National Academies Press: OpenBook
« Previous: 3 Evidence, Insights, and Lessons Learned from Relevant Efforts
Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×

4
Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection

This chapter develops and explains the criteria that the committee proposes for the Gulf Research Program to use in identifying and selecting communities to participate in the Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) initiative, as well as recommended guiding principles for applying the criteria and engaging those communities. The criteria represent the desired attributes of communities, while the guiding principles represent overarching precepts for aligning EnCoRe community selection and engagement with GRP’s vision and goals for the program. The criteria and guiding principles flow from the findings and recommendations in Chapter 2 related to reimagining resilience and the use of participatory approaches to engaging communities, and from Box 3.1 that covers lessons learned from past and existing resilience-strengthening programs.

As described in Chapter 2, the committee proposes participatory action research and practice (PARP) as the framework for EnCoRe to use in selecting and engaging communities. The basic orientation of PARP is that those most directly affected by a problem should actively participate in developing solutions. The expectation is that actively engaging diverse stakeholders and keeping community needs, contexts, and capacities at the core of partnerships will help to foster capacity building that is sustainable and addresses needs that are a priority to the community. The PARP approach also recognizes the need to make special efforts to work with communities with significant needs, including underserved and small-population communities, that may have difficulties in securing resources to build resilience through existing programs.

The criteria and guiding principles also reflect the committee’s understanding of certain basic aspects of EnCoRe’s program design as described in planning documents and in committee discussions with GRP staff. The original vision for EnCoRe put forward in the report Building and Measuring Community Resilience was that the initiative would “include multiple communities, capture and document community resilience strategies and measurements, foster interactions across and among GRP communities through a resilience learning collaborative, and implement longitudinal research that includes systematic analysis and integration of data from various sources” (NASEM, 2019, p. 7).

EnCoRe will support long-term, multi-year, community engagement” and “partner directly with select communities across the Gulf states and Alaska to build and enhance health

Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×

and community resilience at the local level (Augustine and Milliken, 2021). The ultimate goal is to build community capacity at the local level in ways that enable each of its community partners to embark on its own health and community resilience path independent of EnCoRe and the GRP. Concretely, EnCoRe’s work is expected to involve building relationships and partnerships through direct community engagement, supporting existing and new local health and resilience efforts, and working with communities to build capacity in areas such as measuring health and resilience, and strengthening community leadership. See Chapter 2 for a more detailed discussion of EnCoRe plans and assumptions. See Figure 4-1 for EnCoRe’s anticipated timeline.

Image
FIGURE 4-1 EnCoRe anticipated timeline.
SOURCE: Generated by the Gulf Research Program.

CRITERIA FOR COMMUNITY IDENTIFICATION AND SELECTION

Recommendation 4.1: The Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) initiative should employ an approach to community selection that aims to build equitable resilience by applying the following criteria flexibly: (1) community need for enhanced resilience, (2) community interest in participating and commitment to partnering, (3) existing community capacity and potential for building capacity, and (4) community potential for sustaining equitable resilience.

Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×

EnCoRe’s Opportunity and the Value of Flexibility

As discussed above, EnCoRe’s mission and governance within the Gulf Research Program will give it the flexibility to engage with communities and build capacity in a variety of ways. EnCoRe has the opportunity to test and validate innovative modes of operation. The findings and recommendations developed in Chapters 2 and insights developed in Chapter 3 provide a framework and rationale for approaches available to EnCoRe that may not be feasible for government or private funders.

For example, community engagements can be phased, with efforts to identify and train community champions, launch pilot projects, build networks and collaboratives, and other preparatory work leading into more extensive engagement efforts focused on a variety of specific communities. EnCoRe might employ staff and retain consultants to undertake certain resilience-strengthening tasks; support universities and other nonprofit organizations to undertake research and other activities; partner with existing national, state, and community organizations; and provide direct assistance to communities. In partnerships where one or more community groups have some management responsibility, or where communities are smaller, underserved, or have lower capacity, GRP itself could be more directly involved in engaging community members in planning and implementing the partnership. Specific mechanisms could include involving community members directly in project design or providing resources such as facilitators, technical grant assistance, and connections to researchers to develop a plan to meet community needs.

The recommended criteria are described at a general level so that they may be applied in a flexible way. EnCoRe will be able to learn and adjust its approaches over time in response to experience and evidence. Considerations that might arise in employing various modes of operation and the implications for selection will be discussed in Chapter 5.

EnCoRe has an opportunity to expand its impact by working with a variety of communities with diverse needs. Communities will inevitably vary in the extent to which they meet the criteria recommended by the committee, presenting different opportunities for strengthening resilience. For example, communities that already possess some capacity and experience in identifying resilience-related needs might provide an opportunity for EnCoRe to make targeted investments that address those needs. Working with communities that have been engaged in resilience-strengthening efforts and need additional support to fully maximize positive impacts could yield excellent return on investment. Such engagements could also add a developmental and growth focus within networks supported by EnCoRe or other organizations. Likewise, communities that have more acute needs but have not been involved in resilience-strengthening programs in the past might provide opportunities for a longer-term, more comprehensive approach to engagement. A rigid application of selection criteria might close off these sorts of opportunities.

The actual mechanisms used to assess the extent to which communities meet the criteria will likely vary depending on the stage and type of engagement. For example, at early stages of

Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×

an engagement where planning or training grants are utilized to build community capacity, assessment can be somewhat informal. For larger-scale, more complex engagements, assessment might be undertaken through a formal proposal process. Such a process might address how community members have been engaged in project scoping, how the project timeline aligns with existing community initiatives and priorities, and the track record of the applying organizations in meeting community needs.

Community Need for Enhanced Resilience

While it might seem straightforward that the need for additional capacity to enhance resilience would be a central criterion for community participation in EnCoRe, earlier chapters of this report indicate areas in which identifying and measuring community needs and vulnerabilities can be a complex undertaking that requires a nuanced and flexible approach.

As discussed in Chapter 2, understanding of community resilience and the capacities that strengthen resilience has evolved over the years since 2005, when the experience of communities, governments, and other entities with Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath led to a rethinking of how communities prepare for and respond to disasters. This rethinking, in turn, resulted in programs and initiatives by governments, private foundations, and nongovernmental organizations aimed at encouraging communities to strengthen their capacity to manage and recover from shocks, as well as cope with persistent challenges such as environmental degradation and climate change. The report Building and Measuring Community Resilience (NASEM, 2019) points out the continuing challenge of defining the dimensions of resilience that apply across communities that may be facing very different circumstances and threats, as well as the difficulty of developing appropriate measures for resilience that can be used to determine design and evaluate interventions.

Chapter 2 also describes resilience fatigue as arising from some of the policies and programs adopted with the ostensible aim of strengthening resilience. Some efforts might be seen as yielding suboptimal or dysfunctional outcomes, or even as perpetuating community vulnerabilities. For example, some coastal communities in the Gulf region that are heavily impacted by acute surge flooding and sea level rise may be caught in what sociologist Ian Gray has called the “treadmill of protection”—increasing levels of government-backed expenditures that seek to defend economic viability, regardless of social, economic, or environmental consequence. The treadmill of protection can also include actions aimed at preventing immediate loss that may work to secure incumbent extractive industries, such as offshore oil and gas drilling, which contribute to the very vulnerabilities requiring intervention in the first place (Gray, 2021).

GRP has adopted the six community capitals of resilience and the social determinants of health as its primary frameworks for assessing resilience and structuring its EnCoRe partnerships (see Chapter 2). GRP ascribes to a broad definition of community resilience, to include planning, absorbing, recovering, and adapting at the level of the environment, as well as the physical and

Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×

mental health of the community and its members; approaches that appreciate the interplay of these elements could have significant positive impact.

Community Interest and Commitment to Partnering

One of the key themes emerging from the discussions with programs and communities summarized in Chapter 3 is that communities should demonstrate a baseline of interest in participating in resilience-strengthening efforts, including identifying needs, setting shared expectations, measuring progress, and making adjustments in approach over time as needed. Ensuring that a critical mass of the community is interested and willing to participate in the program, as opposed to just one or a few community members, appears to increase the likelihood of sustainable, positive impacts. The best evidence that communities possess a baseline level of interest is that community groups and community partners have participated in discussions and planning for the project.

Assessing community interest and commitment has several interrelated aspects. For example, given EnCoRe’s stated intention to build networks and partnerships, a community’s commitment and willingness to engage with partners outside its own jurisdiction is important. Communities are physically and economically interconnected with other communities, and their resilience depends in part on the resilience of these other communities. Examples where this might come into play include shared infrastructure, such as housing and roads in one community that bring workers to another community; levees in one community that affect flood water management in other communities; or several communities surrounding a shared source of jobs and income, such as a port, factory, or military installation.

As discussed in Chapters 2 and 5, effective approaches to assessment and evaluation will play a significant role in shaping EnCoRe and determining its ultimate impact. Community participation in evaluation processes that develop lessons learned that can be applied not only in making their own partnership more successful, but also across regions or in other communities facing similar challenges will be valuable for everyone involved in EnCoRe. Conceiving of communities participating in EnCoRe—both as a totality and as regional groups—as a learning network underlines the importance of keeping communities engaged in evaluation processes.

It will be important for EnCoRe and prospective participating communities to agree on one or more intended outcomes that ultimately define what enhanced resilience will look like in that particular community. Naturally, if there is clear concurrence on what success looks like at the end of the process, then there will also need to be secondary agreement between EnCoRe and any community that may participate regarding the “who” and the “how” of establishing and monitoring milestones along the way. Any prospective community with which EnCoRe engages will have concerns and issues beyond EnCoRe’s scope and purpose. As such, it will be crucial for EnCoRe and participating communities to establish goals and responsibilities clearly, mutually, and early in the process so that expectations for the relationship are both reasonable and beneficial for both parties. And, in going through that early process in which expectations

Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×

and responsibilities are established, some communities may decide that EnCoRe participation is not right for them. Forming partnerships on the basis of clear, mutually understood, and agreed-upon expectations can help EnCoRe avoid resilience fatigue, which can emanate from poorly defined objectives and/or misaligned priorities between a community and programs designed to enhance resilience.

Existing Community Capacity and the Potential for Building Capacity

Community interest and existing capacity also come into play in identifying and working to protect community knowledge as part of the partnership, and in developing capacity as needed. EnCoRe can build support for developing such capacity into its partnerships.

The importance of assessing existing community capacity and taking this into account when designing partnerships is discussed above in reference to the value of a flexible approach to engagement and assessing needs. Communities with varying levels and types of existing capacity will benefit from participation in the EnCoRe program, and various approaches to forming and developing partnerships can be taken to address the needs of diverse communities.

Sustaining Equitable Resilience

Sustainability and equity are key elements of successful resilience-strengthening efforts, and EnCoRe has an opportunity to structure community selection and partnership initiation in ways that support those goals. Effectively sustaining equitable resilience entails a commitment on the part of communities and participating organizations to distribute the benefits of the partnership equitably among the stakeholders and include them in decision-making processes. EnCoRe’s can help communities make and keep such commitments by designating resources to support community participation as part of the partnership initiation process (e.g., transportation, child care, food, and payment for participants’ time where appropriate). Chapter 5 includes additional discussion related to sustainability and equity.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR APPLYING THE SELECTION CRITERIA

Recommendation 4.2: In applying the recommended criteria, the Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) initiative should utilize lessons learned from past and existing efforts to maximize the potential for success by adopting the following guiding principles: (1) empowerment of program champions, (2) collaborative identification of community needs, (3) collaborative development of metrics and evaluation plans, (4) support for the cultural and language competence of program participants from outside the community, and (5) commitment to inclusion of underserved and small-population communities.

Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×

Empowering Program Champions

Chapter 3 includes an extensive discussion of the importance of individuals and/or organizations that are trusted in the community and invested in the long-term success of the partnership, which provides the support and rationale for this guiding principle. For several of the programs examined by the committee, working with existing champions, training new champions, and providing support to champions contributed to success.

In practice, identifying actual and potential champions and supporting them may not be easy or straightforward. Individuals and groups may well emerge that claim to be representing a community but are more interested in pursuing their own goals or ambitions. Developing a good understanding of who is an actual or potential champion and who is not is vital. Also, there may not always be a champion in place in some frontline communities, and there may not be anyone with the capacity to take on such a role. See Box 3-2 in Chapter 3 for an overview of community champions.

Collaborative Identification of Community Needs

The discussion of PARP in Chapter 2 and the discussion of past and existing efforts in Chapter 3 provide the rationale and support for the guiding principle of collaborative to identify community needs. Community needs are central to EnCoRe, and community selection and program initiation reflect this. From the discussion of past and existing programs in Chapter 3, it is clear that collaborative approaches contribute to strengthening resilience on a sustained basis. Reviewing the community’s history of climate and hazard challenges, projecting risks and possible future impacts, and connecting these impacts to health and environmental outcomes will be critical to structuring effective partnerships.

Collaborative Development of Metrics and Evaluation Plans

The principle of collaborative development of metrics and evaluation plans is closely linked with the collaborative identification of community needs, and likewise is supported by the discussions in Chapters 2 and 3. A collaborative baseline assessment of needs, readiness to engage, and capacity would implement both of these principles. Such a baseline assessment of needs would aid GRP in deciding which communities to prioritize in partnership activities, in developing partnership plans, and in establishing a baseline for ongoing data collection to track progress. Baseline assessments could also document past, present, and anticipated future shocks and stressors to communities—as well as inventory capacity to withstand or avoid those shocks and stressors using frameworks such as the six community capitals of resilience and the social determinants of health.

A baseline evaluation of the community’s readiness to engage in EnCoRe would also facilitate support and consultation efforts, as readiness is understood to be a function of

Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×

motivation, innovation-specific/resilience initiative capacity, and general capacity (Scott et al., 2017). Understanding initial conditions holistically will help GRP and the community structure a partnership equipped to address cascading impacts of shocks and stressors that ultimately speak to community health and resilience. It will also position EnCoRe partner with communities in a transformational growth process (e.g., the Plan, Do, Study, Act cycle of Deming, 1993, as cited in Moen and Norman, 2009).

Following the PARP principles of cocreation and respect for community knowledge, the collaborative baseline assessment will help the community better specify their needs, consider their capacity and readiness, and establish goals for EnCoRe intervention. This assessment work at the outset of the partnership can also help ensure that any research activities undertaken as part of EnCoRe partnerships will generate and apply knowledge that is relevant to community needs and reflects understanding of existing community resources and information. This framework can also foster respect for existing community resilience, which is “necessary to respond to chronic adversities and structural inequities that lead to historical trauma through multiple generations” (Mowe, 2017, para. 1).

Supporting Cultural and Language Competence of Participants from Outside the Community

As discussed above, EnCoRe partnerships may involve support for academic institutions engaged in research activities within communities or involving community members intended to strengthen resilience. Chapters 2 and 3 discuss a number of characteristics of research activities that contribute to partnerships by generating and applying knowledge relevant to community needs and reflecting an understanding of the community. Necessary preconditions include adhering to ethical standards with respect to data collection and control, committing to collaboratively identify and protect community knowledge, and establishing in a clear and transparent way that research relationships with frontline communities will be mutually beneficial and not extractive.

Supporting the cultural and language competence of researchers and other project participants from outside the community is an important principle for helping to ensure that these preconditions are met. EnCoRe might require that researchers or research institutions receiving support demonstrate in the proposal itself that community groups and partners support the project or have collaborated in developing it. The principal investigator for one of the awards granted under the National Science Foundation’s Navigating the New Arctic program described a multifaceted approach taken to form productive and equitable partnerships with local Alaskan communities. This approach included participation in established convenings, research on published material about the community and its challenges, and scenario workshops that brought together various stakeholders to work through how community members would respond to different situations and events.

Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×

Commitment to the Inclusion of Underserved Communities

Chapter 3 describes some of the challenges and limitations faced by federal agencies and other organizations in working with underserved and small-population communities. Such communities may not have their own incorporated political entity and/or lack an associated nonprofit with the tax status and capacity to receive and manage federal awards. EnCoRe has the mission, resources, and flexibility to reach and engage with underserved communities on a long-term basis. In this way, EnCoRe has the potential to make a unique and long-lasting contribution to community resilience and health, and its degree of success in this area will be important to the overall success of the program. Implementing this approach will likely involve some additional time, effort, and resources, and may require more innovative outreach approaches to identifying and initiating communication with communities than is usual or expected in other programs. GRP may have to work with a community over time, utilizing meetings, planning grants, and other mechanisms, to enable the community to articulate its needs.

Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×
Page 49
Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×
Page 50
Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×
Page 51
Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×
Page 52
Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×
Page 53
Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×
Page 54
Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×
Page 55
Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×
Page 56
Suggested Citation:"4 Proposed Criteria and Guiding Principles for Community Selection." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26880.
×
Page 57
Next: 5 Applying the Criteria and Guiding Principles: Challenges, Opportunities, and Other Considerations »
Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience: Criteria and Guiding Principles for the Gulf Research Program's Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) Initiative Get This Book
×
Buy Paperback | $23.00 Buy Ebook | $18.99
MyNAP members save 10% online.
Login or Register to save!
Download Free PDF

The Gulf Research Program of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine has developed a program to strengthen community resilience, the Enhancing Community Resilience (EnCoRe) initiative. EnCoRe aims to reduce inequities in health and community resilience; advance research and practice in health and community resilience; and build the capacity of communities for addressing the impacts of climate change and disasters on at-risk populations. To achieve these goals, EnCoRe will support long-term, multiyear community engagement projects that partner directly with select communities across the Gulf region and Alaska.

This report develops findings and recommendations intended to help guide EnCoRe in identifying, selecting, and engaging with communities as it moves forward with the initiative. Strengthening Equitable Community Resilience examines past and current community engagement efforts and other relevant materials, particularly those that have included communities in the Gulf region and Alaska, for the purpose of identifying guiding principles and lessons learned and then develops a set of guiding principles to identify criteria for selecting the participating communities in the EnCoRe program.

  1. ×

    Welcome to OpenBook!

    You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

    Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

    No Thanks Take a Tour »
  2. ×

    Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name.

    « Back Next »
  3. ×

    ...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

    « Back Next »
  4. ×

    Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

    « Back Next »
  5. ×

    Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

    « Back Next »
  6. ×

    To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter.

    « Back Next »
  7. ×

    Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

    « Back Next »
  8. ×

    View our suggested citation for this chapter.

    « Back Next »
  9. ×

    Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

    « Back Next »
Stay Connected!