major buffer against more rapid and severe climate change. However, studies suggest recent changes in wind patterns may affect ACC dynamics in ways that could potentially flip the Southern Ocean from being a carbon sink (absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere) to a carbon source (adding more CO2 to the atmosphere), further accelerating climate change.

Illustration of how Southern Ocean circulation is linked to global oceanic dynamics. SOURCE: L. Talley.
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×

Learning from Earth’s Least Polluted Environment

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The Atmospheric Research Observatory (ARO) at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station is a National Science Foundation (NSF) facility located near the geographic South Pole. SOURCE: https://www.flickr.com/photos/elisfanclub/5688446317/.

Antarctica is farther removed from human activity than any other place on the planet. The continent is separated from human populations and industries by sheer distance, while atmospheric and ocean currents help to buffer the region from inputs carried via air or water. As a result, the Antarctic has the cleanest air and water on Earth. Yet, at the same time, pollution is increasingly reaching this remote and pristine wilderness, bringing humanity’s footprint literally to the ends of the Earth. This makes Antarctica important as both a “baseline” for a low-pollution environment and an ideal location to monitor the global spread of pollutants

STUDIES OF POLLUTION IN AIR

Scientists have long recognized Antarctica’s unique value as a baseline for air quality. For nearly half a century, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the National Science Foundation (NSF) have operated a special facility to continuously collect and analyze air samples in a designated “Clean Air Sector” near the South Pole. This area is strictly protected from contamination by foot, vehicle, and aircraft traffic and is thought to contain the cleanest air in the world.

The measurements collected at this site have played a key role in helping us understand some of the largest environmental problems of the modern era. For instance, measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations at this location have shown a steady rise from 310 parts per million in the 1950s to more than 415 parts per million in 2020, along with increases in other greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide. These measurements form a fundamental basis for our understanding of global climate change.

Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
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Scientists launch a balloon to gather air samples near the South Pole for analysis by NOAA’s Earth System Research Laboratory’s Global Monitoring Division. SOURCE: Emily Walker, National Science Foundation.

Atmospheric observations at the South Pole have also played a central role understanding the “ozone hole” phenomenon first discovered in 1985. Researchers use instruments there to monitor the protective layer of stratospheric ozone that envelops Earth along with chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons that deplete the ozone layer. Such observations are crucial for assessing the success of the landmark 1987 Montreal Protocol treaty that banned production of ozone-depleting substances and allow us to track the gradual healing of Earth’s ozone layer.

Other observations help us understand where and how quickly air pollution is transported around the globe. For example, researchers estimate that it takes about a year for particles from large fires in the Northern Hemisphere to reach the South Pole. Scientists are also tracking industrial chemicals, known as persistent organic pollutants, in Antarctica to better understand how these contaminants may accumulate in polar regions due to the effects of cold temperatures.10

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Long-term atmospheric observations of carbon dioxide (CO2, upper panel, in parts per million) and methane (CH4, lower panel, in parts per billion) concentrations from the South Pole Baseline Observatory, collected by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) Global Monitoring Laboratory and by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. The data in grey are from one of NOAA’s other major baseline sites, on Mauna Loa, Hawaii. The differing CO2 and CH4 values between the two baseline stations help scientists understand emissions and sinks of these greenhouse gases. SOURCE: NOAA.
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×

STUDIES OF POLLUTION IN WATER

Winds and ocean currents can carry pollution and debris across the ACC and around the waters and shores of the Southern Ocean. Scientists have found fishing nets and other visible plastic debris in these remote waters. These items, most of which are thought to come from fishing operations in the Southern Ocean, can be deadly to birds and fish that mistake it for food.

But an even larger threat may be lurking. Studies have found that Antarctic waters contain high concentrations of microplastics—tiny bits of plastic that are released as plastic objects break down.11 Scientists believe these microplastics start as waste such as plastic bags, bottles, and other common consumer goods that drift from large population centers to Antarctica via ocean currents. Ultraviolet light and the salt in seawater cause microplastics to emit toxic chemicals that are ingested by marine animals. These microplastics and associated chemical pollutants bioaccumulate up the marine food chain, ultimately finding their way onto your dinner plate.12 Antarctic researchers are studying the nature and impacts of these and other pollutants in the waters of the Southern Ocean.

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Pollution from activities far and near are finding their way into the Southern Ocean. Credit: Jim Julien/Design Pics
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×

A Unique Biological Laboratory

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Five penguin species breed in Antarctica, and more species visit the continent or breed on islands off its coast. These striking birds are adapted for swimming rather than flight, and some penguin colonies contain millions of individuals. Emperor penguins, the largest species, employ a variety of adaptations to survive grueling winters, including taking turns at the center of a tightly packed huddle and tasking males with minding the eggs while females migrate to hunt. SOURCE: Christopher Michel.

When most people think about life in Antarctica, they think of penguins. While these iconic flightless birds are indeed important members of the continent’s ecosystems, they are only one group within a diverse array of life forms that call Antarctica home. In contrast to its seeming desolation, researchers have found Antarctica to be a rich living laboratory for investigating the limits of what life can endure—and what the future may hold for these organisms.

EVOLUTION AT THE EXTREMES

Antarctica’s ecosystems offer an exceptional window into life’s capacity to evolve and adapt. For millions of years, the Antarctic Circumpolar Current surrounding the continent has stood as a barrier between the organisms living in the Antarctic and those in the rest of the world. Antarctic organisms have had to contend with and adapt to environmental challenges such as extremely cold and often arid conditions, prolonged dark-light cycles, and even the complete absence of light.

Tens of millions of years ago, Antarctica was far more temperate; and since then, organisms evolved as their world changed. Today, Antarctica is home to mosses and other plant life; seals, birds, and fish that draw sustenance from the sea; tiny terrestrial creatures like nematodes and tardigrades; and microbial-scale life that dwells in and on Antarctic ice, rocks, soil, and water.

Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
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Top Left: Scientists are studying how Weddell seals navigate beneath the ice while hunting. The seals can dive up to 600 meters (nearly 2,000 feet) into a dark and featureless sea and then pop up in the same breathing hole 45 minutes later. Scientists have recently mounted small sensors on seals to measure factors such as water temperature and salinity as they dive, which helps us to understand both seal behavior and questions about southern ocean dynamics. SOURCE: Clive McMahon. Top Right: Fish in the Notothenioids suborder have “anti-freeze” proteins in their bloodstream. SOURCES: Chris Cheng and Paul Cziko. Bottom Left: Antarctic pearlwort is one of just two flowering plants native to the Antarctic. Studies suggest it is growing faster and spreading farther as a result of climate change. SOURCE: Liam Quinn. Bottom Right: A king crab. Ocean warming is allowing these high-level predators to move into new areas of the Southern Ocean, where they could disrupt ecosystems. SOURCE: Allison Albritton on assignment with the Florida Institute of Technology.
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×

There is much to learn from Antarctic life. For instance, U.S. biologists discovered that a family of fish known as the Notothenioids (the most common type of fish in Antarctic waters) have special proteins in their bloodstream that prevent them from freezing. Scientists have also explored the impressive ability of marine mammals in Antarctica to dive and navigate beneath the ice before surfacing to breathe. Studies have suggested that Weddell seals can use their acute night vision to locate cracks in the ice with minimal light and may even use Earth’s magnetic field as a natural Global Positioning System (GPS).13 Studying these biological innovations provides insights into the possibilities of life to adapt to extreme conditions as well as analogs for life beyond this planet.

ON THE CUSP OF CHANGE

Change is part of life. Yet, some of the changes happening in the Antarctic today are happening so quickly that the processes of natural selection and evolutionary adaptation that have driven historical changes may not be able to keep up. As a result, the influence of humankind in Antarctica may threaten many aspects of the continent’s unique biodiversity. For instance, recent years have brought increased fishing activity to the Southern Ocean, including the harvesting of Antarctic krill. Intensified krill fishing could upset marine food webs, harming the many species that eat krill, including penguins, whales, and seals.

Another growing stressor on Antarctic biodiversity is people visiting the continent, whether for science or tourism, and bringing along seeds and microbes that “hitchhike” on their clothes, boots, and gear. In this way, human activities in Antarctica have inadvertently seeded the icy continent with invasive species that can threaten local ecosystems.14

Climate changes are happening quickly. On land, the majority of Antarctica’s terrestrial plants and animals are found in the continent’s very limited ice-free areas. These areas are expected to expand significantly over the coming decades, which could alter the mix of species that thrive, allow invasive species to become established, or create new connections among native species that have evolved in isolation.15 Likewise at sea, rapid warming can upend ecosystems by altering the boundaries of species and populations. Off the western coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, for example, studies suggest that warming waters could allow king crab populations to move from the deep sea to the relatively shallow continental shelf, where they could become high-level predators and disrupt the ecosystem.16

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Scientists study mosses in an ice-free area during the Antarctic summer. Climate change is expanding these ice-free areas, and altering the mix of organisms that live there. SOURCE: Sharon Robinson, University of Wollongong.
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×

Peering into the Universe

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The aurora australis (Southern Lights) over the telescopes at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. The Antarctic is an ideal place to observe the cosmos and study the “solar winds” that cause auroras. SOURCE: Benjamin Eberhardt, National Science Foundation.

Cold, clear skies and long, dark nights make Antarctica an unparalleled vantage point for viewing our Universe. Antarctica is home to research platforms that link with a global network of ground-, balloon-, and satellite-based observatories for insights into outer space—and the influence of space here at home.

OBSERVING THE COSMOS

The frigid, dry, stable atmospheric conditions provide a unique advantage for large-scale astrophysics and astronomy observations. Peering through the South Pole’s thin atmosphere allows scientists to see certain astronomical processes and signals more clearly than from anywhere else on Earth. Research agencies from many countries have joined forces to build telescopes and other research facilities, such as the IceCube Neutrino Observatory, that take advantage of these attributes to study the cosmos and the fundamental physics of our Universe.

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Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
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A balloon-borne telescope ready for launch. Balloons like this carry telescopes 40 kilometers (25 miles) into the atmosphere to collect observations. SOURCE: M. Halpern.

TRACKING SPACE WEATHER

Earth is constantly bombarded by a stream of particles and radiation generated by the Sun. This “solar wind” is often harmless, but occasional larger bursts can pose a threat to many essential technologies on which society depends. For instance, “space weather” events such as solar flares, radiation storms, and coronal mass ejections can interfere with radio communication, damage power grids and electronic equipment, harm satellites and GPS navigation systems, and pose a health risk to astronauts in space. The polar regions allow scientists to collect measurements across a wide range of latitudes, including at Earth’s geomagnetic poles, making it an ideal place to monitor how solar winds interact with Earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field. While facilities in Greenland form a well-established hub for space weather research in the Arctic, comparable observations in the Southern Hemisphere are important for a full picture of what is happening in the space environment. From 2009 to 2016, a network of autonomous sensors was deployed in the remote East Antarctic Plateau, providing a Southern Hemisphere complement to a network of Northern Hemisphere sensors deployed in Greenland. This allowed researchers to discover important new evidence about how Earth’s magnetic field interacts with the solar wind—insights that will help advance the goal of developing reliable modeling systems for space weather forecasting.17

Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 4
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 5
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 6
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 7
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 8
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 9
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 10
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 11
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 12
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 13
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 14
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 15
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 16
Suggested Citation:"Unparalleled Opportunity for Discovery." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26617.
×
Page 17
Next: U.S. Science and Policy Leadership in the Antarctic »
Antarctic Science: Why U.S. Leadership and Investments Matter Get This Book
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As the coldest, most remote, and most extreme environment on Earth, Antarctica provides a unique vantage point for investigating life adaptations, understanding the health of the global climate, and peering into the depths of the Universe. For example, ecological studies in the Dry McMurdo Valley help explain how life survives in extremes, observations of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet reveal vital information about our changing climate, and the Ice Cube Neutrino Observatory provides insights into supernovae, black holes, and similar phenomenon. Since 1959, the Antarctic Treaty has ensured the continent remains a haven for scientific investigation, offering up an invaluable model of global cooperation with U.S. leadership provided by the U.S. Antarctic Program.

This booklet, drawing primarily from reports of the National Academies, captures a multitude of insights gained - and sought - from U.S. research investments in this remarkable place. A continued commitment to science, cooperation, and a shared vision for the future are required to build on this rich history of discovery and answer crucial questions in the decades ahead.

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