TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
TCRP RESEARCH REPORT 242
Homelessness
A GUIDE FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
Marisa Zapata
John MacArthur
Anna Rockhill
Rebeca Petean
Homelessness Research & Action Collaborative (HRAC)
AND
Transportation Research and Education Center (TREC)
PORTLAND STATE UNIVERSITY
Portland, OR
Subject Areas
Public Transportation • Society
Research sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration in cooperation with the American Public Transportation Association
TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
The nation’s growth and the need to meet mobility, environmental, and energy objectives place demands on public transit systems. Current systems, some of which are old and in need of upgrading, must expand service area, increase service frequency, and improve efficiency to serve these demands. Research is necessary to solve operating problems, adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and introduce innovations into the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the transit industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it.
The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special Report 213—Research for Public Transit: New Directions, published in 1987 and based on a study sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation Administration—now the Federal Transit Administration (FTA). A report by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), Transportation 2000, also recognized the need for local, problem-solving research. TCRP, modeled after the successful National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), undertakes research and other technical activities in response to the needs of transit service providers. The scope of TCRP includes various transit research fields including planning, service configuration, equipment, facilities, operations, human resources, maintenance, policy, and administrative practices.
TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. Proposed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was authorized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13, 1992, a memorandum agreement outlining TCRP operating procedures was executed by the three cooperating organizations: FTA; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, acting through the Transportation Research Board (TRB); and APTA. APTA is responsible for forming the independent governing board, designated as the TCRP Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS) Commission.
Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically but may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility of the TOPS Commission to formulate the research program by identifying the highest priority projects. As part of the evaluation, the TOPS Commission defines funding levels and expected products.
Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel appointed by TRB. The panels prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process for developing research problem statements and selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooperative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, TCRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation.
Because research cannot have the desired effect if products fail to reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on disseminating TCRP results to the intended users of the research: transit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB provides a series of research reports, syntheses of transit practice, and other supporting material developed by TCRP research. APTA will arrange for workshops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure that results are implemented by urban and rural transit industry practitioners.
TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can cooperatively address common operational problems. TCRP results support and complement other ongoing transit research and training programs.
TCRP RESEARCH REPORT 242
Project J-11/Task 40
ISSN 2572-3782
ISBN 978-0-309-70931-6
© 2024 by the National Academy of Sciences. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and the graphical logo are trademarks of the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
COPYRIGHT INFORMATION
Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein.
Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, APTA, FAA, FHWA, FTA, GHSA, or NHTSA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP.
Cover photo credit: Portland Streetcar, Inc.
NOTICE
The research report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.
The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; or the program sponsors.
The Transportation Research Board does not develop, issue, or publish standards or specifications. The Transportation Research Board manages applied research projects which provide the scientific foundation that may be used by Transportation Research Board sponsors, industry associations, or other organizations as the basis for revised practices, procedures, or specifications.
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COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS
CRP STAFF FOR TCRP RESEARCH REPORT 242
Waseem Dekelbab, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Gwen Chisholm Smith, Manager, Transit Cooperative Research Program
Dianne S. Schwager, Senior Program Officer
Dajaih Bias-Johnson, Senior Program Assistant
Natalie Barnes, Director of Publications
Heather DiAngelis, Associate Director of Publications
Doug English, Senior Editor
TCRP PROJECT J-11/TASK 40 PANEL
Field of Special Projects
Joyce A. Burrell Garcia, Los Angeles County Transportation Authority (LACMTA), Los Angeles, CA (Chair)
Rolf G. Asphaug, RTD (retired), Centennial, CO
Muhammad J. Awan, RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA
Kathryn Sonja Boris, King County Metro, Seattle, WA
David Chia, The Collaborative, Inc., Boston, MA
Ryane Ottengheime Leifheit, Metropolitan Council, St. Paul, MN
Hilary Nixon, Mineta Transportation Institute, Duncan, BC
Matthew Pollack, Maryland Department of Transportation, Riverdale, MD
Margaretta Veltri, FTA Liaison
Matthew Dickens, APTA Liaison
Polly Hanson, APTA Liaison
FOREWORD
By Dianne S. Schwager
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board
This guide provides timely and much-sought information regarding people experiencing homelessness in our communities and how public transportation agencies and stakeholders can work collaboratively to support these individuals and mitigate impacts on public transportation services and facilities. The guide provides strategies building on relevant research and the experiences of public transportation agencies throughout the United States. This guide will be of immediate use to public transportation agencies, concerned stakeholders, and their communities.
In recent years, many public transportation agencies throughout the United States have been challenged by the effects of increased homelessness. Some agencies, from all around the country and varying sized cities (e.g., Atlanta, Austin, Denver, Philadelphia, and San Francisco), have developed programs and initiatives with particular attention to people living unsheltered. Some programs support or provide some aid to people experiencing homelessness while addressing concerns from their transit agency staff members and transit riders.
The research was conducted by the Homelessness Research & Action Collaborative (HRAC) and Transportation Research and Education Center (TREC) of Portland State University. The objective of this research was to develop a guide for public transportation agencies and concerned stakeholders on current approaches and best practices that are responsive to those who are experiencing homelessness. More specifically, the researchers were asked to update TCRP Synthesis 121: Transit Agency Practices in Interacting with People Who Are Homeless, recognize the diversity among people experiencing homelessness, identify a range of initiatives that public transportation agencies can undertake to address the effects of homelessness on public transportation services and facilities and support people experiencing homelessness, and address opportunities for public transportation agencies to partner with stakeholders to jointly pursue multifaceted community goals that pertain to homelessness.
Development of the guide involved:
- A literature review. This review included several key research products, academic studies and papers, and grey literature reports to identify practices and lessons learned. The researchers found 78 public transportation agencies with some activities related to homelessness.
- Case studies. Case studies of nine public transportation agencies were conducted. The sites were selected to represent different regions in the United States, public transportation agency sizes, system types, and responses to homelessness.
- Industry working group. The research team collaborated with the National Transit & Vulnerable Populations Workgroup, a monthly informal meeting of public transportation agencies on the topics of homelessness and public safety. While the group’s focus is broader than homelessness, there is overlap on how transit agencies are rethinking their approaches to crisis management, community engagement, and public safety and security.
The findings presented in TCRP Research Report 242 demonstrate that while homelessness negatively affects public transportation agencies, agencies continue to innovate to find more effective ways to respond to homelessness and support their staff and housed passengers.
CONTENTS
2.1 Definitions and Types of Homelessness
2.2 Homelessness in the United States and Its Causes
2.3 Demographics of People Experiencing Homelessness
2.4 Homelessness, Mental Illness, and Substance Use Disorders
2.5 Criminalization of Homelessness
2.6 Federal Government Response to Homelessness
Chapter 3 Homelessness and Public Transportation
3.1 Issues That Transit Agencies Experience Because of Unsheltered Homelessness
4.1 Transit Agency Case Selection and Research Methods
4.3 Case Study Summary Findings
PART II Current Practices to Address Homelessness
Chapter 5 Providing Access and Mobility
5.1 Access to Essential Services
Chapter 6 Supporting People Experiencing Homelessness
6.2 Outreach Services and Emergency Response Approaches and Activities
Chapter 7 Land, Facilities, and Public Spaces
7.2 Hygiene and Public Restrooms
7.3 Public Transportation Vehicles
7.4 Alternative Shelter or Housing Development
Chapter 8 Implementing an Effective Program to Address Homelessness
8.1 Launching and Developing Programs
8.4 Utilizing Data, Performance Measures, and Evaluation
Appendix B Methodology and Interview Questions for Case Studies
