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Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools (2022)

Chapter: Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives

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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter 7 - Overview of Land-Use Initiatives." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26737.
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62 This chapter describes the various land-use projects, programs, and policies—referred to here as initiatives—that could be used to foster FELUs. To facilitate the analysis and use of the material, the initiatives have been classified into seven groups, depending on their primary function. The groups and initiatives within each group are shown in Figure 21. The groups are as follows: long-term planning; zoning; site and building design; facilities and infrastructure management; parking and loading areas management; pricing, incentives, and taxation; and stakeholder engagement. These groups are listed with supply-side initiatives on one end and demand-side initiatives on the other. This chapter includes over 40 initia- tives. Each initiative is summarized to inform practitioners of the intended goals and potential risks. Following this, a table for each initiative provides a summary of implementation barriers, including immediate- and long-term costs, advantages and disadvantages from the private and public perspectives, and examples. In addition, a similarly comprehensive list of transportation initiatives is presented in Chapter 9. In some cases, the initiatives apply both to land use and to transportation, as both types of agencies may be able to implement these strategies. This is the case for the initiatives under the groups of major infrastructure improvements as well as off-street parking and loading initiatives. It is important to highlight the potential role of combining the power of conditional use requirements, a land-use initiative discussed in this chapter; and TIA, a transportation initia- tive discussed in Chapter 9. A conditional use requirement is a zoning exception that allows the property owners use of their land in a way that is not otherwise permitted within the particular zoning district (FreeAdvice Legal 2020). In contrast, TIAs are used to ensure that developments that exceed a threshold of traffic generated implement traffic and highway engineering improve- ments to mitigate the impacts of the development, typically, in the nearby intersections (the network-wide impacts are typically disregarded). Conditional use requirements and TIAs could be used to foster FELUs by requiring that the property owner and the developer agree on the implementation of appropriate land-use and transportation initiatives from this chapter and Chapter 9, respectively. 7.1 Long-Term Planning The initiatives included in this group represent strategies, policies, programs, and projects that intend to foster FELUs in the long term. Taken together, they provide a wide range of potential avenues for movement toward FELUs, in ways that acknowledge the local eco- nomic and land-use conditions, and the institutional settings governing land-use planning and policy. C H A P T E R 7 Overview of Land-Use Initiatives

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 63   7.1.1 Planning Tools Initiative LU1: Develop a FELU Plan A FELU Plan is intended to put together a holistic set of goals, strategies and programs, policies and projects to achieve a vision for the area that consistently leads to FELU. This plan aims to reduce systematic inefficiencies in the supply chain, such as VMT, to control logistics sprawl, and to reduce livability issues between freight traffic and facilities and other agents such as pedestrians. An example of best practice is Paris, France, where three regional master plans were developed to foster FELUs: the General Master Plan (2013–2030), the Transportation Master Plan (2014–2020), and the Climate, Energy and Air Master Plan (2012–2020/2050). Within these plans there are reserved areas for freight infrastructure and (re)development in the metropolitan region, which allows the interaction between logistic-intensive land uses and the rest of the land uses. In addition, there are already several potential areas selected in which industrial den- sification would be encouraged. These selected locations also have the potential to use waterways Figure 21. Land-use initiatives.

64 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools as an alternative to road transportation (Dablanc 2015a). Exhibit 10 summarizes essential char- acteristics of Initiative LU1. Initiative LU2: Implement a FELU Program This initiative aims to create a program that facilitates the gradual implementation of projects given in the FELU plan. This program will act as the roadmap for policy planners to achieve a systematic implementation of the initiatives outlined, typically, in a FELU plan. The FELU plan acts as the master plan meanwhile the FELU program is the implementation plan for policy planners to achieve the goals proposed in the plan. Although it is not necessary it is preferred to have a FELU plan and based on it develop a FELU program. These initiatives aim to consider holistically all of the stakeholders that are impacted, and to identify and prioritize the initiatives to be implemented during a period of time. Implementation of any FELU program must be intertwined with ongoing initiatives to enhance stakeholder engage- ment, as described later in this chapter. For the successful implementation of the program, it is critical to engage government agencies, developers, building and streetscape designers, and freight carriers throughout the process. Exhibit 11 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU2. 7.1.2 Strategies Initiative LU3: Densify Logistics Activities toward the Urban Core With the provision of more logistics spaces toward the urban core, transportation of goods can be more efficient, thereby reducing the externalities, mainly through the reduction of freight VMT. The benefits of the increased density include lowering environmental emissions attrib- uted to freight activity and improvement of the traffic dynamics, due to a reduction of double- parking or searching for parking. In addition, more sustainable modes of transportation, such as electric vans or cargo bikes, can be used for performing the last leg of deliveries from the urban distribution center to the receiver. In Paris, France, recent concerns about regional air quality have encouraged the desire to reduce the distance large freight vehicles need to travel through Paris. (Other proposed initiatives that help sustain the status quo, such as low emission zones, have experienced little success). The city has moved to reintroducing logistics facilities into the city. The latest Parisian zoning plan accommodates logistics facilities in several neighborhoods. This has allowed carriers to use smaller and more energy efficient vehicles, as well as reducing the distance and number of freight trips to businesses. As an example, the Beaugrenelle logistics hotel is a former parking lot in a highly dense and commercial urban area, which was repurposed to process up to 6,500 parcels under 30 kg daily. The redistribution from the logistics hotel to the final consumers is done by 30 electric euro 6 vehicles (Dablanc 2015a). Exhibit 12 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU3. Initiative LU4: Preserve Existing Logistics Land Uses The urban space is a dynamic environment. Population growth and economic fluctuations, for example, could trigger changes in the demand for land in urban and metro areas. Thus, it is important to preserve existing logistics land uses situated in urban areas to ensure that these areas continue to be occupied by logistics facilities, and to avoid logistics sprawl. The preservation of such areas can be done by explicitly restricting zoning for other land uses other than logistics. For instance, the Maryland Port Authority preserved the port and mari- time industry areas by designating them as a special purpose district. This prevents the con- version of the land to non-industrial uses. Similarly, the APA promotes special districts and performance zoning for agricultural land preservation. Such designed districts or zones aim at

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 65   limiting non-agricultural development to densities and development patterns that are consis- tent with the activity of agriculture (American Planning Association 1999). A main challenge to implementing this initiative is finding agreement between multiple stake- holders that might have conflicting interests regarding the use of the land. For instance, the City of Seattle and King County, Washington, developed a Memorandum of Understanding regarding the construction of a basketball arena in an industrial district, as part of an effort to expand the stadium district that already had a baseball stadium. However, the City of Seattle was concerned that the new basketball arena would create demand for complementary facilities (e.g., restau- rants or hotels) in the surrounding areas, which would force the industrial facilities located in the area to move, impacting the economy of the city negatively. With the Memorandum of Understanding, Seattle and King County reached an agreement to zone the land near the new arena for industrial use only, as a way to preserve the industrial district (City of Seattle 2012). Exhibit 13 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU4. Initiative LU5: Logistics Land Reserves Logistics facilities, such as distribution centers and manufacturing sites, might require addi- tional space to expand as demand grows. If the necessary space for an expansion is not available, these facilities are relocated away from the urban core where available space is not an issue. However, as the city grows, land availability and cost become an obstacle for the expansion and maintenance of logistics facilities, which are then pushed further away from the urban core. This cyclic phenomenon is called logistics sprawl. By reserving the land near existing facilities, it is possible to prevent these areas from developing other forms of land use that are not compatible with industrial or logistics activities, and therefore, prevent logistics sprawl. In 1991, Chicago created Planned Manufacturing Districts (PMDs) to preserve the industrial economy of the city. The objective of the PMD zones is to protect industrial land use from the encroachment of other forms of land use. The initiative includes establishing buffers of transitional land uses around the PMDs, and the creation of industrial corridors. In 2004, the success of the program led the City of Chicago to expand the freight plan with “Chicago Metropolis 2020,” a comprehensive report of the PMD program and modeling efforts to identify the needs of logistics facilities in the region for the year of 2020. Exhibit 14 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU5. Initiative LU6: Co-Location of Auxiliary Facilities near Major Gateways Gateways, such as ports and rail terminals, require auxiliary facilities for their operations. For example, ports require container yards, truck terminals, chassis pools, among others. If these auxiliary facilities are conveniently located close to the port, freight vehicles do not have to travel long distances to access them, reducing total VMT and externalities caused by the traffic of vehicles (e.g., congestion and pollution). The Port of Yokohama, Japan, was planned to have all auxiliary facilities close to the piers. This initiative has helped the Port of Yokohama become one of the major gateways not only of the metropolitan region of Tokyo, but of Japan (Yokohama Port Corporation 2020). Exhibit 15 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU6. Initiative LU7: Foster Logistics Mixed Use Mixed land uses are a fundamental element in land-use ordinance to prevent and reduce externalities caused by transportation—such as emissions—before they happen. Currently, land-use planners take advantage of this situation by locating complementary land uses in the same area, such as residential and commercial. This initiative aims to foster the mixture of traditional (residential, commercial, etc.) and logistics land uses in metropolitan areas. This allocation of logistics land use in urban areas makes for shorter VMT, reducing emissions and logistics sprawl. If done properly, a balance is obtained in which an urban site allows for logistics,

66 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools commercial, and retail activities. In Paris, France, the Chapelle International logistics hotel located in the urban area of the city consists of an urban rail terminal and delivery center, offices, restaurants, urban farms, and a school, and it will be complemented by residential development, small offices, public facilities, and commercial areas (Sogaris 2016; Liu and Dablanc 2017). The residential development will be done after the construction of the logistics facility itself, and it is expected that, once this infrastructure is in operation, it will yield a reduction of 700 daily truck trips, reducing the environmental emissions by 50% (Liu and Dablanc 2017). Exhibit 16 sum- marizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU7. Initiative LU8: Relocate LTGs, If Warranted Relocating LTGs could be, under proper circumstances, a valid alternative to reduce some of the externalities produced by the operations of these facilities. Such relocations require careful consideration for any potential unintended effects. Although it is natural for local communities to favor the relocation of LTGs to reduce the impacts of the externalities they produce, previous experience has shown that the relocation may in fact increase these externalities. The case of the Port of New York, discussed in Chapter 2, provides a compelling warning about the potential adverse effects of relocating LTGs. Other experiences have not been as dramatic as the NYC case, but they still offer examples of the unintended consequences of these relocations. During the last several decades, because of land costs, regulations, and traffic conditions, many cities have experienced logistics sprawl. For example, Dablanc and Rakotonarivo (2010) mapped the locations of the 17 largest companies that provided parcel and express transport service to the City of Paris, France, between 1974 and 2008. Over those 35 years, the companies’ freight terminals moved, first from the urban core to the inner suburban ring, and later to the greater metro- politan area. On average, these terminals have moved about 6 miles away from the city center. As a consequence of the additional distance traveled, more than 13,000 tons of carbon dioxide are generated every year. Another example is the relocation of the South Water Produce Market in Chicago, Illinois, to the Chicago International Produce Market. The original market was constructed when horse-drawn vehicles brought produce to market and evolved as trucks were introduced. Over time, as the trucks grew in size, the efficiency of the market declined. In an effort to improve conditions, the market was relocated to a new, more spacious facility that could manage the freight vehicle traffic in the zone more comfortably (WBEZ 2013). Exhibit 17 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU8. Initiative LU9: Create Logistics-Focused Land Banking The main intent of land banking is to save small pieces of land in the hopes that, in the future, they could be put together to execute logistics projects that foster FELUs; or to trade these pieces of land for other tracks of land that could advance FELU. The effective use of land in urban areas is critical to achieving an efficient transportation and supply chain operation. This initiative aims at converting vacant, abandoned, and tax delinquent properties for logistics uses. If done cor- rectly, there will be a reduction of VMT. In addition, this initiative tacitly increases the efficiency of urban logistics activities—by promoting shorter trips and reducing VMT—and fosters a more compact urban form. Exhibit 18 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU9.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 67   Develop a FELU Plan Description: A FELU plan integrates freight activity considerations into a land-use plan so that potential negative impacts from freight activities can be identified at an early planning stage and mitigation plans can be implemented in advance. Addressing logistics land use through comprehensive planning will improve the efficiency of freight activity, and allow land use to be harmonized for all economic sectors while minimizing costs due to externalities caused by freight transportation. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area, Corridor Initiative group: Long-Term Planning: Planning Tools Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, All traffic, Urban deliveries, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Side- walk conflicts, Incompatible land use Expected costs and level of effort: The main effort to develop a FELU plan is engaging stakeholders, since the cost of developing the plan is low. However, the cost of implementing a land-use plan fluctuates depending on the geo- graphic area. Commonly, land costs in urban areas are considerably high. These larger upfront investments of the public sector are balanced with the significant reduction of externalities such as VMT or emissions. High levels of effort and coordination among all stakeholders are required to accurately and effectively plan for logistics land uses. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Producers, Receivers, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission Time to fruition: 6 to 10 years Advantages: • Organizes future land development • Increases employment opportunities • Decreases costs for goods and services • Beneficial to local economy • Improves community livability Disadvantages: • Extensive stakeholder coordination is necessary. • The plan has to be revised and updated over time. • Promotion of education of elected officials to demon- strate the impact of a FELU plan is necessary. Examples: • Paris, France. Three regional plans were developed and reserved areas for freight infrastructure and (re)development in the metropolitan region. This allows the interaction between logistic-intensive land uses and the rest of the land uses (Dablanc 2015b). Source: (Dablanc 2015b) Related land-use initiatives: All land-use initiatives Complementary transportation initiatives: All transportation initiatives References: Federal Highway Administration (2012b); Dablanc (2015b) Exhibit 10. Initiative LU1: Develop a FELU plan.

68 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Implement a FELU Program Description: This program is designed to foster FELU practices in a gradual manner by means of implementing a series of FELU projects. The program may offer resources, such as funding or promoting public-private partnerships. Putting together a set of initiatives to foster FELU will improve the compatibility between logistics facilities and sur- rounding land uses to reduce systematic inefficiencies, logistics sprawl, livability issues due to freight traffic, and liv- ability issues due to freight facilities. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area, Corridor, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Long-Term Planning: Planning Tools Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, All traffic, Urban deliveries, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Side- walk conflicts, Incompatible land uses Expected costs and level of effort: Time and cost will fluctuate based on the number and groups of initiatives to be implemented. In addition, each geographic scope has some local conditions that will impact the cost of implementing a FELU program. Each program should be analyzed on a case-by-case basis to quantify the cost. Stakeholders involved: Producers, Receivers, Developers, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Building Depart- ments, Planning Commission, Public Works Departments, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Reduces the externalities caused by the logistics sec- tor for society • Enhances efficiency of supply chain operations Disadvantages: • Requires a significant effort to involve all the stake- holders • Implementing the FELU program requires educating elected officials so they understand its impact • Risk of not been implemented due to lack of aware- ness Examples: • Ontario, Canada. Freight Efficient Guidelines, adopted in 2016, intertwine tradi- tional land-use planning with freight mobility to respond to the industry needs for freight movement in Ontario. • Paris, France. Charter for Sustainable Logistics signed in 2013, included results of discussions with over 80 parties, including trade agencies, large shippers, and gov- ernmental agencies. The results of these discussions led to the implementation of FELU initiatives (i.e., logistics hotels) (Hotel de Ville de Paris 2013). Source: (Ontario Ministry of Transportation 2016) Related land-use initiatives: All land-use initiatives Complementary transportation initiatives: All transportation initiatives References: Ontario Ministry of Transportation (2016) Exhibit 11. Initiative LU2: Implement a FELU program.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 69   Densify Logistics Activities toward the Urban Core Description: Urban cores typically generate large volumes of freight traffic. Allocating spaces for logistics facilities at or near urban cores will shorten the distance between these facilities and retail locations. Complementary to this initi- ative, it is necessary to redefine the geometric characteristics of roads to allow large vehicle trucks to serve the urban cores. This initiative aims to reduce systematic inefficiencies, logistics sprawl, livability issues due to freight traffic, and livability issues due to freight facilities. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area, Corridor Initiative group: Long-Term Planning: Strategies Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure Expected costs and level of effort: For public agencies, rezoning might be necessary to allow for logistics facilities and to control the activities on the parcel to have a proper balance between logistics and non-logistics activities. Last, it might be necessary to have some subsidies or incentives to encourage logistics firms to relocate. For the private firms they must be willing to relocate to the city center. The rents and facility operation costs may be higher in the city center. Last, cost of operations will be higher if large vehicles cannot access the location at the urban cores. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Receivers, Carriers, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Building Departments, Planning Commission Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Shorter travel distances • Fewer or smaller delivery vehicles can be used • Cleaner freight modes can be used Disadvantages: • Higher facility costs • Potential opposition from local residents • May result in increased urban congestion Examples: • Paris, France. Since 2013, Paris has pursued the reallocation of logistics facilities into the city. The latest Parisian zoning plan accommodates logistics facilities in urban areas (Dablanc 2017b). In addition, there has been a repur- posing of underutilized facilities—such as car parking lots—in urban areas as a micro-distribution center. As an example, the Beaugrenelle logistics hotel, a former parking facility, now operated by Chronopost express—a private carrier—manages 5,000 deliveries per day and the last-mile deliveries are done using a fleet of electric and diesel vans (Dablanc 2015a). Source: (Dablanc 2017b) Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Foster Logistics Mixed Use; Urban Distribution Centers; Multi- story Logistics Developments; Redevelop Underutilized Facilities Complementary transportation initiatives: All transportation initiatives References: Dablanc (2017b) Exhibit 12. Initiative LU3: Densify logistics activities toward the urban core.

70 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Preserve Existing Logistics Land Uses Description: Preserving existing logistics land uses ensures the usage of current logistics locations, mainly situated in urban areas. The objective is to prevent the economical valuation of the land to push logistics facilities to relocate further from the urban core where the demand is concentrated. Maintaining logistics facilities close to demand sources ensures that vehicles do not have to travel prolonged distances to reach costumers. This initiative aims to reduce sys- tematic inefficiencies, logistics sprawl, and livability issues due to freight traffic. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Long-Term Planning: Strategies Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure Expected costs and level of effort: Costs for preserving logistics land uses are minimal. Nonetheless, the level of effort to implement them is high. Council meetings should be held to find agreement among all the stakeholders. Last, to ensure the preservation of existing logistics land uses, planners must secure these land uses through legal means such as zoning ordinances or special districts. Stakeholders involved: Developers, DOTs, Local Communities, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission, Public Works Departments Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Allows a compact urban form; average travel distance of freight vehicles is kept to a minimum • Increases efficiency of logistics activities • Prevents logistics sprawl, therefore reduces systematic inefficiencies of the supply chain (ultimately, prevent- ing an increase in VMT and emissions) Disadvantages: • The level of effort to preserve existing logistics land uses in urban areas is high. Examples: • Los Angeles, CA. As part of efforts to preserve existing land-use areas, the City of Los Angeles promotes improve- ments in existing infrastructure, the growth and modernization of the Port of Los Angeles, and private business expansion (Department of City Planning and Community Redevelopment Agency of the City of Los Angeles 2007). • Seattle, WA. The city came up with an agreement with King County regarding the construction of a new basketball arena on industrially zoned land. Both parties agreed to policies that would help maintain the industrial land use of the surrounding area (City of Seattle 2012). Source: (Department of City Planning and Community Redevelopment Agency of the City of Los Angeles 2007; City of Seattle 2012) Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Use Overlay Zoning to Foster FELU; Use Hybrid Zoning to Foster FELU; Create Special Purpose Districts Complementary transportation initiatives: All transportation initiatives References: Seattle Department of Construction and Inspection (2005); Department of City Planning and Community Redevelopment Agency of the City of Los Angeles (2007); Federal Highway Administration (2012b); Ontario Ministry of Transportation (2016) Exhibit 13. Initiative LU4: Preserve existing logistics land uses.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 71   Logistics Land Reserves Description: Reserving land near important logistics facilities, such as major distribution centers, will enable their expansion when needed. This makes it easier to build infrastructure and develop policies to support FELU. This initi- ative aims to reduce systematic inefficiencies, logistics sprawl, and livability issues due to freight traffic. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Long-Term Planning: Strategies Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure Expected costs and level of effort: There could be a high upfront cost to the public sector to acquire and hold land. However, if implemented appropriately, the cost is mitigated in the long term due to reduction in externalities produced by freight transportation. It is necessary to determine the amount of land to be reserved, which varies based on the type of facility. The level of effort of implementation is high given all of the stakeholders involved. Stakeholders involved: Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: Varies based on how far in advance the reservation takes place Advantages: • Allows coordination between freight planners and pol- icymakers • Promotes sustainable freight by decreasing future ex- ternalities on surrounding areas • Increases efficiency of freight industry Disadvantages: • The level of effort to implement this initiative is high. • Economic development opportunities could be limited for communities. • Community members may view the preservation of land as a wasted opportunity to use the land. Examples: • Chicago, IL. With the Chicago Industrial Corridor Program, conducted in the 1990s, the city created manufacturing districts to preserve favorable areas for industrial land use to be used in 2020. Source: (Federal Highway Administration 2012b; City of Chicago 2019a) Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Implement a FELU Program; Use Overlay Zoning to Foster FELU; Use Hybrid Zoning to Foster FELU; Use Planned Unit Developments to Foster FELU; Educate Practitioners on FELU Principles Complementary transportation initiatives: Create a Freight Advisory Committee; Educate Elected Officials on the Importance of FELUs; Freight Cluster Development References: Federal Highway Administration (2012b); City of Chicago (2019a) Exhibit 14. Initiative LU5: Logistics land reserves.

72 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Co-Location of Auxiliary Facilities near Major Gateways Description: Major gateways, such as ports, rely on auxiliary facilities, such as empty container yards and truck ter- minals, for their operations. By locating auxiliary facilities close to the gateway, freight vehicles will need to travel shorter distances to access these facilities, which enhances the overall efficiency and minimizes the externalities pro- duced. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Long-Term Planning: Strategies Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure Expected costs and level of effort: Costs vary based on the level of preparation, the number of auxiliary facilities to implement, and their purpose. The initiative requires a moderate level of effort to implement by coordinating all the stakeholders involved. Earlier planning requires more effort, but can decrease costs of implementation. Stakeholders involved: Carriers, Receivers, Producers, Developers Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Increases efficiency of logistics activity • Makes better use of land in the surrounding areas • Decreases externalities by reducing distances traveled Disadvantages: • Prior planning needed to implement • Possibility of having many stakeholders and not being able to identify all of them • Risk of not having available land for auxiliary facili- ties Examples: • Yokohama, Japan. Auxiliary facilities were strategically planned to be located near the port, which is a major gate- way for the country. • The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey on its 2050 Master Plan considers the location of warehouses and logistics facilities close to the terminals (Port Authority of New York and New Jersey 2019a). Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Logistics Land Reserves; Preserve Existing Logistics Land Uses; Freight Cluster Development Complementary transportation initiatives: All transportation initiatives References: Cheung (1991); Edgington (1991); Yokohama Port Corporation (2020) Source: (Yokohama Port Corporation 2020) Exhibit 15. Initiative LU6: Co-location of auxiliary facilities near major gateways.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 73   Foster Logistics Mixed Use Description: By allowing the mixture of traditional and logistics land uses, the available areas allocated for logistics uses in metropolitan areas increases, and the cost of land for logistics activities in urban areas decreases. The mixed land-use incentivizes shorter VMT and reduces logistics sprawl. This initiative allows for more efficient logistics activity. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Long-Term Planning: Strategies Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure Expected costs and level of effort: For public agencies: • Zoning changes may be required to allow mixed-use facilities to exist in specific urban areas. • It requires effort to implement, such as dealing with local communities or changing zoning codes. For private firms: • Costs to developers are significant considering how logistics land rents are not as profitable compared with com- mercial or residential uses. • It could require a public-private partnership to be economically feasible. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Receivers, Carriers, Developers, Building Departments, Planning Com- mission, Public Works Departments Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Increases the efficiency of logistics activities in urban areas • Reduces VMT and logistics sprawl Disadvantages: • High initial cost • Requires a high level of effort to implement • May result in increased truck traffic • Additional safety considerations need to be consid- ered due to a mix of uses Examples: • Paris, France. Mixed-use logistics facilities located in urban areas are currently in operation. These logistics facilities foster the combination of mixed uses, such as commercial, residential and parkland, with logistics uses (Dablanc 2016c; IFSTTAR 2018). Source: (Dablanc 2017b) Related land-use initiatives: Densify Logistics Activities toward the Urban Core; Multistory Logistics Developments; Urban Consolidation Centers; Urban Distribution Centers; Multimodal Logistics Developments; Use Overlay Zoning to Foster FELU; Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation Complementary transportation initiatives: Enhanced Traffic Impact Analysis; Timeshare of Parking Space References: Dablanc (2016c); Dablanc (2017b); IFSTTAR (2018) Exhibit 16. Initiative LU7: Foster logistics mixed use.

74 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Relocate LTGs, If Warranted Description: This initiative involves moving LTGs to proper locations to change the pattern of freight generation and optimize the overall functioning of the urban freight system. LTGs are specific facilities that house a significant number of businesses that collectively receive a large number of deliveries, such as airports, ports, container terminals, govern- ment offices, colleges and universities, hospitals, and large buildings. This initiative aims to reduce livability issues due to freight traffic and freight facilities. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area, Corridor, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Long-Term Planning: Strategies Problem source: LTGs Expected costs and level of effort: The implementation of this program requires a multi-layered, multi-stakeholder collaborative approach to gain substantial business support. To implement this initiative, public incentives or other taxation strategies may be needed. Besides the relocation costs, LTGs must allocate areas for parking and loading and unloading zones. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Producers, Receivers, Developers Time to fruition: 6 to 10 years Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Reduces operational costs • Less cost in terms of land use • Reduces curbside occupation time Disadvantages: • Very high or high probability for unintended conse- quences such as: environmental impacts associated with new construction, induced urban and logistics sprawl, and increased VMT • Land regulations may not allow for LTG relocation • May require developing incentives or other taxation policies Examples: • Belo Horizonte, Brazil (Turblog) • Paris, France (C-LIEGE) • Chicago, IL. Relocation of the South Water Produce Mar- ket to the Chicago International Produce Market (Chicago In 4D 2016) Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – CITE) Related land-use initiatives: Provide Land Subsidies or Grants; Use Tax Incentives to Foster FELU. Complementary transportation initiatives: N/A References: Hartgen et al. (2014); Holguín-Veras et al. (2015); Chicago In 4D (2016) Exhibit 17. Initiative LU8: Relocate LTGs, if warranted.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 75   Create Logistics-Focused Land Banking Description: Land banking has been used to convert vacant, abandoned, and tax delinquent properties for logistics uses. Nonetheless, this initiative can be extended to all different types of parcel conditions. This initiative may be useful for the development of logistics clusters, for preserving land near critical facilities, or for encouraging freight facilities in urban core. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Long-Term Planning: Strategies Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Incompatible land uses Expected costs and level of effort: It will require a high level of effort and cost to locate lands and rehabilitate them to accommodate this new type of logistics facilities. In addition, it requires a high level of coordination among stake- holders to create logistics-focused land banking. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Developers, Committees on Ways and Means, Regional Planning Agen- cies, Planning Commission, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Reduces congestion and pollution by minimizing the VMT • Increases efficiency of logistics activity • Promotes a compact urban form Disadvantages: • Could offer challenges in operation and maintenance of the lands • Land values can fluctuate significantly Examples: • Associated British Ports (ABP) reserves sites around 21 ports and has a landbank of over 960 hectares for logistics uses (ABP Property 2020). • Allcargo Logistics in India uses their land bank to develop strategically located warehouses and logistics facilities (The Economic Times 2018). Source: (ABP Property 2020) Related land-use initiatives: Densify Logistics Activities toward Urban Core; Co-Location of Auxiliary Facilities near Major Gateways; Freight Cluster Development Complementary transportation initiatives: N/A References: Automotive Logistics (2017); The Economic Times (2018); ABP Property (2020) Exhibit 18. Initiative LU9: Create logistics-focused land banking.

76 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools 7.2 Zoning This group of initiatives uses zoning tools as a way to enhance freight movements in urban areas and to reduce negative externalities caused by freight movements. To achieve such objec- tives, zoning tools establish adequate design specifications to accommodate freight traffic, restrict certain features in a given area to minimize negative externalities or conflicts with freight movements, or ensure sufficient area for freight-related facilities. There are two types of tools: regulatory controls and discretionary approaches. 7.2.1 Regulatory Controls Initiative LU10: Use Overlay Zoning to Foster FELU Overlay zoning creates a new designated geography (e.g., a set of properties with a specific boundary) layered on top of pre-existing zoning, with supplementary requirements, in addition to the requirements for the existing zones. The supplementary regulations are typically stricter than those for the underlying zoning. For instance, the overlay zoning can preserve areas around freight facilities from conversion to other uses (e.g., residential use) that the freight facili- ties may have undesirable effects on. In some cases, the supplementary requirements may allow exemptions (e.g., structures for shared parking areas). The City of Baltimore, Maryland, adopted the overlay zoning for a special district, the Maritime Industrial Zoning Overlay District (MIZOD), to preserve land areas explicitly for maritime industries (Envision Freight 2010). Exhibit 19 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU10. Initiative LU11: Use Form-Based Zoning to Foster FELU Conventional zoning (also referred to as Euclidean zoning) focuses on defining separate uses for the land. As an alternative to conventional zoning, several cities have adopted a form-based zoning approach, which bridges the gap between the future form of developments and zoning. Form-based zoning regulates development by building form rather than land use, using explicit requirements for structures and surrounding open space that pertain to logistics activities. FELU considerations can be easily incorporated to adjust space requirements and needs for logistics activity, the relationship between structures and entryways, on-site parking adjust- ments, and so forth. The City of Bloomington, Illinois, adopted the form-based code for the Gridley, Allin, and Prickett (GAP) Neighborhood to specify building form standards, including street frontage, setbacks, parking, and loading area (City of Bloomington 2007). Exhibit 20 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU11. Initiative LU12: Use Hybrid Zoning to Foster FELU Hybrid zoning combines conventional zoning with other zoning (e.g., form-based zoning) approaches to meet the needs of the community. In other words, in the context of FELU, this initiative can specify structural and open space requirements needed for logistics activities in addition to traditional zoning requirements. The City of Albany, New York, adopted hybrid zoning specifying detailed site requirements for various land uses, including general industrial and light industrial sites to accommodate freight activities successfully (City of Albany 2017). Exhibit 21 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU12. 7.2.2 Discretionary Approaches Initiative LU13: Create Special Purpose Districts A special purpose district is established to meet the specific needs of a defined area, or to achieve specific objectives. For instance, the city authority may establish special purpose districts

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 77   to preserve historical features, prevent developments in potential disaster risk areas, revitalize underutilized areas, or achieve a balance between residential and commercial features in a given area. In the context of FELU, the special purpose district can be designed for freight efficiency by restricting certain building types, or by supporting the transportation of goods. The City of Portland, Oregon, defines Freight Districts to facilitate truck mobility and access. Within the Freight Districts, adequate lane width, minimum vertical clearance as well as other features (e.g., signs, trees) are specified to accommodate heavy truck traffic (City of Portland Bureau of Plan- ning and Sustainability 2010). Exhibit 22 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU13. Initiative LU14: Use Planned Unit Developments to Foster FELU Planned unit developments (PUDs) help to ease zoning restrictions for developers to meet specific needs and compromises with nearby neighborhoods without being bound by existing requirements. PUDs provide a unique opportunity to implement FELU goals and concepts with minimal regulatory hurdles, while at the same time setting requirements and policies that reduce the negative impacts of freight on local communities and other road users. This may also result in the creation of a floating overlay district during the development stage. One example of PUD guidelines that work to facilitate freight movements is those for the Hansen Industrial Park in Sacramento, created in 1978. These guidelines incorporate specific language regarding loading docks, setbacks, and measures to reduce conflicts between trucks and other traffic (The Tioga Group et al. 2007). Exhibit 23 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU14. Initiative LU15: Enhance Subdivision Regulations Suburban areas that experience more intense freight activities are sometimes designed with little concern about their impact on surrounding communities. To limit these impacts and pre- vent further conflicts, subdivision regulations can be enacted or modified. Subdivision regula- tions can help ensure freight-efficient site design by preventing potential conflicts prior to the onset of development. This is a blanket term, and can refer to minimum space and setback requirements, urban deliveries, truck parking, land-use compatibility, utility connections, or anything else that may be necessary for efficient operation of an industrial area. While there are few examples of subdivision regulations that were explicitly enacted for the purpose of freight movement, many municipalities have legal codes that incorporate these concepts. Exhibit 24 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU15.

78 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Use Overlay Zoning to Foster FELU Description: Overlay zoning creates a new designated geography (e.g., a set of properties with a specific boundary). This initiative specifies supplementary requirements in addition to the existing zoning requirements to reduce logistics sprawl and livability issues due to freight facilities or freight traffic. It can be used in special industrial areas to preserve these from other uses or to incubate industrial activities. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Zoning: Regulatory Controls Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Incompatible land uses Expected costs and level of effort: For public agencies: • Requires a change in zoning code • Assuming zoning ordinance already exists, potential cost to modify existing ordinance For private firms: • Overlay zoning may significantly affect land values • Requires staff dedicated to applying for the required changes with the planning office Stakeholders involved: Developers, Producers, Planning Commission Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Preserves industrial areas from conversion to other uses (residential, etc.) • Can keep industrial areas near freight facilities Disadvantages: • Desirable real estate may become restricted • Possibility of opposition from developers and com- mercial interests Examples: • MIZOD, Baltimore, MD. The MIZOD identifies deep-water channels in industrial areas and reserves the land around them for industrial use. Waterfront mixed-use developments were threatening maritime industries in Balti- more. With the MIZOD, maritime industries have longer-term security and an incentive to upgrade their facilities. Related land-use initiatives: Use Hybrid Zoning to Foster FELU; Site and Building Design; Preserve Existing Logis- tics Land Uses; Densify Logistics Activities; Foster Logistics Mixed Use; Freight Cluster Development Complementary transportation initiatives: Parking and Loading Areas Management; Freight Demand Management References: Lemke (2010) Exhibit 19. Initiative LU10: Use overlay zoning to foster FELU.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 79   Use Form-Based Zoning to Foster FELU Description: Form-based zoning regulates development by building form instead of land use, using explicit require- ments for structures and surrounding open space that pertain to logistics activities. FELU considerations can be easily incorporated to adjust space requirements and needs, the relationship between structures and entryways, and on-site parking adjustments, etc. This initiative aims to reduce logistics sprawl and livability issues due to freight-related traffic and facilities Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Zoning: Regulatory Controls Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Incompatible land uses Expected costs and level of effort: This initiative requires a moderate to high amount of effort due to the public outreach required to develop a code in response to local needs. Additionally, collaboration and consensus between local public agencies and private developers are required. The combined costs of public outreach and collaboration are not particularly high, but the process can be time-consuming. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission Time to fruition: 6 to 10 years Advantages: • Fosters regulated development patterns with the con- sideration of the built environment • Promotes mixed-use developments • Provides more flexible approaches than conventional zoning • Produces structures and open spaces specifically crafted by the community Disadvantages: • It may not provide a “one-size-fits-all” approach. • Community influences have proven to reject freight activities where they are needed and assign them to the remote edges of the region, causing significant ex- ternalities • It requires collaboration and consensus between local public agencies and private developers. Examples: • City of Bloomington, IL. The city has adopted the form-based code for the Gridley, Allin, and Prickett (GAP) Neighborhood to specify building form standards including street frontage, setbacks, parking and loading area, and driveways (City of Bloomington 2007). Related land-use initiatives: Use Hybrid Zoning to Foster FELU; Site and Building Design; Freight Cluster Devel- opment; Foster Logistics Mixed Use Complementary transportation initiatives: Freight Demand Management References: City of Bloomington (2007); Federal Highway Administration (2012b); Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning (2013) Exhibit 20. Initiative LU11: Use form-based zoning to foster FELU.

80 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Use Hybrid Zoning to Foster FELU Description: Hybrid zoning integrates traditional Euclidean zoning with other zoning approaches (e.g., form-based zon- ing) to meet the needs of the community. For example, it can be used to maintain traditional zoning regulations, while adding specific structural and open space requirements needed for logistics activities through the implementation of form- based zoning. This initiative aims to reduce logistics sprawl and livability issues due to freight-related traffic and facilities. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Zoning: Regulatory Controls Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Incompatible land uses Expected costs and level of effort: This initiative requires a moderate to high amount of effort due to the public outreach necessary to develop a code in response to local needs. Additionally, collaboration and consensus between local public agencies and private developers are required. The combined costs of public outreach and collaboration are not particularly high, but the process can be time-consuming. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission Time to fruition: 6 to 10 years Advantages: • Allows more flexibility than the form-based code • Allows keeping conventional zoning Disadvantages: • May not provide a “one-size-fits-all” approach • Requires collaboration and consensus between local public agencies and private developers Examples: • Albany, NY. The city has adopted the hybrid code specifying detailed site requirements for various land uses, includ- ing general industrial and light industrial sites to accommodate freight activities successfully (City of Albany 2017). Source: (City of Albany 2017) Related land-use initiatives: Use Overlay Zoning to Foster FELU; Form-Based Zoning to Foster FELU; Site and Building Design; Freight Cluster Development Complementary transportation initiatives: Parking and Loading Areas Management; Freight Demand Management References: Municipal Research and Services Center (MRSC) (2012); Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning (2013); City of Albany (2017) Exhibit 21. Initiative LU12: Use hybrid zoning to foster FELU.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 81   Create Special Purpose Districts Description: Special districts or special purpose districts with defined boundaries are created by local governments to meet the specific needs of a given area. Most districts are developed to provide a single function, such as to support a particular business activity. These districts can have governing boards. Districts designed for freight efficiency could, for example, restrict certain building types, or support truck traffic. Special purpose districts can better meet the needs of freight, reduce logistics sprawl, and enhance livability. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Zoning: Discretionary Approaches Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Large trucks, LTGs, Incompatible land uses Expected costs and level of effort: Implementation of special districts requires coordination of many stakeholders to consider the local needs of an area, which may require a moderate to high amount of effort. Special districts require a governing body, so efforts may include selecting board members. These districts can be developed as part of larger regional master plans. Costs of creating a special purpose district are linked directly to funding the coordination efforts and governing body. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission, Legis- lative Branch Time to fruition: 6 to 10 years Advantages: • Supports localized needs • Offers more timely and responsive planning than larger governmental areas • Enhances freight efficiency Disadvantages: • Requires multi-stakeholder engagement • Can impede regional planning Examples: • Special Hunts Point District in South Bronx, NY. This district restricts development of industries outside of the food sector and provides a buffer between industry and residential (City of New York 2008). • Freight District in Portland, OR. This district designates streets for local truck circulation, and improves access by, for example, removing geographic constraints (City of Portland 2006). Related land-use initiatives: Use Overlay Zoning to Foster FELU; Use Hybrid Zoning to Foster FELU; Site and Building Design; Freight Cluster Development Complementary transportation initiatives: Parking and Loading Areas Management; Freight Demand Management References: City of Portland (2006); City of New York (2008); Senate Local Government Committee (2010); Sonoma Local Agency Formation Commission (2019) Source: (City of New York 2008) Exhibit 22. Initiative LU13: Create special purpose districts.

82 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Use Planned Unit Developments to Foster FELU Description: A PUD is a type of building development that allows the developer to meet specific needs without being restricted to traditional highly structured zoning requirements. PUDs provide a unique opportunity to foster FELU by means of implementing FELU goals and concepts so that logistics activities, both internal and external to the PUD, are as efficient as possible. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Zoning: Discretionary Approaches Problem source: Double-parking, Other parking issues, Sidewalks conflicts, Incompatible land uses Expected costs and level of effort: For public agencies: • The level of effort to implement this initiative is moderate. An agreement must be reached with the developers of the PUD to incorporate measures that foster FELU. Several rounds of discussions with the stakeholders and with public forums should be done to analyze, anticipate, and correct any drawbacks the initiative may have. • The monetary cost for implementation is small. For private firms: • This initiative has variable costs for the private sector. Depending on what is agreed on in the discussions, there could be minor or major changes on infrastructure. However, for the general case, costs are expected to be moder- ate. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Developers, DOTs, Committees on Ways and Means, Regional Planning Agencies Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Reduces conflicts between road users • Increases logistics efficiency Disadvantages: • Compromises may need to be made to reach an agree- ment with all the stakeholders. Examples: • Hansen Industrial Park: PUD Guidelines, City of Sacramento, CA. To create a buffer between residential uses and industrial activities, the City of Sacramento established a set of PUD guidelines in 1978 that allowed for ware- housing and materials transfer uses, with offices as incidental uses to these operations. The guidelines provide for specific landscape treatments and landscaping guidelines prohibit the parking of trucks on public streets. In addi- tion, there is specific language for setbacks, building design and loading docks. Measures to reduce the conflicts between uses include the side of buildings facing the east property line being solid wall construction. In addition, loading docks along the east side of the PUD are prohibited (Center for Land Use Education 2005). Related land-use initiatives: Use Overlay Zoning to Foster FELU; Form-Based Zoning to Foster FELU; Use Hybrid Zoning to Foster FELU; Enhance Subdivision Regulations; Site and Building Design Complementary transportation initiatives: Parking and Loading Areas Management; Freight Demand Management References: Armstrong (1992); Center for Land Use Education (2005) Exhibit 23. Initiative LU14: Use planned unit developments to foster FELU.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 83   Enhance Subdivision Regulations Description: Subdivision regulations ensure proper site design and supporting facilities, such as parking areas for freight vehicles, by regulating the subdivision of land and establishing minimum requirements for subdivision and platting. These can be enhanced for specific accommodations within the proposed development for freight activities (e.g., truck parking). Developing these regulations increases the efficiency of freight activity, reducing the impacts of urban deliveries, parking issues, and incompatible land uses. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Zoning: Discretionary Approaches Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Incompatible land uses Expected costs and level of effort: For public agencies, it requires enacting new laws. For private firms, it requires additional freight accommodations and may increase the cost and space required for developments. Stakeholders involved: Developers, Producers, Regional Planning Agencies, Building Departments, Planning Com- mission, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Ensures freight activities will have enough space to occur • Reduces the impacts of freight activities on surround- ing properties Disadvantages: • Extra land is required for industrial developments • May increase the cost and “red tape” required for de- velopment Examples: • Current legal codes that provide subdivision regulation for better access to roads, sewer facilities, utilities, etc. See Tennessee Code, in sections 13-4-303 and 13-3-403, Michigan City’s Subdivision Control Ordinance, and Flori- da's Plat Act, Chapter 177, F.S. as examples of such regulations. Related land-use initiatives: Site and Building Design Complementary transportation initiatives: Parking and Loading areas Management; Freight Demand Management References: Florida Cities and Counties (1993); Tennessee Department of Economic and Community Development (2005); City of Michigan City Indiana (2011) Exhibit 24. Initiative LU15: Enhance subdivision regulations.

84 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools 7.3 Site and Building Design These initiatives within the site and building design group seek to minimize or eliminate if possible the negative effects of freight activity on the surrounding communities by changes in the design of sites and buildings. Designers of existing buildings, particularly old ones, placed more emphasis on convenience for their tenants than on the possible impacts of freight activity on the surrounding communities. 7.3.1 Site Initiative LU16: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design Context-sensitive planning and design seeks to consider all stakeholders’ perspectives and especially community needs to foster multi-disciplinary solutions that ensure that the new development is in harmony with the stakeholders and surrounding environment. These consid- erations are essential to promote faster approval processes for projects, and reduce community opposition; thus, reducing the overall cost of the project (Institute of Transportation Engineers 2006). Many cities have already implemented this initiative as part of their planning process. For example, Delaware City, Delaware, engaged stakeholders through workshops and committees and gave them an opportunity to participate in the design of the city (Institute for Public Admin- istration 2013). Delaware City applied the context-sensitive planning and design approaches to neighborhood plans, the revitalization of downtown, and improvements in roadways preserving historical features. Exhibit 25 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU16. Initiative LU17: Use Conditional Use Requirements to Foster FELU A conditional use requirement is a zoning exception that allows property owners use of their land in a way that is not otherwise permitted within the particular zoning district (FreeAdvice Legal 2020). This initiative seeks to exploit conditional use requirement’s legal power to require that real estate developers, building owners, tenants, and their suppliers implement FELU and transportation initiatives. In a way, conditional use requirements are a good complement to TIA studies (also known as traffic impact studies). The joint use of conditional use requirements and TIA is bound to be effective in ensuring that local communities are not impacted by freight activity. The conditional use requirements could include, for instance, the implementation of a freight traffic management plan to minimize the freight traffic, or require that deliveries be made during the off hours, using noise delivery equipment and practices if noise is an issue, or using environmentally friendly vehicles. In relation to the design of the building, the conditional use requirements may include a suitable number of loading docks, freight ramps, and freight elevators to accommodate the movement of goods to and from the building. Generally, this initiative can be easily considered in the design of new buildings, or the renovation of major buildings. However, old buildings are constrained by their size and the current distribution of the facility. The use of conditional use requirements could improve the efficiency of freight movements, reduce congestion and emissions, and contribute to the reduction of parking issues and thus, improve the safety of pedestrians and reduce conflicts with non-freight vehicles. An example of this program has been carried out in the City of London. Transport for London (2019b) has incorporated a Delivery and Servicing Plan (DSP) to reduce unnecessary trips, and to improve the efficiency of the logistics operations and safety. Exhibit 26 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU17. Initiative LU18: Require Provision of Buffers This initiative is intended to reduce impacts of incompatible adjacent land uses, and it is also commonly used to protect nature from the urbanization of the cities. Buffers can be provided in

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 85   multiple ways, such as buffer zones, setbacks, and planting strips, and they can be implemented to reduce negative impacts produced by logistics activities on surrounding communities. Buffer zones are used to separate areas in buildings or developments, which can be especially useful to provide separation between activities when land uses are different. Setbacks contribute to safety in the front, side and rear areas of a building; they can protect facilities that are located near highways, streets, or other buildings, from traffic, noise, or other unsafe conditions (City of West Hollywood 2019). Planting strips are not only useful to beautify the surrounding area but also to reduce externalities produced by logistics facilities and provide safety to pedestrians (Seattle Department of Transportation 2017). Such areas require the development of regulations to determine the minimum distances around areas, and local considerations regarding trees and vegetation, and other requirements. Also, it must be ensured that buffers do not impact travel for commercial vehicles, including the ingress and egress to freight facilities. For instance, the City of West Hollywood includes, in its municipal code, setback requirements to reduce impacts due to incompatible land uses, and at the same time to improve traffic safety, visibility and accessibility to facilities (City of West Hollywood 2019). Exhibit 27 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU18. 7.3.2 Building Initiative LU19: Redevelop Underutilized Facilities The Redevelop Underutilized Facilities initiative gives new life to old buildings or under- utilized facilities. These properties may be left vacant by previous tenants due to a number of reasons. The key reasons are facilities within the property are outdated, the activity provided by the property is no longer popular or relevant, and there is a surplus of properties providing similar activity. Facilities that have been closed, such as abandoned factories, closed down retail malls, and empty offices can be reused to enhance the productivity of the location. In addition, facilities, such as stadium parking lots, that are underutilized during periods of need for freight activity could be used for some freight activity. This initiative is especially effective for improv- ing freight efficiency in dense urban areas where there is insufficient space and facilities for freight movement and high demand for freight deliveries. There is no need to allocate an empty space for logistics activity in order to meet the high demand for freight deliveries; instead, this initiative proposes to repurpose an existing building that is underutilized for the same purpose. Converting underutilized facilities in these areas to sites for logistics activity, such as ware- houses or distribution centers can reduce overall cost and externalities as the overall VMT can be reduced, the length of last-mile deliveries are shortened, and clean vehicles can be adopted for last-mile delivery. Exhibit 28 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU19. Initiative LU20: Require Provision for Logistics Areas All businesses received deliveries regularly, some more often than the others. In recent years, due to the popularity of e-commerce, there is a growing trend of many households receiving deliveries, too. Requiring a provision for logistics area is especially important for LTGs, such as office towers, retail malls, or residential buildings. A large number of deliveries are attracted to these facilities, and the goods that come with these deliveries have to be stored, inspected, sorted, and distributed within a building. In the recent past, many buildings had a mail center area, where letters or documents were received and delivered to each recipient (Whole Building Design Guide 2019); regrettably most of those have been phased out. The advent of e-commerce has created tremendous complications, particularly, at residential buildings that were not designed to receive deliveries. The lack of logistics spaces, such as a delivery reception area, forces the person making the delivery to make use of public spaces, such as a sidewalk, for storing and sorting before delivery. In addition, Jaller et al. (2013b) suggested that centralized deliveries can

86 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools be implemented to minimize unnecessary goods movements within the building. This require- ment of the provision of a logistics space may be implemented as part of a design requirement that is mandatory or voluntary for the developer to comply with the design of new buildings. However, for older buildings, it may be more difficult to find suitable areas inside the building to accommodate freight activity. This initiative facilitates the planning and implementation of other freight demand management tools, such as trusted vendor certification and off-hour delivery (OHD) programs (Holguín-Veras et al. 2017d). Exhibit 29 summarizes essential char- acteristics of Initiative LU20. Initiative LU21: Require Provision of Off-Street Loading and Parking Areas Requiring a minimum amount of off-street loading and parking areas for buildings or site developments will reduce parking issues, such as double-parking, sidewalk conflicts, and the congestion produced by freight deliveries. Loading docks and parking areas should be required in some developments, with the right amount and size to allow trucks to deliver the goods with operational efficiency (Rhodes et al. 2012). This initiative is easier to implement for new buildings; however, old facilities with small spaces will have limitations. Hence, public agencies need to provide additional spaces in the zone to allow the logistics activity to take place without inter- rupting pedestrian or vehicle traffic in the area. Exhibit 30 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU21. Initiative LU22: Enhance Building Codes and Design Guidelines to Support FELU Many city buildings were not designed to handle current truck sizes and freight traffic volumes (Department for Transport 2010b). In addition, building codes, in many jurisdictions, do not require that buildings include provisions for FELU, even if the building has a large amount of freight activity. This initiative updates building codes in a municipality to require adequate provi- sions for freight activity and accommodate future freight needs. Updates could include but are not limited to requiring a certain number of loading docks based on occupancy type and square footage, freight elevators, and parking lots and driveways with wide curve radii. These updates can improve the efficiency of logistics activity for all future construction within a jurisdiction. Changes like this are often performed as part of normal building code updates and may not be highlighted as something to improve freight operations. One effort to incorporate freight into the legal framework is Louisville, Kentucky’s, Motor Vehicle Parking and Loading Standards, which specify a minimum amount of loading berths as part of a building’s parking requirements (Land Development Code 2006). Exhibit 31 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU22.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 87   Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design Description: Context-sensitive planning can help with the design of logistics facilities to consider the community needs, and mitigate livability issues, while promoting FELU practices. As a result, facilities can be integrated with the surrounding environment, avoiding the conflicts of nimbyism that often stop logistics facilities inside cities. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Site and Building: Site Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Sidewalk conflicts Expected costs and level of effort: This initiative involves a multi-stakeholder effort, especially as it pertains to com- munity efforts to recognize and address their needs. The consideration of different perspectives requires an active par- ticipation in the early stages so that projects can be approved and implemented faster. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission, Public Works Departments Time to fruition: 6 to 10 years Advantages: • Enhances long-term planning decisions • Improves community engagement • Enhances community quality of life • Reduces community opposition when implementing a project Disadvantages: • Requires the coordination of multiple stakeholders • Tangible benefits are not immediate Examples: • Brandywine Valley Scenic Byway in Delaware considered citizens’ concerns in a roadway repair to preserve veg- etation and safety conditions (Institute for Public Administration 2013). • Port of Seattle Central Waterfront included public forums for the participation of citizens and considered their suggestions in the planning process of the waterfront (City Design 2006). Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Form-Based Zoning to Foster FELU; Use Hybrid Zoning to Foster FELU; Implement Community Engagement Programs; Enhance Building Codes and Design Guidelines to Sup- port FELU Complementary transportation initiatives: Create a Freight Advisory Committee; Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies References: City Design (2006); Institute of Transportation Engineers (2006); Federal Highway Administration (2012b); Institute for Public Administration (2013); Ontario Ministry of Transportation (2016) Source: (Institute for Public Administration 2013) Source: (City Design 2006) Exhibit 25. Initiative LU16: Foster context-sensitive planning and design.

88 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Use Conditional Use Requirements to Foster FELU Description: Developers and business owners are required to legally incorporate the consideration of freight move- ments in the design of parcels and buildings throughout conditional plans. This initiative primarily targets at new builds or renovation of major buildings. Key considerations include (1) managing the number of freight trips and service trips that will arrive at the building, and their delivery times; (2) separating freight, pedestrian, and other non-freight traffic to reduce conflicts and improve the overall safety of all traffic movement within the site; and (3) seamless movement of freight between freight vehicle and the receiver. The public sector may consider incorporating these requirements as part of the submission of site plans or traffic studies. Geographic scope: Parcel, Building Initiative group: Site and Building: Site Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Sidewalk conflicts Expected costs and level of effort: For public agencies, officers need to be familiar with the impacts of freight activity on the transportation system, so that they properly revise the requirements. For private firms, their plan(s) must specify a proposal to meet the conditional use requirements; the level of effort and costs to implement the plan will depend on their proposal. For new developments, considering freight movements as part of the design is unlikely to increase overall costs significantly. For old buildings, the costs are associated with modifying the design of existing facilities. For instance, the addition of a freight ramp would have a low cost, while the inclusion of loading docks or freight elevators would have a relatively high cost. Stakeholders involved: Receivers, Carriers, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission, Public Works Departments Time to fruition: Less than a year Advantages: • Improves efficiency of freight movements • Improves reliability in freight deliveries • Enhances safety • Reduces logistics costs • Reduces emissions Disadvantages: • Potential for high implementation costs for refurbish- ment of old buildings • Difficult to enforce implementation of soft measures Examples: • Delivery and Servicing Plan (DSP) in the City of London, UK, provides guide- lines related with the movement of goods to and from the buildings to minimize the impacts of freight activity (Transport for London 2019b). Source: (Transport for London 2019b) Related land-use initiatives: Require Provision of Buffers; Require Provision for Logistics Area; Require Provision of Off-Street Loading and Parking Areas; Create Special Purpose Districts; Use Planned Unit Developments to Foster FELU Complementary transportation initiatives: Enhanced Traffic Impact Analysis; Freight Demand Management; Ramps for Handcarts and Forklifts References: Regional Plan Association and Volvo Research & Educational Foundations (2016); City of London (2017); Transport for London (2019b, 2019a); United States Access Board (2019) Exhibit 26. Initiative LU17: Use conditional use requirements to foster FELU.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 89   Require Provision of Buffers Description: Buffer zones, setbacks, and planting strips are used as transition zones to reduce real or perceived negative impacts produced by logistics activity on surrounding areas, especially when the adjacent zone has different land uses. For example, residential areas that are close to an industrial site can have these buffers to reduce the noise and pollution caused by the industrial activity. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Site and Building: Site Problem source: All traffic, Large trucks, LTGs, Sidewalk conflicts Expected costs and level of effort: The initiative might require some efforts in providing design standards and in enforcing the implementation of buffer zones. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Developers, Building Departments, Planning Commission, Public Works Departments, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: Less than a year Advantages: • Reduces noise • Enhances safety • Improves sustainability Disadvantages: • May requires building to have more levels and cost more to construct • Might require updating regulations • Unintended consequences: - May negatively affect truck access if not properly planned Examples: • Critical area buffer code, City of Bellevue, WA (City of Bellevue 2019) • City of Eugene land-use code (City of Eugene 2018) • Setback requirements code, West Hollywood, CA (City of West Hollywood 2019) Source: (City of West Hollywood 2019) Related land-use initiatives: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Densify Logistics Activities toward the Urban Core; Preserve Existing Logistics Land Uses; Foster Logistics Mixed Use; Zoning Complementary transportation initiatives: Low Noise Delivery Programs and Regulations References: McLean (1960); City of Eugene (2018); City of Bellevue (2019); City of West Hollywood (2019) Exhibit 27. Initiative LU18: Require provision of buffers.

90 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Redevelop Underutilized Facilities Description: Adapting existing underutilized or older sites for logistics uses provides more infrastructure to improve freight system efficiency. This is especially important in high-density areas, such as the urban core, where there are insufficient logistics facilities to supply the high demand for freight activities. Reusing these old facilities reduces the need to look for new land to improve the efficiency of a supply chain. In dense urban areas, redeveloping underutilized facilities for logistics uses shortens the last-mile delivery. Geographic scope: Parcel, Building Initiative group: Site and Building: Building Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries Expected costs and level of effort: The cost to the private sector to redevelop these facilities is low compared with the cost of constructing new buildings. However, for private firms, it is a challenge to find suitable facilities to meet their needs. Stakeholders involved: Producers, Developers Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Requires less cost compared with new developments • Increases efficiency in supply chains • Reduces logistics costs • May provide better accessibility to customers • Brings revitalization and encourages economic growth in the area Disadvantages: • Challenging to find suitable facilities to meet compa- nies’ needs • Risk of unintended consequences in the area such as an increase in traffic Examples: • Bayonne’s military terminal use as an industrial warehouse, New Jersey, (National Real Estate Investor 2018) • Retailers using underutilized garages in NYC for logistics operations, United States (The Wall Street Journal 2018) • Former retail converted to new warehouse, United States (Supply Chain Dive 2019b) • Proposal to use underutilized military rail assets in Fort Hood for commercial operations (Texas Rail Advocates 2018) Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Densify Logistics Activities toward the Urban Core; Use Overlay Zoning to Foster FELU; Use Tax Incentives to Foster FELU; Urban Distribution Centers Complementary transportation initiatives: Parking and Loading Area Management; Freight Demand References: National Real Estate Investor (2018); Texas Rail Advocates (2018); The Wall Street Journal (2018); Supply Chain Dive (2019b) Source: (Supply Chain Dive 2019b) Source: (Texas Rail Advocates 2018) Exhibit 28. Initiative LU19: Redevelop underutilized facilities.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 91   Require Provision for Logistics Areas Description: It is important for buildings to have space for logistics activities that occur on-site (even vertical distribution), so that these activities have enough space to take place without interrupting other activities within the vicinity. In addition, requiring provision for logistics area improves the efficiency in the distribution of goods within a building. Examples of such activities are storing, sorting, unloading and loading, and distribution. Geographic Scope: Area, Parcel, Building Initiative Group: Site and Building: Building Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Sidewalk conflicts Expected costs and level of effort: Large efforts are required to coordinate between building managers, carriers, and receivers. To encourage participation, incentives, such as allowing higher floor-area ratio, can be used. The inclusion of logistics areas adds costs to the private sector, which can be substantial in the case of limited space availability, such as in urban areas. Stakeholders involved: Receivers, Carriers, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission Time to fruition: Less than a year Advantages: • Reduces congestion and pollution • Increases operational efficiency • Facilitates freight demand programs, such as OHD programs Disadvantages: • Reduces usable commercial floor space in buildings • May require additional staff Examples: • Schematic of a receiving station for a large building Source: (Jaller et al. 2015) Related land-use initiatives: Enhance Building Codes and Design Guidelines to Support FELU; Use Conditional Use Requirements to Foster FELU; Provide Performance-Based Incentives; Enhance Existing Certification Programs to Foster FELU Practices Complementary transportation initiatives: Receiver-Led Delivery Consolidation Programs; Voluntary Off-Hour Deliv- eries Programs References: Jaller et al. (2015); Whole Building Design Guide (2019) Exhibit 29. Initiative LU20: Require provision for logistics areas.

92 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Require Provision of Off-Street Loading and Parking Areas Description: The provision of adequate parking spaces in a logistics area is crucial for the adequate movement of vehicles that enter and leave the area to expedite deliveries while minimizing congestion and reducing negative impacts on the network. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Site and Building: Building Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, All traffic, Urban deliveries, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Side- walk conflicts Expected costs and level of effort: Existing facilities may not legally allow retrofitting facilities, such as historical buildings. Public agencies must provide alternate solutions to improve logistics parking facilities nearby the area. For private firms, upgrading parking areas and loading docks may be expensive for existing facilities. These retrofitted facilities will not be as efficient as new facilities. In addition, buildings in urban areas may face substantial costs, as there is little land availability. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Receivers, Developers, DOTs Time to fruition: Less than a year Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Reduces parking issues • Expedites deliveries • Rapid benefit timeframe Disadvantages: • May require a high investment • Could require additional space • Moderate risk of inefficient or underutilized space Examples: • Parking and off-street loading space requirements in Palm Beach County, FL (Palm Beach County 2019) Source: (Palm Beach County 2019) Related land-use initiatives: Enhance Building Codes and Design Guidelines to Support FELU; Use Conditional Use Requirements to Foster FELU; Provide Performance-Based Incentives; Enhance Existing Certification Programs to Foster FELU Practices Complementary transportation initiatives: Ramps for Handcarts and Forklifts; Vehicle Parking Reservation Sys- tems; Timeshare of Parking Space; Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs References: Rhodes et al. (2012); Holguín-Veras et al. (2015); Palm Beach County (2019) Exhibit 30. Initiative LU21: Require provision of off-street loading and parking areas.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 93   Enhance Building Codes and Design Guidelines to Support FELU Description: There is a need to frequently review and enhance building codes and design guidelines to ensure relevance to current needs. For instance, minimum requirements for loading docks will help ensure that new buildings provide the space needed to do deliveries and pickups. Enhancing design guidelines is done by applying explicit requirements for logistics activities during the development approval process for buildings, subdivisions, and open spaces with re- spect to layout and function. Consideration and provision of adequate infrastructure for logistics activities, improve freight movement efficiencies and enhance livability. Geographic scope: Parcel, Building Initiative group: Site and Building: Building Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Sidewalk conflicts Expected costs and level of effort: For public agencies, staff are required to review and incorporate requirements into codes and guidelines. Stakeholder engagement is also required. Overall, the monetary cost for implementation is small. For private firms, developers may incur more cost to comply with the requirements. The enhanced guidelines that support FELU bring variable costs for the private sector. Depending on what is agreed on during the discussions, there could be minor or major changes on infrastructure. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Receivers, Developers, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Public Works Departments Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances safety • Improves inadequate infrastructure • Increases logistics efficiency Disadvantages: • Requires updating development regulations • Requires private-sector acceptance • Risk of setting requirements for certain infrastructure when better uses of the space may exist for some buildings Examples: • Motor Vehicle Parking and Loading Standards for Louisville, Kentucky. In the city’s parking and loading standards, Louisville, KY, set a minimum number of loading berths that must be provided in new buildings of various types. These requirements are in addition to required parking spaces for pas- senger vehicles (Land Development Code 2006). • Ontario, Canada. The province incorporated land-use planning with freight mobility planning in Freight-Supportive Guidelines to respond to the indus- try needs for freight movement. The guidelines include best practices, exam- ples and implementation tools that could be used by a wide range of commu- nities and municipalities (Ontario Ministry of Transportation 2016). Related land-use initiatives: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Zoning Complementary transportation initiatives: Parking and Loading Areas Management; Freight Demand Management References: Rizzo Associates (2001); Smart Growth Network and ICMA (2002); Land Development Code (2006); Wilbur Smith Associates (2008); Department for Transport (2010b); PIARC (2011); SUGAR (2011); Ontario Ministry of Transportation (2016) Source: (Ontario Ministry of Transportation 2016) Exhibit 31. Initiative LU22: Enhance building codes and design guidelines to support FELU.

94 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools 7.4 Facilities and Infrastructure Management Facilities and Infrastructure Management initiatives focus on the construction or upgrade of facilities and infrastructure to enhance freight efficiency. Decision-makers have traditionally adopted infrastructure improvement initiatives, such as the construction of new ring roads or upgrading railway infrastructure to improve freight mobility. By providing more capacity and better infrastructure, freight movement will be less inhibited. These infrastructure-related initia- tives are also discussed in Chapter 9. From the perspective of land-use planning, providing infrastructure improvements is not the only way to enhance freight efficiency. The location and nature of a freight facility can affect the overall efficiency of freight transportation and distribution. Providing the appropriate facility at an appropriate location could shorten the distance between supply chain stages and supply sufficient facilities to process all the incoming or outgoing freight. Since large freight facilities and transportation infrastructure are under the legal jurisdiction of land-use and transportation agencies, these initiatives are considered joint transportation and land-use initiatives. 7.4.1 Major Improvements Initiatives of major infrastructure improvements usually require large costs and extensive planning for implementation to avoid the high risk of unintended consequences. Initiative LU23: Multimodal Logistics Developments (Joint) This initiative allows convenient transfers between different modes of transport, such as dif- ferent types of trucks, trains, and water vessels. A variant of the Multimodal Logistics Develop- ment is the Intermodal Terminal, where transportation services, such as maritime, originates and terminates, and goods are transferred to another mode, such as rail or truck. These devel- opments may include other uses, such as sorting and warehousing, and facilitate the move- ment of goods from one mode to another. By combining modes of transportation within a logistics development, opportunities arise for companies to broaden their shipping and receiv- ing capabilities. Building such a development could incur high costs. Hence, comprehensive market studies are needed to ensure that the high cost invested in the construction of the new development is justifiable. These developments encourage cargo consolidation as modes with larger capacity are used. The developments are typically located outside of the city based on the location of existing facilities, such as railroad tracks and waterways. When these are located near the outskirts of the city, goods moving toward the city can be transported using various modes, then transferred to more sustainable vehicles, thus reducing pollution inside the city center and eliminating truck trips from their origins to the Multimodal Logistics Development. These reductions could be more significant if it is possible to locate the development inside the city. The location of these developments should be chosen while taking into consideration the increase in traffic in the surrounding areas. A good approach to manage the increase in traffic is to shift the delivery or pickup time of the trucks to off hours, which will decrease the congestion caused by large trailers coming into the development during peak hours. Exhibit 32 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU23. Initiative LU24: Freight Cluster Development (Joint) Freight Clusters or Freight Villages foster the relocation of large freight users, such as distribu- tion centers, manufacturers, truck terminals, and intermodal facilities to a specific area, typically at the outskirts of an urban area. Locating a freight cluster far away from the urban core means that small trucks have to travel longer distances to complete their deliveries, increasing VMT on the last leg of the supply chain. Although the concept of freight clustering is present in the

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 95   United States, it is more common in Europe (Smart Growth Network and ICMA 2002). Freight Clusters could lead to small reductions in truck traffic given that a portion of the B2B freight traffic that normally takes place in the city would take place inside the facility (Allen and Browne 2010). The impact on overall congestion is very small however, since the freight traffic gener- ated by the freight cluster represents a minuscule proportion of the total truck traffic in the city. However, the noise and other negative effects generated inside and around the freight village are disadvantages for local communities. For a discussion of success factors in Europe, see European Freight Villages and their Success Factors (Nobel 2011). Freight clusters require large tracks of land, initial investments, and coordination efforts. The main benefits of freight clusters are to preserve space for freight-intensive activities inside the metropolitan area but outside of the central business district. The benefits of constructing freight clusters compensate for the costs of implementation due to the agglomeration of economies, which increase the efficiency of the cluster as a whole. Exhibit 33 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU24. Initiative LU25: Multistory Logistics Developments (Joint) Multistory Logistics Developments are a common solution to land shortage, as buildings grew vertically instead of horizontally. In the case for Multistory Logistics Development, logis- tics activities such as storing, sorting, and distributing activities are stacked to maximize land usage. This is a good option for dense cities that need space for logistics activities. The cost of such structures can vary depending on the nature of the logistics activity, and the size and location of development. Some of these developments are designed for tractor-trailer combination vehicles to access multiple levels of the building and will require ramps suitable for these vehicles. These ramps for larger vehicles take more space compared with ramps catered for passenger cars. As such, a large part of the floor area is used for ramps if they are opted for. Alternatively, designers can consider using freight elevators or cranes to transport goods vertically instead of using vehicles and ramps. The location of these developments should be considered care- fully, since the trucks going in or coming out of it will increase traffic in the surrounding areas. Hence, public agencies need to study the unintended consequences of implementing this initiative for each proposed location individually. This initiative is important to address the increased demand on industrial spaces due to the rise of e-commerce accompanied by the limited supply of land within dense cities, where the e-commerce deliveries are sent. Multistory Developments are beginning to be built across the United States, they have been built in cities like Seattle, Washington; San Francisco, California; and in Brooklyn and Bronx, New York. The locations have been chosen because of their high densities, high e-commerce demand, and the limited location opportunities for last-mile facilities (Supply Chain Dive 2018). Exhibit 34 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU25. Initiative LU26: Urban Consolidation Centers (Joint) Urban consolidation centers (UCCs) are facilities that seek to reduce freight traffic in a target area by consolidating cargo at a terminal. In theory, carriers that might otherwise make separate trips to the target area with relatively low load factors will instead transfer their loads to a neutral carrier that consolidates the cargo and conducts the last leg of the deliveries. The carriers pay the UCC operator a fee per delivery made, and save money by not having to make the final leg of the delivery themselves (Holguín-Veras et al. 2008a). During the 1940s, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) implemented what would be the first modern UCC; these operations closed down in the 1950s because of union opposition and a lack of carrier participation (Doig 2001; 2010). More recently, UCCs have been attempted in a number of European and Japanese cities in response to government incentives (Taniguchi and Nemoto 2003; Browne et al. 2005; Panero and Shin 2011). Most UCCs are small operations that focus on a section of a city or on individual buildings, such as the Shinjuku UCC in Japan. UCCs have

96 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools a mixed success record; however, because they have struggled to attract a sufficient number of users. Some obstacles UCCs face include competitive pressures that push suppliers away from participation; overall costs that are frequently higher than direct deliveries, once the UCC’s space costs are included (Kawamura and Lu 2008); and the difficulty of finding enough suitable space for a UCC in urban areas, where property is at a premium and often unavailable (Browne et al. 2005; Transport & Travel Research Ltd and Transport Research Laboratory 2010; Van Rooijen and Quak 2010; Quak and Tavasszy 2011; Holguín-Veras et al. 2012b). As a consequence, public subsidies are often necessary, and if the subsidies do not materialize, most UCC operations come to an end. An important consideration when planning UCCs relates to insurance. Before operation begins, who will be responsible for lost or damaged goods during the process should be determined. In a traditional delivery system, it is more straightforward to determine where the damage occurred, but in a UCC—where additional layers of handling occur—it is neces- sary to have a system that assigns responsibility during the various stages of consolidation and delivery. Exhibit 35 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU26. Initiative LU27: Urban Distribution Centers (Joint) This initiative focuses on creating Urban distribution centers for last-mile deliveries located in dense areas in central locations. They can be located off-street (e.g., within buildings or garages, and on sidewalks) using container hubs or underutilized parking areas. Urban distri- bution centers are used to redistribute the goods arriving in large trucks into smaller, environ- mentally friendly modes (e.g., electric vans, cargo bikes or even on foot). This initiative helps reduce congestion and pollution within city centers by shifting to cleaner modes and reducing the VMT by larger trucks. However, the location of such facilities should take into consideration proximity to the destination. Urban distribution centers have been implemented in multiple locations around the world. An interesting variant of the Urban distribution centers is the mini- distribution center, which typically entails the use of small containers to temporarily store con- sumer goods in nearby parking facilities or other public spaces. Typically, these containers are either deposited there or replenished during the off hours. From there, the final deliveries can be made with either handcarts of freight bikes. One of the examples is in Hamburg, Germany, where UPS started implementing this initiative in 2012. Four containers were placed in locations within the city on the weekdays to act as a small temporary distribution center. The deliveries were done by cargo bikes or on foot starting from these locations. In working days, this has removed 7 to 10 delivery vans in central Hamburg. The city of Frankfurt also implemented this initiative with the collaboration of UPS. The deliveries starting from the mini-distribution center were done by electric cargo bikes or hybrid trucks. This reduced CO2 emissions in the city by 25.5 tons in 300 days of operation; it also helped reduce noise pollution and improve air quality in the center of the city (Eltis 2018). Exhibit 36 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU27.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 97   Multimodal Logistics Developments Description: Multimodal Logistics Developments allow access to more than one mode of transportation, support con- venient transfer between modes, and encourage the use of larger capacity transportation modes. These developments may include other uses, such as sorting and warehousing. This initiative aims to enhance freight efficiency, and reduce systematic inefficiencies, logistics sprawl, and livability issues due to freight traffic. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area, Corridor Initiative group: Facilities and Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, All traffic, Urban deliveries Expected costs and level of effort: The expected costs vary by the type of project based on the existing infrastructure prior to implementing the development. The cost and level of effort to implement are directly related to the desired size and goals of the development. The implementation time can be long in cases of constructing new facilities. Extensive cooperation between multiple stakeholders is also needed. Stakeholders involved: Producers, Carriers, Developers, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission, Building Departments Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Reduces VMT • Facilitates transfer between modes • Promotes economic growth in surrounding areas • Enhances competition Disadvantages: • May require high investments • Increases traffic in surrounding areas • May require long implementation time • Requires extensive cooperation between multiple stakeholders • Decreases the residents’ desire to move to the area Examples: • Alliance Global Logistics Hub, Texas. The development, which lies less than 50 minutes from Dallas and 20 minutes from Fort Worth, includes a railway facility, an airport, and access to major highways and regional sort hubs for major carriers (UPS, FedEx and Amazon) (Alliance Texas 2020). • Chapelle International logistics hotel, Paris, France. A four- story 45,000 m2 development in north Paris that includes an urban freight indoor rail terminal and urban distribution center. It allows shipment consolidation and transfers to cleaner modes. It also includes other land uses (e.g., urban farm, tennis courts, offices, and data center) (BESTFACT 2012; Dablanc 2019). Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Multistory Lo- gistics Developments; Foster Logistics Mixed Use Complementary transportation initiatives: Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs; Freight Demand Man- agement References: BESTFACT (2012); Dablanc (2019); Alliance Texas (2020) Source: (BESTFACT 2012; Dablanc 2019) Exhibit 32. Initiative LU23: Multimodal logistics developments.

98 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Freight Cluster Development Description: Concentrate freight-intensive facilities, such as distribution centers, manufacturers, truck terminals, and intermodal facilities, into a single location, typically at the urban fringe to provide efficiency and economies of scale. Cluster development is a common land-use approach that consolidates a single type of activity in an area to reduce that activity’s negative impacts on other areas, such as residential developments. Geographic scope: City/MSA Initiative group: Facilities and Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, All traffic, LTGs Expected costs and level of effort: Freight clusters are master plan developments that are sometimes proposed by developers due to their higher returns of investment despite the high costs. These clusters have large returns because of increased efficiency by maximizing the agglomeration of economies. The high costs can be shared between public and private sectors, where the cost of land purchase may be assumed by the public sector and the costs of construction may be assumed mostly by the private sector. Since the intention of this initiative is to concentrate freight activities in one location, coordinated efforts are required, involving the public sector, private sector, and the communities. The implementation and construction of freight cluster development takes a long time. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Trade Associations, Producers, Carriers, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances safety • Enhances operational efficiency • Enhances livability • Reduces freight activity inside urban areas Disadvantages: • Requires very high capital investment (land acquisi- tion and construction) • Requires extensive cooperation between stakeholders • May have environmental impacts associated with new construction • May have moderate to low probability of unintended consequences - Increased perceived noise in surrounding areas - Increased traffic in the vicinity of terminal Examples: • Rickenbacker Global Logistics Park, Columbus, OH: A former Air Force base of 1,777 acres capable of accommodating 30 million square feet of developments. The park has different campuses for rail, air, and truck transportation (Duke Realty News 2015; Rickenbacker Global Logistics Park 2020). • Pureland Industrial Complex, NJ: An industrial park with 3,000 acres located in the Philadelphia metropolitan area. It includes facilities for different purposes (e.g., ware- houses, distribution centers, manufacturing complexes, offices and research and devel- opment facilities) (Pureland Industrial Complex 2020). Related land-use initiatives: Relocate LTGs, If Warranted; Logistics Land Reserves; Multimodal Logistics Develop- ments; Create Logistics-Focused Land Banking; Zoning; Site and Building Design; Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation Complementary transportation initiatives: New and Upgraded Infrastructure; Freight Demand Management; Time- Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs References: Smart Growth Network and ICMA (2002); Castle (2009); Allen and Browne (2010); C-LIEGE (2010); Department for Transport (2010b); Nobel (2011); Duke Realty News (2015); Pureland Industrial Complex (2020); Rickenbacker Global Logistics Park (2020) Source: (Duke Realty News 2015) Exhibit 33. Initiative LU24: Freight cluster development.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 99   Multistory Logistics Developments Description: Multistory logistics developments are vertically expanded warehouses used for logistics. These develop- ments can save land space and make use of vacant vertical space. This alternative to single story logistics provides a practical solution for limited land availability in highly dense cities. Increasing the efficiency of land use for logistics activities reduces logistics sprawl, livability issues due to freight traffic, and livability issues due to freight facilities. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Facilities and Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries Expected costs and level of effort: Constructing a multistory logistics development varies in cost depending mostly on its nature of operation, size, and location. However, the cost can be very high due to the land costs in already highly dense cities. This initiative might also require a high public and private investment for implementation. Stakeholders involved: Producers, Receivers, Carriers, Developers, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Building Departments, Planning Commission Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Increases land use • Decreases inventory costs Disadvantages: • May require high investments • Increases traffic in the surrounding areas • Might reduce usable space due to long ramps Examples: • Three-story warehouse, Seattle, WA. The first multistory logistics warehouse in the United States is a 590,000 square- foot facility that rents space to large shipping companies, including Amazon and Home Depot (The Wall Street Journal 2019). • Beijing Capital Airport Logistics Center I, Beijing, China. China’s first multistory logistics center is near Beijing Capi- tal International Airport. This center now consists of two distribution centers with immediate access to the airport, highway and city of Beijing (Prologis 2019). • Beaugrenelle logistics hotel, Paris, France. This 30,000 m2 two-story development in south Paris has a daily ca- pacity of 6500 parcels. It was previously a parking lot in a dense urban area. It also allows transfers to cleaner modes, e.g., electric vans, which reduced noise by 8% in 2016 (IFSTTAR 2018). Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Densify Logistics Activities toward the Urban Core; Multimodal Logistics Developments; Urban Consolidation Centers; Urban Distribution Centers; Site and Building Design; Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks Complementary transportation initiatives: Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs; Freight Demand Man- agement; Parking and Loading Areas Management References: IFSTTAR (2018); Prologis (2019); The Wall Street Journal (2019); Prologis (2020) Source: (Prologis 2020) Exhibit 34. Initiative LU25: Multistory logistics developments.

100 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Urban Consolidation Centers Description: UCCs are logistics facilities that aim to reduce truck traffic within a target area by consolidating cargo. The cargo is consolidated at the facility, which is in proximity to the target area, and the last leg of the delivery is performed by a neutral carrier. This initiative requires large investments and a critical mass of receivers to be feasible, and to positively impact the network. A major issue is the poor track record of UCCs because less than 10% of all trials are in operation. Geographic scope: Area, Parcel Initiative group: Facilities and Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries, LTGs Expected costs and level of effort: UCCs require land in prime locations, typically located inside or at the fringe of the urban core. The planning process should involve extensive stakeholder engagement to reduce opposition from unions and suppliers. UCCs are most likely to be successful if they can be imposed, controlled, and complemented with supporting policies. Stakeholders involved: Trade Associations, Local Communities, Carriers, DOTs, Public Works Departments, Legis- lative Branch Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Consolidates cargo • Increases trucking efficiency • Reduces truck traffic • Reduces network externalities Disadvantages: • Has a high cost to implement and operate (may re- quire public subsidies) • May be unpopular among suppliers • Requires a minimum number of receivers to work • Increases traffic in the vicinity of the area or facility • Has a poor track record of remaining in operation without subsidies (less than 10%) Examples: • Binnenstadservice, Netherlands: In the absence of large subsidies from the public sector, UCCs can only succeed if the receivers of the supplies ask their vendors to deliver to the UCC. This is the case of Binnenstadservice ser- vice that managed to secure receivers' commitments in 15 cities in the Netherlands and reduced the CO2 and pollu- tants produced by about 40% (BESTFACT 2013). • Tokyo Sky Tree Town (Soramachi), Japan: A private transport company operates three UCCs, where it reduces 48% of the vehicles by consolidation. In this case also, there are no subsidies for operating the UCC; however, its success can be attributed to the building owner that mandates its use, where it reduces 48% of the vehicles by con- solidation (Taniguchi et al. 2018). Related land-use initiatives: Site and Building Design; Densify Logistics Activities toward the Urban Core; Foster Public-Private Collaboration Complementary transportation initiatives: Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs; Create a Freight Ad- visory Committee; Create a Freight Quality Partnership References: BESTFACT (2013); Taniguchi et al. (2018) Exhibit 35. Initiative LU26: Urban consolidation centers.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 101   Urban Distribution Centers Description: Urban distribution centers for last-mile deliveries are located in or nearby dense areas in central locations. They can be either off-street (e.g., within buildings or garages, and on sidewalks) or on-street (e.g., by the curbside) using container hubs or underutilized parking areas. Some retailers set up urban distribution centers inside their stores to allow faster delivery and pickup options to customers, reducing VMT from far away warehouses. The last-mile delivery can be done using cargo bikes or on foot in some cases. This initiative reduces systematic inefficiencies, logistics sprawl, and livability issues due to freight traffic. Geographic scope: Area, Parcel Initiative group: Facilities and Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries Expected costs and level of effort: Investments and expenses are usually related to the floor area and the logistics management. Overall, it is expected that savings will be significant since the number of trips and the time for last-mile deliveries will be reduced. The biggest difficulty is finding suitable space in dense urban centers where spaces are very limited, and land values are high. The implementation term will depend on the time required to find suitable locations. Stakeholders involved: Producers, Receivers, Carriers, Regional Planning Agencies Time to fruition: Less than a year Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Reduces VMT • Has faster deliveries • Reduces noise and emissions Disadvantages: • May have difficulties finding space in dense urban areas • Can lead to reduction of retail store space used for direct sales • Increases conflict between freight and non-freight traffic Examples: • EcoHubs, Hamburg, Germany. UPS is using EcoHubs in central locations in the city to perform last-mile deliveries. They are supplied once a day, and packages are then delivered on foot or by cargo bikes. This has removed 7 to 10 delivery vans from central Hamburg. EcoHubs has also been implemented in Munich, Germany; and Dublin, Ireland (Eltis 2018; The Shorty Awards 2019). • Green Hub, Paris, France. The Green Link company has three logistics hubs within Paris that are supplied outside of rush hours by truck or boat, and then the deliveries are done by bikes. The company works as a subcontractor for major companies like DHL and TNT (Heitz 2015; Darchambeau 2019). • Target, United States. Target has been remodeling many of their stores to use some as mini-distribution centers to provide faster and cheaper deliveries to consumers from store locations. Working to compete with other major companies like Amazon, Target reported 40% cost reductions due to this remodeling (Supply Chain Dive 2019a; 2019c). Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Site and Building Design; Densify Logistics Activities toward the Urban Core; Foster Logistics Mixed Use; Urban Consolidation Centers Complementary transportation initiatives: Mode Shift Programs; Vehicle-Related Strategies; Freight Demand Man- agement; Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs; Pickups and Deliveries to Alternate Destinations References: Heitz (2015); Eltis (2018); Darchambeau (2019); Register of Initiatives in Pedal Powered Logistics (2019); Supply Chain Dive (2019a, 2019c); The Shorty Awards (2019) Source: (Eltis 2018; The Shorty Awards 2019) Exhibit 36. Initiative LU27: Urban distribution centers.

102 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools 7.5 Parking and Loading Areas Management In many city centers and business districts, parking spaces are very limited, which translates into trucks double-parking or spending considerable time circling the block waiting for a parking space (Jaller et al. 2013a). Trucks may extend into sidewalks and roadways while docking in undersized loading areas. This is not only an enforcement issue. Frequently, the number of parking spaces available is simply not enough to satisfy the needs of delivery trucks. As a result, carriers may have to double-park and pay large amounts in parking fines. It is important to recognize that parking facilities are not just needed at the last-mile delivery, but also before and after the delivery is complete. Trucks are deployed to move cargo, typically long haul, in the upstream section of the supply chain, where truck stops are important for the truck drivers to rest. Truck parking is also required near the final destination so drivers can park before or after their delivery and rest, for instance, safe overnight parking is required. Therefore, decision-makers can choose to optimize the current capacity (see Chapter 9) or to provide more parking areas and loading areas to manage inadequate capacity. 7.5.1 Off-Street Parking and Loading Areas This section focuses on off-street parking and loading facilities not on-street facilities. Infor- mation related to on-street parking and loading area initiatives can be found in Chapter 9. Initiative LU28: Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks (Joint) Shopping malls and large stores in central business districts have limited space for maneuvering, and often have insufficient or outdated loading docks. This initiative recommends redesigning docks to accommodate the geometric needs of current and future trucks. It also recommends adequate setbacks from roadways for new buildings so that trucks do not extend into roadways when docking (Rhodes et al. 2012). Access to, and egress from, these areas also is important, as distance away from intersections facilitates traffic maneuvers and minimizes traffic impacts. Truck access should be separate from car and pedestrian access for operational, aesthetic, and security reasons (Ogden 1992). Exhibit 37 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU28. Initiative LU29: Truck Stops and Long-Term Parking (Joint) The Truck Stops and Long-Term Parking initiative is intended to fulfill the parking needs of trucks while the trucks are not participating in loading or unloading activities. There are three main scenarios—rest stop during long-haul travel, temporary holding area prior to delivery, and overnight parking before and after delivery. Rest stops are critical for long-haul deliveries. The FMCSA mandates the maximum number of hours a truck driver may drive per day and also a 30-minute break if the driver intends to drive more than 8 hours. As such, truck stops allow truck drivers to take a break from driving, have a meal, refuel their truck, or sleep overnight. Some rest stops offer few amenities but still have the basic services like parking and restrooms. These facilities can be found along or near to the Interstate System or other roadways with high volumes of commercial vehicles. Sometimes truck stops also fulfill the role of a temporary holding area for the truck drivers to wait, so that they can deliver or pick up goods at the time agreed to with their customers. These truck stops are typically placed near the delivery or pickup destination, such as at ports. This provides an off-street space for the trucks to queue, instead of queuing on the public road. After the goods are delivered, truck parking is needed to “house” the truck until the next pickup. Truck stops may not have enough capacity, especially during the overnight hours when drivers are attempting to find parking to satisfy their rest requirements. Provision of long- term parking spaces would minimize informal overnight truck parking.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 103   This initiative involves the rehabilitation, construction, or installation of truck stops to accommodate truck parking for the purposes outlined. If designed properly, truck stops could be used by freight vehicles as staging areas to conduct transshipment activities. They could also serve as rest areas for long-haul drivers, overnight parking areas, temporary parking locations during peak times, or waiting areas until designated delivery times. These facilities are designed and provided so that drivers can take mandatory or optional breaks to rest. Since the costs of constructing truck stops could be high, public and private partnerships can share the planning and constructing of new truck stops. The private sector would benefit from opportunities to invest in service facilities in the surrounding areas. This can improve land values in the sur- rounding area, where the success of these facilities depends on their location, capacity, and other characteristics, such as the availability of food, communication services, and other ser- vice facilities (New York Metropolitan Transportation Council 2009). Exhibit 38 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU29. Initiative LU30: Staging Areas (Joint) A lack of parking, curb space, and loading facilities at establishments receiving freight may require governmental agencies or planning organizations to mandate the use of staging areas. Such requirements should foster the development or implementation of on-site and off-street areas at businesses or facilities that regularly receive freight. However, there are locations where this may not be a feasible option; thus, the establishment of common loading areas for sites that are LTGs or other multi-tenant facilities may be a viable option (Federal Highway Administration 2012c). Alternatively, municipalities might foster the development of nearby delivery or staging areas that could serve as urban transshipment platforms. These areas could be implemented at public or private parking lots, empty lots, or other spaces that could accom- modate a number of freight vehicles conducting loading and unloading activities. At these staging areas, cargo could be unloaded from the freight vehicles and loaded to carts or other vehicles for last-mile distribution. In Bordeaux, France, nearby delivery areas have been estab- lished together with additional services, such as dedicated personnel to assist in the dispatching of shipments. These areas can accommodate between three to five freight vehicles (about 30 meters wide) (BESTUFS 2007). The challenge involved in establishing these areas is securing the neces- sary space. The staging area design also needs to take into consideration possible conflicts with nearby residents. Exhibit 39 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU30.

104 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks Description: Redesign existing parking areas and loading docks to accommodate the geometric needs of current and future freight vehicles. This initiative may involve redesigning the access to parking areas and docks. It should also provide adequate infrastructure for parking vehicles, which will reduce the time required to perform deliveries or pickups because drivers would spend less time looking for parking. It would also reduce externalities on the network, such as double-parking, which will improve livability in cities. The upgraded parking areas can also be used as staging areas for trucks, reducing the number of vehicles in the street. Geographic scope: Street, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Parking and Loading Areas Management: Off-Street Parking and Loading Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries, LTGs, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Sidewalk conflicts Expected costs and level of effort: For public agencies, changing the parking areas and docks design standards for new buildings and retrofits is not costly. However, some types of facilities, such as historical buildings, may not allow retrofitting. In these cases, the public sector must provide alternative solutions to improve logistics parking facilities near the area, which could be expensive. In the case of private firms, upgrading parking areas and loading docks could be expensive. Because building owners might oppose the initiative due to the costs of retrofitting their facilities. Edu- cational efforts to show the benefits of the initiative for the entire community might be necessary to get the private sector to agree. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Receivers, Developers, DOTs. Time to fruition: Less than a year Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances safety • Improves mobility • Improves inadequate infrastructure to accommodate geometric needs • Has low probability of unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Requires private-sector acceptance • May require high capital investment • May require additional space Examples: • NYC, NY; Boston, MA; and San Francisco, CA. These cities have made significant efforts to upgrade their parking areas and loading docks (Rhodes et al. 2012). • Chicago, IL. The Urban Investment Research Corporation (UIRC) has made significant efforts to improve their facilities by up- grading the loading docks (Holguín-Veras et al. 2015). Related land-use initiatives: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Redevelop Underutilized Facilities; En- hance Building Codes and Design Guidelines to Support FELU; Require Provision of Buffers; Require Provision for Logistics Area; Require Provision of Off-Street Loading and Parking Areas; Provide Performance-Based Incentives Complementary transportation initiatives: Ramps for Handcarts and Forklifts; Timeshare of Parking Space,; Vehi- cle Parking Reservation Systems; Freight Demand Management References: Rhodes et al. (2012); Holguín-Veras et al. (2015) Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute) Exhibit 37. Initiative LU28: Upgrade off-street parking areas and loading docks.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 105   Truck Stops and Long-Term Parking Description: There are different types of truck parking, including overnight long-haul parking, which allows drivers to rest on longer trips (usually outside or on the edges of urban areas), and prepositioning and overnight stops for drivers near their drop-off and pickup points. This initiative involves the rehabilitation, construction, or installation of truck stops and parking that could be used to accommodate this type of parking. Truck stops can serve as staging areas to conduct transshipment activities, rest areas for long-haul drivers, overnight parking areas, temporary parking locations during peak times, or waiting areas until designated delivery times. Providing truck parking reduces illegal parking and reduces livability issues due to freight traffic. Geographic scope: City/MSA Initiative group: Parking and Loading Areas Management: Off-Street Parking and Loading Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Large trucks, LTGs, Other parking issues Expected costs and level of effort: The planning process requires administrative and management coordination with freight carriers to select the most appropriate locations. Securing the area to establish the stops and parking areas will be costly. Changing policy and adding appropriate signage will carry minor costs; providing security and other services will add costs. Public and private partnership can share the costs of construction of truck stops to reduce costs. This also provides the private sectors with opportunities to invest in service facilities in the surrounding areas (e.g., hotels), which can improve land values. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Carriers, Producers, Receivers, Developers. Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Improves inadequate infrastructure • Reduces curbside occupation time • Improves mobility Disadvantages: • It requires a large capital for building the facility and its maintenance • May increase the congestion and noise nearby the fa- cility Examples: • NYC, NY (New York Metropolitan Transportation Council 2009) New York Thruway (I-87) Madena Service Area Source: (New York Metropolitan Transportation Council 2009) Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks; Multi- modal Logistics Developments; Freight Cluster Development Complementary transportation initiatives: Vehicle Parking Reservation Systems; Driver Training Programs; Anti- idling Programs, Real-Time Information Systems References: New York Metropolitan Transportation Council (2009) Exhibit 38. Initiative LU29: Truck stops and long-term parking.

106 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Staging Areas Description: This initiative fosters the development and requirement of on-site off-street areas at businesses or other facilities to conduct loading, unloading, or other freight-related activities. Improving staging areas reduces systematic inefficiencies, livability issues due to freight facilities, pollution, and noise, and it enhances safety. Geographic scope: Street, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Parking and Loading Areas Management: Off-Street Parking and Loading Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries, LTGs, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Sidewalk issues Expected costs and level of effort: Changing design standards and building and zoning codes will not be costly. However, retroactively updating existing loading areas or constructing larger areas for freight activities at establish- ments or facilities will be expensive. Securing the space to establish public staging areas and operating them will be costly. Stakeholders involved: Receivers, Developers, DOTs Time to fruition: Less than a year Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances safety • Improves mobility • Improves inadequate infrastructure Disadvantages: • Requires private-sector acceptance • May require high capital investment • Requires additional space • May generate resistance from nearby residents Examples: • Bordeaux and Rouen, France. These cities have imple- mented a few staging areas for the loading and unloading of trucks. The areas are equipped by dedicated personnel that help with dispatching goods for the last mile (Eltis 2003; BESTUFS 2007). Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – CITE) Related land-use initiatives: Site and Building Design; Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks Complementary transportation initiatives: Vehicle Parking Reservation Systems; Time-Slotting of Pickups and De- liveries at LTGs References: Eltis (2003); NICHES (2006); BESTUFS (2007); Federal Highway Administration (2012c) Exhibit 39. Initiative LU30: Staging areas.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 107   7.6 Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation This group of Pricing, Incentives, and taxation initiatives uses monetary transactions and other incentives to achieve FELUs, whether by increasing the efficiency of supply chains, or by reducing the externalities caused by freight facilities and freight traffic. Many of the initiatives aim to encourage the private sector to invest in FELU features, which can be undertaken by both new and existing facilities. Other initiatives look for unique ways to ensure sufficient funding for public infrastructure projects. Pricing, Incentives, and taxation can also foster the use of emerging technologies, manage traffic, and adopt good practices. Those transportation initiatives are described in Chapter 9. 7.6.1 Pricing The initiatives in this group involve the use of fees to either induce beneficial behavior changes, deter undesirable ones, or to achieve other policy goals, such as collecting revenues for infrastructure maintenance, rehabilitation, or construction. Initiative LU31: Use Impact Fees or Proffers to Foster FELU New development typically increases the demands on public infrastructure, meaning that the existing facilities may not be able to accommodate these additional needs. Infrastructure improvement may be required to ensure that externalities are reduced to a reasonable level. Municipalities, especially those facing high rates of growth, may experience hardships funding sufficient infrastructure changes and maintaining a high degree of freight efficiency. To increase the funding available for these public projects without increasing local taxes, this initiative recommends charging the developer a one-time fee based on the externalities produced by the development, and the revenue gained through taxes for the new development. The impact of the development on the surrounding community may be determined through a TIA (see Transportation Initiatives). Impact fees have become popular in many communities since they originated in the 1970s (Burge et al. 2007; Opp 2007; Rupan 2018). In some communities where impact fees are restricted, other one-time charges may be implemented; for example, cash proffers can transfer funds from developers to local governments during the rezoning process to mitigate the impacts of a new development (Loudoun County Virginia Government 2019). One benefit of the fees is that they provide extra funding for the city to invest in public infra- structure. Even more than that, these fees can be designed to further encourage efficiency; for example, by charging developers additional fees for locating on previously undeveloped land (or reducing fees for location-efficient development), impact fees can discourage urban sprawl. However, development fees may hinder economic expansion in the local area. More- over, the developer can pass on the burden to others; for example, in the case of housing developments, developers can pass the cost onto consumers through higher rental prices (Anderson 2005; Burge et al. 2007; York et al. 2017). This will affect new tenants, who may instead locate in another region with lower costs. However, as development fees continue to become standard practice, it is likely that these fees will have less impact on the location decisions of developers and residents. Exhibit 40 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU31. 7.6.2 Incentives Incentive-based initiatives aim to encourage FELU by offering developers financial support and other incentives in exchange for increased investment in freight-efficient features and practices. A key feature of these programs is that they are designed to be voluntary; developers can choose whether to participate or not.

108 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Initiative LU32: Use Tax Incentives to Foster FELU This initiative recommends offering tax incentives (such as tax abatements or tax credits) to developers for undertaking FELU developments. The program would reward developers who choose to either revitalize inadequate infrastructure or construct new facilities in predefined location-efficient neighborhoods. For example, the Industrial and Commercial Abatement Program in NYC offers tax abatements for up to 25 years for projects that build, expand, or improve industrial and commercial buildings (New York City Economic Development Corpo- ration 2019). Throughout the country, some enterprise zone programs offer similar incentives to encourage developers to locate in specific areas. Tax incentives are most effective when they target particular groups, as the incentives can be customized to enhance efficiency. Targeted incentives are those that offer the incentive to only a select group of investors, such as only to restaurants, and may have a specified time limit (Easson and Zolt 2002; Klemm 2010). Having a targeted program has the advantage of helping municipalities achieve specific goals as well as creating less risk of unintended consequences. An example of a targeted tax incentive is in Florida, which offered tax exemptions for investment in the entertainment industry (Florida Office of Economic and Demographic Research 2018). Exhibit 41 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU32. Initiative LU33: Provide Land Subsidies or Grants This initiative recommends providing financial assistance to developers to either encourage economic development or clean up land that is in need of environmental remediation. With these programs, public entities can lend or transfer land to the private sector at a reduced cost, or offer grants for redevelopment of brownfield sites. Doing so incentivizes industries to locate in specific areas and to complete community improvement projects. These programs involve negotiations between the public sector and developers. Various municipalities operate land subsidy programs, including the City of Chicago, which offers negotiated land write-downs in exchange for a promise from the developer to provide substantial public benefits (City of Chicago 2019b). The role of these programs is often multifold. The same program that encourages environmental cleanup can also be specifically targeted to encourage other public-sector goals (McCarthy 2002; Amirtahmasebi et al. 2016). For example, the program can help fulfill demand for urban logistics facilities by selectively assisting logistics developers in these areas. Exhibit 42 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU33. Initiative LU34: Provide Performance-Based Incentives This initiative provides operational (e.g., exemptions from certain regulations) or mon- etary incentives to businesses that achieve a minimum degree of FELU. This would encourage developers to invest in reducing their externalities either through enhanced design of their site (such as providing off-street loading areas) or through freight-efficient management (such as receiver-led consolidation of deliveries). The incentive could be designed in multiple ways, including grants and density bonuses. Density bonuses allow developers to increase the floor- area ratio of the building (and, thus, its earning potential) above what is typically allowed in exchange for providing amenities that are predefined by the municipal government. For example, in Florida, the City of Orlando operates a density bonus program that offers an average bonus of 55% to developers who construct mixed-use facilities (City of Orlando 2015). Density bonuses should be implemented with caution, especially in urban areas. While the goal of these incentives is to reduce externalities caused by freight facilities, policymakers should understand that bonuses often lead to increased productivity of a building, which places additional strain on public infrastructure and can result in increased local congestion, noise,

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 109   and pollution, among other externalities (Read 2008). Exhibit 43 summarizes essential charac- teristics of Initiative LU34. Initiative LU35: Enhance Existing Certification Programs to Foster FELU Practices The purpose of this initiative is to incentivize developers to include FELU features in the specifications and operation of buildings by rewarding companies with recognition for com- plying with the voluntary regulation. For example, a development may be certified as freight- efficient for including sufficient off-street loading areas, or by providing adequate facilities for freight movement inside the building, such as freight elevators. Two well-known existing programs are the United States Green Building Council LEED Certification Program and the Green Building Initiative Green Globe Business Certification Program, which certify buildings based on their environmental sustainability (IFMA Foundation 2010). Research suggests that these programs are effective at convincing developers to change building design by providing recognition and publicity (Kamenetz 2007; Cidell and Cope 2013). While environmental sustain- ability is part of a facility’s freight efficiency, expanding these and similar certification programs to support other freight-efficient features would likely further encourage FELU. Exhibit 44 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU35. 7.6.3 Taxation Taxation strategies use financial tools to encourage the provision of freight-efficient features or to foster freight-efficient practices. The public sector can lead these projects and designate tax revenue. Alternatively, these projects could be directly funded by the private sector, who would receive compensation for achieving certain goals. Initiative LU36: Use Tax Increment Financing to Foster FELU This initiative proposes using a portion of the taxes generated from a designated zone to make improvements in a local community, for example, for infrastructure investment that benefits freight efficiency in the local area. While this redirects tax revenue, it does not affect the amount of taxes owed by the private sector. By using these funds to make improvements to vacant sites or roadways, a district may become more attractive to developers, which can spur economic development (Briffault 2010). In a similar fashion, the funds generated by tax increment financing (TIF) can be used to provide freight facilities to improve freight effi- ciency of the zone. Chicago is an example of a city with an extensive TIF program; it has over 100 TIF districts that represent over 40% of the city’s land area (Kawamura and Dahlburg 2018). However, in reality, existing programs do not always have the intended effects. Some researchers suggest that TIF does not encourage new development, but rather takes develop- ment away from other locations (Weber and Goddeeris 2007; Merriman 2018). Therefore, this may have significant negative economic consequences to the surrounding communities. In addition, critics note that they may take funds away from public-sector budgets, which support services from fire departments to schools, without directly creating a new revenue stream. Without new developments paying their own way for these services, this can lead to increased tax rates throughout the entire city (Royse, 1992; Merriman 2018). In addition, some programs often suffer from lax decision-making, for example, it is not always clear who decides whether the funds can be used for public infrastructure or for private invest- ments (Briffault 2010; Merriman 2018). Exhibit 45 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU36.

110 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Use Impact Fees or Proffers to Foster FELU Description: New developments usually produce externalities to the community (environmental, traffic, or infrastruc- tural) or create additional needs for the surrounding area, such as new roads or infrastructure. To mitigate the impact of the development, local governments charge developers a one-time impact fee based on the amount of externalities the new development produced. In areas where impact fees are not allowed, one-time monetary exactions (or proffers) may be accepted based on negotiations between the public sector and the developer. These funds are an alternative way to fund public-sector projects that provide services or that mitigate transportation system impacts from the develop- ment. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation: Pricing Problem source: All traffic, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Sidewalk conflicts Expected costs and level of effort: Governments can look locally for precedents in other communities and check regulations from state governments. In recent years, the fees often must pass a rational nexus test to ensure that they are not beyond the costs attributable to the individual development. Governments may be required to account for the new revenue created by the development. Additionally, continuous effort is needed to determine the amount of fees for each particular development and the optimal uses of the funds. Imposing fees can be controversial, resulting in disputes and potential lawsuits from developers. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Developers, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: Less than a year Advantages: • Obtains funding for infrastructure improvements • Increases developer’s awareness of their develop- ment’s externalities • Encourages developers to reduce their impact through site design and operation Disadvantages: • Discourages new development • Only recovers costs associated with future develop- ment Examples: • Growth Management Act, Washington State. Authorizes rap- idly growing areas in the state to impose impact fees (collected by the DOT) to fund investment, such as transportation infra- structure, schools, and public protection services (Rupan 2018). • Proffer System, Virginia. In many communities within Vir- ginia, such as Loudoun County, developers can offer monetary and nonmonetary contributions to mitigate the impacts of the pro- posed development during the rezoning process (Loudoun County Virginia Government 2019). Related land-use initiatives: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Use Tax Increment Financing to Foster FELU Complementary transportation initiatives: Enhanced Traffic Impact Analysis; Freight Demand Management; Park- ing and Loading Areas Management; Logistics Management; Taxation References: American Planning Association (1997); Rupan (2018); Loudoun County Virginia Government (2019); Texas A&M Transportation Institute (2019) 29 States with Impact Fees (Hawaii not shown) Source: (Rupan 2018) Exhibit 40. Initiative LU31: Use impact fees or proffers to foster FELU.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 111   Use Tax Incentives to Foster FELU Description: The provision of incentives to the private sector encourages investment in facilities (either new construc- tion or redevelopment) for certain industries or in location-efficient neighborhoods. This initiative stimulates economic development as businesses may be attracted by the potential of reduced taxes after making substantial investment. At the same time, it can reduce freight sprawl by targeting investment in existing facilities, such as those located in urban cores. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area, Corridor, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation: Tax- ation Problem source: Inadequate facilities, All traffic, LTGs Expected costs and level of effort: Public agencies would need to determine the criteria for eligibility, such as choos- ing geographical locations where the program will be implemented, and also determine the amount of incentive that should be provided, which should likely include economic analysis that considers the costs and future benefits. Gov- ernments would experience short-term tax revenue losses but should expect increased future tax revenue. Developers would likely have to undergo substantial financial investment to qualify for the tax incentives. Tax incentive programs may require private firms to apply for the incentives, which often have fees for application review. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Developers, Committees on Ways and Means, Regional Planning Agen- cies, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: 6 to 10 years Advantages: • Encourages investment in freight facilities • Improves operational efficiency • Reduces logistics sprawl Disadvantages: • Moderate risk of unintended consequences - Potential for increased congestion - Environmental impacts from construction • Equity concerns stemming from selection of targeted neighborhoods or industries Examples: • Local level: Industrial and Commercial Abatement Program, NYC. The program offers tax abatement for invest- ment in new or existing industrial buildings that meet additional eligibility requirements for 25 years (New York City Economic Development Corporation 2019). • State level: Industrial Property Tax Abatement, Michigan. The program designates industries and provides tax abatements for businesses making infrastructure investments for up to 12 years (Michigan Economic Development Corporation 2018). • Federal level: Federal Historic Preservation Tax Incentives program, A 20% tax credit on rehabilitation of historic designated buildings (National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior 2019). Related land-use initiatives: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Provide Performance-Based Incentives; Enhance Existing Certification Programs to Foster FELU Practices; Relocate LTGs, If Warranted Complementary transportation initiatives: Recognition Programs; Certification Programs References: Michigan Economic Development Corporation (2018); National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior (2019); New York City Economic Development Corporation (2019) Exhibit 41. Initiative LU32: Use tax incentives to foster FELU.

112 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Provide Land Subsidies or Grants Description: Financial assistance encourages the private sector to invest in new developments or redevelop of existing facilities by offsetting a portion of the cost of freight-efficient development. These subsidies and grant programs finan- cially assist developers in the acquisition or development of land. In exchange, the development must provide some level of benefit to the community, for example, through site cleanup, providing public amenities, or substantial eco- nomic development. By targeting the land subsidies and grants toward specific goals or specific industry sectors, these programs can further promote freight-efficient land use, reducing systemic inefficiencies and logistics sprawl. Geographic Scope: Parcel Initiative Group: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation: Incen- tives Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure Expected costs and level of effort: The public sector often determines land subsidies on a case-by-case basis. There is a moderate cost to determine a project’s eligibility and to determine the value of the subsidy or grant to be provided. There is also a cost incurred from absorbing a loss when selling land at a discount, which may be recovered through future tax revenue on projects that encourage economic growth. The private sector would be involved in applying for the incentive and negotiating with local governments. Applying entities may also need to prove due diligence by stud- ying the site conditions and the market value of the land. Stakeholders involved: Developers, Building Departments, Planning Commission, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • May support environmental cleanup on selected sites • Encourages investment in freight facilities Disadvantages: • Potential for increased congestion through increased local economic activity Examples: • Financial assistance for industrial development, Fairfield, California. The city determines on a case-by-case basis the financial assistance that is provided to companies, including the potential for land write-downs (City of Fairfield 2018). • Negotiated Sales Program, Garfield Park, Chicago, IL. The region provides discounts on vacant land for projects that support public benefits (Garfield Park Community Council 2019). Related land-use initiatives: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Relocate LTGs If Warranted; Use Impact Fees or Proffers to Foster FELU Complementary transportation initiatives: N/A References: City of Madison (2014); City of Fairfield (2018); Garfield Park Community Council (2019) Exhibit 42. Initiative LU33: Provide land subsidies or grants.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 113   Provide Performance-Based Incentives Description: Incentive programs encourage the incorporation of freight-efficient features in the design of both new and existing buildings, often through grants or density bonuses aimed at reducing systemic inefficiencies and enhancing livability. Grant programs can provide funds based on FELU performance criteria, such as by constructing an off-street loading area, which promotes freight-efficient design and operational efficiency. Density bonuses can increase the maximum allowed floor area of a development in exchange for investment in public-sector goals. Other FELU perfor- mance-based criteria could include the use of environmentally friendly delivery vehicles or receiver-led consolidation of deliveries. Geographic scope: Parcel, Building Initiative group: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation: Incen- tives Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure Expected costs and level of effort: Public agencies may adopt a set of FELU criteria from other agencies, if available, or develop their own. When developing their own criteria, the public sector should involve multiple stakeholders. To determine the reward for completing the incentive, agencies should use economic analysis that considers the costs to the public sector and benefits to the community. Implementing this incentive or even updating programs often requires city council review. The private sector can choose whether to participate in this voluntary regulation, which may inflict high cost for upgrading existing buildings. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Developers, Committees on Ways and Means, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Encourages investment in freight facilities • Improves operational efficiency • May reduce overall congestion (e.g., by relocating on- street deliveries) Disadvantages: • Environmental impacts from construction • Moderate risk of unintended consequences - May increase congestion and noise in the vicinity of the area (e.g., by encouraging new investment) Examples: • Floor Area Ratio Incentives, City of Newcastle, Washington. Incentive program to encourage features that are a public benefit, such as pedestrian amenities or public open space, in exchange for density bonuses (The Newcastle Municipal Code 2019). • Washington, DC. A pilot program starting in 2015 provided financial incentives to encourage the expansion of overnight deliveries. Grants could be used to fund the deliveries or to construct infrastructure to receive these de- liveries (The Newcastle Municipal Code 2019). Related land-use initiatives: Enhance Existing Certification Programs to Foster FELU Practices; Site and Building Design; Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks Complementary transportation initiatives: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation References: San Joaquin County (2018); Seattle: Office of Planning and Community Development (2018); City of Deltona (2019); Economic Development Partnership of North Carolina (2019); The Newcastle Municipal Code (2019) Exhibit 43. Initiative LU34: Provide performance-based incentives.

114 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Enhance Existing Certification Programs to Foster FELU Practices Description: Certification programs encourage incorporation of freight-efficient features into the design and operation of buildings by offering recognition to participants. For example, the LEED Certification Program provides certifica- tion to various entities, such as to commercial establishments or neighborhood projects, to encourage the development of sustainable and efficient cities. Encouraging voluntary efforts to implement FELU design and practices improves the freight efficiency, reduces externalities, and enhances livability. Geographic scope: Area, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation. Incen- tives Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Sidewalk conflicts Expected costs and level of effort: Municipalities can choose to incorporate existing certification programs that they sponsor, at a relatively low cost to raise awareness for the FELU practices. Agencies could rely on external organiza- tions, such as the U.S. Green Building Council, which offers the LEED certification based on predetermined criteria. In addition, they can also choose to develop their own certification programs; however, this would add significant costs and effort to design the programs. Under these programs, the public sector would also absorb the costs to monitor compliance with the criteria. Certification programs must be updated regularly to ensure that they incorporate the latest guidelines and best practices. The private sector must apply for certification, which may be a time-consuming process, as developers may spend extra effort designing buildings and communicating with certification officials during the design and construction process. Designing to receive the certification will likely increase the cost of construction or the cost of operation. Stakeholders involved: Developers, Environmental Agencies, DOTs, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Improves operational efficiency • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability Disadvantages: • Tradeoff between (1) more robust and restrictive re- quirements and (2) allowing freedom for innovation Examples: • LEED program, U.S. Green Building Council. Of- fers certification for buildings that include energy efficient attributes in nine categories, one of which is “location and transport,” which encourages com- pact development and the use of alternative trans- portation. In addition, LEED offers certification for neighborhoods based on attributes, such as ef- ficient location or even the inclusion of mixed-use facilities (U.S. Green Building Council 2019b). • Green Globe Business Certification program. Offers certifi- cation for buildings that meet sustainability criteria, including in areas related to freight efficiency such as reducing pollution, improving community development and ensuring sustainable design of infrastructure (Green Globe 2019). Related land-use initiatives: Provide Performance-Based Incentives; Site and Building Design; Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks Complementary transportation initiatives: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation References: Government of the District of Columbia (2008); Dablanc et al. (2013); Howe (2015); Green Globe (2019); U.S. Green Building Council (2019b, 2019a) Rating System for LEED and Green Globes Source: (Howe 2015) Exhibit 44. Initiative LU35: Enhance existing certification programs to foster FELU practices.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 115   Use Tax Increment Financing to Foster FELU Description: TIF reinvests future increases in property tax within a designated zone. The funds are typically used to finance development of the district or to mitigate issues such as congestion. This incentivizes industry development within the zone, as a business’s tax money is invested locally, and businesses can more directly feel the benefits of public investment. TIF programs are beneficial to zones where there is a need for urban regeneration or a need for community improvement projects. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation: Taxa- tion Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, All traffic Expected costs and level of effort: The public sector must designate a zone for a TIF program, which involves multiple levels of government. The approval process can be lengthy; in Chicago, approval takes a minimum of 9 months. The process may be complex and necessitate the help of a public finance adviser, which adds substantial cost, especially for smaller projects. The incentive could require substantial financial investment from the public sector if projects are funded upfront and paid back through future taxes from new investment, or little financial investment if projects are funded on a year-by-year basis as funding is obtained. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Public Works Departments, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Obtains funding for infrastructure improvements • Encourages new investment in freight facilities in tar- geted urban areas • May involve environmental cleanup in selected sites Disadvantages: • Equity concerns stemming from selection of targeted districts • Difficult to implement in areas without existing TIF districts Examples: • Tax Increment Financing Program, Chicago, IL. The City of Chicago has over 100 TIF districts that can be implemented in areas that are considered deficient, either due to lacking infrastructure or challenging economic conditions (City of Chicago 2019b). • Tax Allocation District, Atlanta, Georgia. Atlantic Station, one of Atlanta’s 10 areas with a TIF program, financed environmental rehabilitation and the construc- tion of utilities and roads on the site of a former urban steel mill, which encouraged development in the area and substantially in- creased property taxes (World Bank 2015). Related land-use initiatives: Site and Building Design; Use Tax Incentives to Foster FELU Complementary transportation initiatives: Taxation; Parking and Loading Areas Management References: World Bank (2015); City of Chicago (2016, 2019b; 2019c) Map of TIF Districts in Chicago Source: (City of Chicago 2019c) Exhibit 45. Initiative LU36: Use tax increment financing to foster FELU.

116 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools 7.7 Stakeholder Engagement To minimize unintended consequences and improve the acceptance rating of a decision, decision-makers need to have a holistic view of the situation, and take into account the per- spectives of all stakeholders involved. Historically, stakeholders have failed to understand the linkage between land-use and transportation planning, creating a critical need for engagement between transportation and land-use agencies toward advancing joint efforts (ICF Consulting 2005). To effectively engage stakeholders in the land-use and freight planning process, mecha- nisms must be available to facilitate interactions and provide platforms that allow education, communication, and cooperation. The following initiatives attempt to provide such mecha- nisms. The initiatives in this Stakeholder Engagement section focus on fostering FELU, while those stakeholder engagement initiatives related to enhancing freight transportation operations are found in Chapter 9. 7.7.1 Education Initiative LU37: Educate Elected Officials on the Importance of FELUs (Joint) The main objective of this initiative is not to train the elected officials on planning for freight- efficient land uses, but to make sure that elected officials are fully aware of the importance of achieving FELUs for their communities. As the Port of New York example in Section 2.1 illus- trated, inefficient freight land uses are bound to have major impacts on the entire metropolitan area. Achieving FELUs, in the manner outlined in this guide, benefits all. A critical component of this educational effort is an emphasis on the minimization of the externalities produced by freight facilities that impact local communities; addressing these externalities will help remove community opposition to FELU initiatives. Several states, such as Utah, South Carolina, California, and Minnesota, have developed programs that present various real cases to elected officials. These programs include forums, visits, and talks, in which the importance of achieving FELU is highlighted. Such resources serve them as tools to train them for better practices. Exhibit 46 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU37. Initiative LU38: Educate Practitioners on FELU Principles (Joint) An effective educational effort is required to provide public and private-sector practitioners with actionable knowledge about FELU goals and objectives, principles, the development of a FELU program, the use of decision-support tools to gain insight into their local conditions, and the wide range of land-use and transportation initiatives that could be used to foster FELUs. Success- fully conducting this educational program to practitioners is bound to require the use of technical webinars, workshops, and other training mechanisms. While some dissemination efforts may take place on a case-by-case basis, it is wise to engage national and regional associations, such as the APA, professional associations, and academia to educate larger audiences. It is an ongoing process that is applicable to both novice and experienced practitioners, to ensure that the FELU initia- tives are sustained over time. Exhibit 47 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU38. 7.7.2 Partnership Initiative LU39: Foster Public-Private Collaboration (Joint) Public-private collaboration efforts seek to change the nature of the relations between public and private sectors, creating a formal environment to foster collaborations. This is important because the vast majority of land-use issues cannot be solved by the unilateral action of either the public or the private sector. In this context, public-private collaboration may be the only option.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 117   These collaboration efforts create synergies that could not be achieved without the partnership. One of the common schemes relates to the private sector leading a land development project, in which the public sector participates by providing financial or managerial support. These partnerships must be aligned with FELU and freight plans, and must take into account the com- munity’s perspectives and the potential for unintended consequences. For instance, a public- private-sector partnership between the Pennsylvania DOT and the private sector, including Fedex Ground, built an industrial zone that impacted the nearby communities; the complaints were taken to court, where the case stands currently (Lehigh Valley Planning Commission 2020). Exhibit 48 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU39. Initiative LU40: Create and Engage Joint Freight Land-Use and Transportation Committees (Joint) Joint Freight, Land-Use and Transportation Committees compose an ideal space in which land-use and freight stakeholders can come together to discuss critical matters of interest. As interactions in the joint committees strengthen the relationships between the stake- holders, collaboration and engagement will lead to implementation of novel solutions that foresee and tackle potential unintended consequences. It is key that the joint land-use and freight committees are composed of planners, representatives from the private sector, and the community to ensure that the forum receives feedback from all stakeholder groups. Exhibit 49 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU40. Initiative LU41: Create and Engage Regional Land-Use and Freight Forums (Joint) Regional Land-Use and Freight Forums offer a formal space for stakeholders to discuss relevant issues at the regional level. This broader perspective is important to ensure that all relevant decision-makers understand the importance of FELU and the impact of not having FELUs. These forums are particularly important in regions where multiple land-use agencies operate because this regional view will help define procedures to mitigate negative impacts on any juris- diction that could block the progress of FELU projects. Exhibit 50 summarizes essential charac- teristics of Initiative LU41. Initiative LU42: Implement Community Engagement Programs (Joint) Community engagement programs provide a framework to establish channels of commu- nication between public agencies and the community. These programs enable the public sector to communicate and keep the community up to date on the freight and land-use planning processes. At the same time, the community finds a place in which to voice their opinions and become involved with the planning processes. As the community gets more involved with the decision-making process, this initiative will promote engagement on all sides. Exhibit 51 sum- marizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU42. Initiative LU43: Foster Business Improvement Districts (Joint) BIDs align the private-sector stakeholders in a relatively small geographic area to improve the business environment of the district. These coalitions often organize themselves to improve the conditions of infrastructure and provide services to both the private sector and the commu- nity beyond what is available from the public sector. While these initiatives require a high level of coordination among relevant stakeholders, experience has shown that these coalitions are effective in improving communities, and could be leveraged to foster FELU and be a catalyst for other FELU-related initiatives. Exhibit 52 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative LU43.

118 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Educate Elected Officials on the Importance of FELUs Description: Elected officials are typically not trained in freight and land use, and they may not be aware of the impact of land-use planning on freight activities. This initiative aims to create awareness among elected officials about FELU practices and their potential benefits, and the role that they can play in fostering FELU practices. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Education Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: This initiative requires coordination among the multiple stakeholders involved. It can be implemented in a short time, but the effort must be sustained over time to keep seeing the benefits. Stakeholders involved: Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission, Public Works Departments, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Facilitates implementation of freight initiatives • Creates or improves communication channels among stakeholders • Increases control for unintended consequences • Increases stakeholder engagement Disadvantages: • Has a high need for collaboration and coordination • Needs continuous effort to reach out and educate newly elected officials after each election Examples: • Land Use Academy of Utah. This online resource is used to train and educate officials in land issues and best planning practices (Utah League of Cities and Towns 2020). Source: (Envision Utah 2016) • South Carolina Planning Education Advisory Committee, Columbia, SC. Annual continuing education require- ment for planning and zoning officials, sponsored by the Advisory Committee (Municipal Association of South Carolina 2020). • Understanding the Basics of Land Use and Planning Series, California. This series provides resources to local offi- cials in the planning processes (Institute for Local Government 2015). • Land Use Training and Education Program, Minnesota. Courses and workshops provide officials with general and specific knowledge on equitable and sustainable land use (GTS Educational Events 2020). Related land-use initiatives: Educate Practitioners on FELU Principles; Create and Engage Joint Freight Land-Use and Transportation Committees Complementary transportation initiatives: Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies; Create a Freight Advisory Committee; Create a Technical Advisory Committee References: Steele et al. (2011); Holguín-Veras et al. (2015); Institute for Local Government (2015); Envision Utah (2016); GTS Educational Events (2020); Municipal Association of South Carolina (2020); Utah League of Cities and Towns (2020) Exhibit 46. Initiative LU37: Educate elected officials on the importance of FELUs.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 119   Educate Practitioners on FELU Principles Description: Land-use practitioners and policymakers should be aware of the FELU principles that support their deci- sion-making processes. Education and training programs could be designed to equip these practitioners regarding FELU principles, and how to implement and sustain them over time for the reduction of systematic inefficiencies. This initi- ative becomes more critical as land-use planning educational programs do not tend to offer content related to freight transportation planning. While some dissemination efforts may take place on a case-by-case basis, it is wise to engage national and regional associations, such as the APA, professional associations, and academia to educate larger audi- ences. It is an ongoing process and applicable to both novice and experienced practitioners. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Education Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need for very high coordination among all stakeholders involved. It can be imple- mented in a short time, but the effort must be sustained over time to keep perceiving the benefits. The implementation costs relate to promoting events, workshops, or lectures targeted to practitioners and policymakers. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Carriers, Developers, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Facilitates implementation of freight initiatives • Creates or improves communication channels among stakeholders • Increases control for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Has a high need for collaboration and coordination • Requires sustained effort over time to continue edu- cating future generations of practitioners Examples: • Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission’s Freight Planning Program. Philadelphia, PA. This pro- gram consists of technical endeavors and committee work with the objective of educating practitioners about incorporating freight into the transportation planning process (Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission 2019). • Trucking tells its story at the White House. Washing- ton, DC. ATA talks about the trucking industry to the Executive Branch (American Trucking Associations 2017). • Trucking Association of New York (TANY) in the community. New York State. TANY promotes education, safety and outreach programs for those inside and outside the industry (NY Trucks 2020). Related land-use initiatives: Educate Elected Officials on the Importance of FELUs; Create and Engage Joint Freight Land-Use and Transportation Committees; Implement Community Engagement Programs Complementary transportation initiatives: Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies; Create a Freight Advisory Committee; Create a Technical Advisory Committee; Foster an Industry-Led Best Practices Dissemination Program; Create a Freight Quality Partnership References: Steele et al. (2011); Holguín-Veras et al. (2015); American Trucking Associations (2017); Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission (2019); NY Trucks (2020) Source: (American Trucking Associations 2017) Exhibit 47. Initiative LU38: Educate practitioners on FELU principles.

120 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Foster Public-Private Collaboration Description: A voluntary partnership between the private and public sectors fosters the implementation of land- use practices that improve the negative impacts of freight activity. Partnerships can include private technical ser- vices or the participation of the private sector in the planning process. By more thoroughly considering the private sector’s insights into the supply chain and the movement of freight, the public sector can implement more freight- efficient decisions and land-use plans. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Partnership Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need for coordination of multiple stakeholders, and collaboration between the private and public sector. The term for implementation usually is short term. Stakeholders involved: Carriers, Producers, Receivers, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Com- mission, Public Works Departments Time to fruition: Less than a year, 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Creates role specialization by using the experience of each stakeholder to focus on what they do best • Obtains synergies that would not occur without the partnership • Improves efficiency of the system • Obtains more holistic solutions • Increases control for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • High need of collaboration and coordination • Potential reluctance of the public sector toward the involvement of the private sector • Unintended consequences: - Bias (conscious or unconscious) of private sec- tor toward their benefit, without regard for the rest of the system Examples: • The Brainerd Lakes Area Welcome Center, Minnesota. This was built through a partnership in which the pub- lic sector shared the development costs of truck parking facilities, and the private sector constructed the amen- ities on designated truck stops (I-95 Corridor Coalition 2019). • Lehigh Valley Planning Commission. The private sector shared costs to build an interchange along Route 33, for logistics operations between several businesses (Lehigh Valley Planning Commission 2020). • Partnership between the Pennsylvania DOT, Lehigh Airport Authority, and Fedex Ground. Costs were shared for road improvements connecting the Fedex Ground’s largest facility in the United States, located around the airport in an industrial zone, Lehigh Valley (Lehigh Valley Planning Commission 2020). • Land development through Public-Private Partnership-based planning, surveying and infrastructure provision: Cases in Tanzania, Britain, Europe, Africa (Kasala and Burra 2016). • Private-sector and multi-industry involvement in the land-use planning process (Inquirer Business 2013). Related land-use initiatives: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Provide Performance-Based Incen- tives; Foster Business Improvement Districts; Create and Engage Regional Land-Use and Freight Forums Complementary transportation initiatives: Create a Freight Quality Partnership; Create a Freight Advisory Com- mittee References: Payne (1996); Corrigan et al. (2005); Levainen and Korthals (2005); Inquirer Business (2013); Kasala and Burra (2016); World Bank Blogs (2017); Lehigh Valley Planning Commission (2020) Exhibit 48. Initiative LU39: Foster public-private collaboration.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 121   Create and Engage Joint Freight Land-Use and Transportation Committees Description: Joint committees composed of land-use and freight planners provide a platform to encourage discussions and collaboration among different stakeholders. These committees provide feedback on the freight issues that arise in the land-use planning agenda, together with potential land-use plans that may impact freight activities. This initiative highly encourages the committee’s participants to work jointly on master plans for land-use development, or redevel- opment, in which the collaboration would yield more holistic planning processes. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Partnership Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need of coordination among stakeholders. Additional coordination and stakeholder engagement required for continuous participation in the joint committees. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Producers, Receivers, Carriers, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Public Works Departments Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Increases consideration of freight transportation in land-use planning • Facilitates implementation of freight initiatives • Creates or improves communication channels among stakeholders • Increases control over unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Has a high need for collaboration and coordination • Requires sustained effort over time to ensure partici- pation of stakeholders in the committees • Potential points of conflicts of interest between stake- holders regarding land use Examples: • Committee on Land Use of New York City (New York City Council 2019a) • Land Use and Transportation Committee (LUTC), San Francisco, CA (City and County of San Francisco 2020) • Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning Land Use Committee, Chicago, IL (Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning 2020) • SE Uplift LUTC to discuss land-use and transportations matters, Portland, OR (SE Uplift 2020) Source: (SE Uplift 2020) Related land-use initiatives: Educate Elected Officials on the Importance of FELUs; Educate Practitioners on FELU Principles; Foster Public-Private Collaboration Complementary transportation initiatives: Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies; Create a Freight Advisory Committee; Create a Technical Advisory Committee References: New York City Council (2019b, 2019a); City and County of San Francisco (2020); Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning (2020); SE Uplift (2020) Exhibit 49. Initiative LU40: Create and engage joint freight land-use and transportation committees.

122 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Create and Engage Regional Land-Use and Freight Forums Description: Multi-jurisdictional cooperation at a regional level can be encouraged through involvement in regular forums that discuss freight and land-use decisions. Overall, this initiative promotes more intensive communication among stakeholders at a regional level. Further, it allows inclusion of higher-level perspectives within more local decision processes, together with the framing of local decision processes within regional plans. This initiative could leverage the MPOs Freight Advisory Committees, as they are implemented in most of the MPOs, and land-use prac- titioners may join these meetings. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Partner-ship Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need for very high coordination among stakeholders related to the promotion of the forum. Additional coordination and stakeholder engagement is required for continuous participation. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Producers, Receivers, Carriers, Developers, Regional Planning Agen- cies, Planning Commission, Public Works Departments Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Facilitates implementation of freight initiatives • Creates or improves communication channels among stakeholders • Increases coordination at a regional level • Increases control for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Has a high need for collaboration and coordina- tion • Requires sustained effort over time to ensure par- ticipation of stakeholders in the forum Examples: • National Capital Region Freight Forum. This forum focused on freight transportation in three areas: Downtown Frederick, MD; Downtown Washington, DC; and Rosslyn-Ballston Corridor, Arlington, VA (Transportation Planning Board 2018). Source: (Transportation Planning Board 2018) • Multi-State Freight Working Group hosted by Lehigh Valley Planning Commission, discussing among other items, land-use and transportation plans for Pennsylvania. Other states participating in the forum were New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut (New York Metropolitan Transportation Council 2020b). Related land-use initiatives: Educate Elected Officials on the Importance of FELUs; Educate Practitioners on FELU Principles; Foster Public-Private Collaboration; Implement Community Engagement Programs Complementary transportation initiatives: Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies; Create a Freight Advisory Committee; Create a Technical Advisory Committee; Foster an Industry-Led Best Practice Dissemination Program References: Steele et al. (2011); Transportation Planning Board (2018); London Freight Quality Partnerships (2020); New York Metropolitan Transportation Council (2020b) Exhibit 50. Initiative LU41: Create and engage regional land-use and freight forums.

Overview of Land-Use Initiatives 123   Exhibit 51. Initiative LU42: Implement community engagement programs. Implement Community Engagement Programs Description: Engaging community is essential for the success of FELU programs, because both freight and land use presents conflicts to the community. Allowing for the participation of community groups in the decision-making of FELU initiatives guarantees that their implementation will meet societal needs. Such programs may include but are not limited to involvement of the community during forums or committees that discuss planning processes, development of formal tools for people to give feedback to the public and private sector regarding their actions and activities, and openly and timely informing the community about all projects to be implemented and their progress. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Partnership Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need for collaboration between the public sector and the community. The imple- mentation may be in the short term. It will depend on the level of participation of the community: higher participation (e.g., community voting) might require more complex programs than lesser participation (e.g., community’s opinion). Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission, Public Works De- partments, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: Less than a year, 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Increases meaningful involvement of community • Increases community engagement and access to infor- mation and decision-making • Increases equitability and consensus • Increases control for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Has a high need for collaboration and coordination • Potential reluctance of the public sector toward the in- volvement of the community Examples: • Washington State Department of Transportation Community Engagement Plan 2016. Provides a framework for community engagement in planning, delivery, and maintenance and operations (Washington State Department of Transportation 2016). • Melbourne implemented an online platform for community engagement in planning and transportation for the re- gional removal of level crossings. The online platform is adjustable to different needs, and it aims to encourage inputs from the public on planning projects, city development, and transportation expansions (Bang the Table 2019). • MetroQuest platform. Private company platform to provide governments, transportation agencies, and firms with a visual tool for public engagement in planning processes. The platform involves any type of audience, with education alternatives as well as a collection of inputs (MetroQuest 2019). • Community planning workshop led by New York Metropolitan Transportation Council (NYMTC) for the Route 59 Area Transportation & Land Use Study (New York Metropolitan Transportation Council 2020a). Related land-use initiatives: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Form-Based Zoning to Foster FELU; Foster Public-Private Collaboration; Foster Business Improvement Districts Complementary transportation initiatives: Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies References: Washington State Department of Transportation (2016); Bang the Table (2019); MetroQuest (2019); Project Connect (2019); New York Metropolitan Transportation Council (2020a) Source: (MetroQuest 2019)

124 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Foster Business Improvement Districts Description: Traditionally, BIDs are a group of local businesses and private property owners that get together for the purpose of incentivizing and improving the businesses of the district. Moreover, BIDs deliver services to the commu- nity that usually go beyond the capabilities of what the public sector provides. The initiative of fostering BIDs aims to incentivize the private sector to collaborate and create BIDs, and to promote existing ones within the community. This initiative will allow higher participation of the private sector in more public and community-oriented initiatives. Also, BIDs would be beneficial for the public sector because they account for resources and experience that support public- sector interests. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Partnership Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need for coordination among the private-sector stakeholders. Implementation may be in the short to medium term, depending on BID size and complexity. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Receivers, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: Less than a year, 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Promotes stakeholder engagement • Creates or improves communication channels among the private sector, with the rest of stakeholders • Requires role specialization by using the experience of each stakeholder to focus on what they do best • Obtains synergies that would not occur without col- laboration • Increases equitability and consensus • Increases control for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Has a high need of collaboration and coordination • May face reluctance of the public sector toward ac- cepting involvement of the private sector • Requires sustained effort over time to ensure sustaina- bility of the BIDs Examples: • NYC Department of Small Business Services (SBS). This agency announces the annual report of impacts of BIDs in the city of New York, highlighting their hard work and great achievements toward city development and community improvements. The SBS helps foster the economic potential of New York businesses, through promot- ing their BIDs (NYC Department of Small Business Services 2019). Related land-use initiatives: Foster Public-Private Collaboration; Implement Community Engagement Programs Complementary transportation initiatives: Parking and Loading Areas Management; Freight Demand Manage- ment; Last-Mile Delivery Practices References: NYC Department of Small Business Services (2019) Exhibit 52. Initiative LU43: Foster business improvement districts.

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Land-use planning is essential to fostering quality of life and harmony among the myriad social and economic activities that take place and compete for space in urban and metropolitan areas. Land-use planning also profoundly affects the commercial supply chains that deliver the goods and services that constitute urban and regional economies, and contribute to the quality of life.

The TRB National Cooperative Highway Research Program's NCHRP Research Report 998: Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools is designed to prepare practitioners to make land-use decisions that minimize the private and external costs associated with the production, transportation, and consumption of goods by providing them with the tools needed to analyse the freight efficiency of current and future land uses in their jurisdictions, and identify and select land-use and transportation initiatives.

Supplemental to the report are a tool for assessment of the overall impacts of freight land uses, a document about the research effort, and a presentation.

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