Memoir: Upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race (1883)

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OHAPTEE V I . UPON T H E CAUSES THAT D E T E R M I N E T H E S E L E C T I O N OF T H E D E A F B Y T H E D E A F I N M A B R I A G E . I n the preceding chapters I have shown that sexual selection is at work among the deaf and dumb, tending to produce a deaf variety of the human race. Those who believe as I do, that the production of a defective raee of human beings would be a great calamity to the world, will examine carefully the causes that lead to the intermarnages of the deaf with the object of applying a remedy. I t is a significant fact that " before the deaf and dumb were educated comparatively few of them married";* and intermarriage (if it existed at all) was so rare as to be practically unknown. This suggests the thought that the intermarriages of the deaf aoid dumb have in some way been promoted by our methods of education. When we examine the subject from this point of view a startling condition of aft'ans becomes apparent. Indeed, if we desired to create a deaf variety of the race, and were to attempt to devise methods which should compel'deaf-mutes to marry deaf-mutes, we could not invent more complete or more efficient methods than those that actually exist and which have arisen from entirely diflferent and far higher motives. Let us, then, consider how we might proceed to form a race of deaf-mutes, if we desired so to do, and let us compare the steps of the process with those that have been adopted by philanthropists and others, from the purest and most disinterested motives, to ameliorate the condition of the deaf and dumb. How would we commence? 1. With such an object in view, would it not be of importance to separate deaf-mutes from hearing persons as early in hfe as possible and make them live together in the same place, care- fully guarding them from the possibility of making acquaintances among hearing persons of their own age? This is what we do. W e take deaf children away from their homes and place them in institutions by the hundred, keeping them there from early childhood to the commencement of adult hfe. 2. I t would also be of importance to promote social intercourse among them in adult life, so that the boys and girls of former years should meet again as men and women. We might, for instance, hold periodical reunions of former pupils at the institutions. This again is what we do. Indeed, the graduates of our institutions now commonly organize themselves into societies or associations ior the promotion of social intercourse m adult life. Societies of deaf-mutes are to be found in all large cities and in many of the smaller ones. Rooms are hired in-a central locality, which become the rendezvous of the deaf-mutes of the neighborhood. After the business of the day is done, the deaf-mutes of the city meet together for social intercourse and on Sundays for public worship. Not only do local societies exist, but there are State associations for promoting social intercourse between the deaf-mutes of a State. Periodical conventions are held in different •See "The Causes of Deafness," by the Rev. W. W., fumer, American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb, vol. i, p 32. 99 A — B E L L 6 41 

42 MEMOIRS O F T H E IfATIONAL A C A D E M Y OP SCIENCES. parts of the State, attended by deaf-mutes of both sexes. A t these meetings they amuse them- selves m various ways. Sometimes they hold fairs; have theatrical representations in dumb show, spectacular tableaux, dancing, &c. Not only do these State associations exist, but a National Association has been formed for the purpose of promoting social intercourse between the scattered deaf-mutes of the country. The Second National Convention of Deaf Mutes met only a short time ago in New York, and was attended by hundreds of deaf-mutes from all parts of the United States. 3. Another method calculated to foster class-feelmg among the deaf and dumb would be to provide them with newspapers and periodicals of their own, which should make a specialty of "personals" relating to the deaf and dumb—newspapers that should give full accounts of the deaf- mute conventions and reunions, .and keep their readers informed of the movements of deaf mutes, their marriages, deaths, &c. Quite a number of such newspapers have come into existence;* the majority being supported by the educational institutions of the country, with the benevolent object of teaching the deaf mutes the art of printing. These papers, I understand, are generally edited and printed in tbe institutions, under the superintendence of the teachers. I t was only natural to include among the items "personals" concerning former pupils, and that former pupils of the institution should take pleasure m reading them. I n addition to the periodicals printed in tbe institutions, others have appeared edited and managed by adult deaf-mutes not connected with any institution. These latter papers became tho organs of communication between the adult deaf- mutes, and were afllliated with the conventions and associations above referred to. 4. The methods specified above, while they serve to facilitate social intercourse between adult deaf-mutes, do not necessarily prevent them from also associating with hearing persons. A s there are 1,500 hearing persons for every one deaf-mute, it seems difiicult to formulate any plan which would restrict their choice of partners in life to deaf-mutes alone or to the heanng members of deaf-mute families. Let us consider how this could be accomplished. What more powerful or eflacient means could be found than to teach the deaf-mutes to think in a different language from that of the people at large? This is what we do. I n the majority of our institutions for the deaf and dumb a special language is used as the vehicle of thought, a language as different from English as French or German or ^Russian. The English language is confined to the school-room, and is simply taught as a school exercise, much as French and German are taught in the public schools. The deaf-mutes think in the gesture language, and English is apt to remain a foreign tongue. They can communicate with hearing persons by writing, but they often wnte in broken English, as a foreigner would speak. They think in gestures, and often translate into written Englisll with the idioms of the sign language. The constant practice of the sign language interferes with the mas- tery of the English language, and it is to be feared that comparatively few of the congenitally deaf are able to read books understandingly unless couched in simple language. They are thus in a great measore cut off from our bterature. This is another element m forcing them into each other's society. They are able to understand a good deal of what they see in our daily newspapers, especially if it concerns what interests them personally, but the polilacal speeches of the day, the leading editorials, &c., are often beyond their knowledge of the English language. 'These must not be confounded with the American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb, a journal of a very different character, not intended to be read specially by deaf-mutes themselves This journal is a quarterly magazine, devoted to the discussion of subjects connected with the edncation of the deaf and dumb, and forms the ofSci.il organ of com- munication between teachers It is one of the most admirably conducted special journals in existence, and contains within its pages almost the complete literature of tbe world relating to the education of the deaf and dumb 

T H E FORMATION O F A D E A F VARIETY OF T H E HUMAN RACE. 43 5. Another method of consolidating the deaf and dumb into a distinct class in the community would be to reduce the sign-language to writing, so that the deaf-mutes would have a common literature distinct from the rest of the world. Such a species of writing would constitute a form of ideography like the Egyptian hieroglyphics. This, I understand, has already been accomplished by the late Mr. George Hutton, of Ireland, afterwards principal of the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb in Halifax, Nova Scotia.* The full publication of his method was prevented by his prema- ture death; but a committee was appointed by the Indianapolis Convention of American Instruct- ors of the Deaf and Dumb, to act in conjunction with his successor and son, Mr. J . Scott Hutton, to attempt the recovery of the system from the posthumous papers of Mr. George Hutton. I have not yet seen the report of the committee. 6. Another and very powerful method of obstructing intercourse with hearing persons and compelling deaf-mutes to associate exclusively with one another would be to disseminate through- out the community incorrect ideas concerning the deaf and dumb, so that people should avoid and even fear them. The growth of erroneous ideas is favored by collecting deaf-mutes into institu- tions away from public observation. People rarely see a deaf-mute, and their information con- cerning them is chiefiy derived from books and periodicals. Whatever the cause, it is certainly the case that adult deaf-mutes are sometimes hampered_by the instinctive prejudices of hearing persons with whom they desire to have business or social re- lations. Many persons have the idea they are dangerous, morose, ill-tempered, &c. Then again people do not understand the mental condition of a person who cannot speak and who thinks in gestures. He is sometimes looked upon as a sort of monstrosity, to be stared at and avoided. His gesticulations excite surprise and even sometimes alarm in ignorant minds. I n connection with this subject I may say that as lately as 1857 a deaf-mute was shot dead in Alabama by a man who was alarmed by his gestures.t I n fact fallacies concerning the deaf and dumb are so common as to touch us all and to suggest the advisability of seriously examining the fundamental ideas we hold concerning them. I ha\ e elsewhere discussed the subject of " Fallacies concerning the deaf and the influence of these fallacies in preventing the amelioration of their condition," and shall not thei efore en- large upon the subject here. I shall simply give a few of the conclusions at which I arrived in the paper referred to.f "1. Those whom we term'deaf-mutes' have no other natural defect than that of deafness. They are simply persons who are deaf from childhood, and many of them are only ' hard of hearing.' "2. Deaf children are dumb not on account of lack of hearing, but of lack of instruction. No one teaches them to speak. "3. A gesture-language is developed by a deaf child at home, not because it is the only form of language that is natural to one m his condition, but because bis parents and friends neglect to use the English language m his presence m a clearly visible form. "4. (a) The sign-language of our institutions is an artificial and conventional language derived from pantomime. "(&) So far from being natural either to deaf or bearing persons, it is not understood by deal children on their entrance to an institution. Nor do hearing persons become sufficiently familiar * See Mr Hntton's article " Upon the Practicability and Advantages of Mimography," American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb, vol xiv, pp 157-182 tSee American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb, vol x, p 116. {See BalletmPhilosophicalSooiety of Washington, D C , October 27, 1883; also American Annals of the Deaf and Damt), January, 1884. i 

44 MEMOIRS O F T H E NATIONAL A C A D E M Y O F S C I E N C E S . with the laugaage to be thoroaghly qaalified as teachers until after one or more years' residence in an institation for the deaf and dumb. "(c) The practice of the sign language hinders the acquisition of the English language. "(d) I t makes deaf-mutes associate together in adult life, and avoid the society of hearing people. " (e) I t thus causes the intermarriage of deaf-mutes and the propagation of their physical defect. "5. Written words can be associated directly with the ideas they express, without the inter- vention of signs, and written English can be taught to deaf children by usage so as to become their vernacular. "6. A language can only be made vernaViular by constant use as a means of communication, without translation. " 7. Deaf children who are familiar with the English language in either its written or spoken forms can be taught to understand the utterances of their friends by watching the month. "8. The requisites to the art of speech-reading are: " (a) A n eye trained to distinguish quickly those movements of the vocal organs that are visible (independently of the meaning of what is uttered); "(6) A knowledge of homophenes—that is, a knowledge of those words that present the same appearance'to the eye; and, "(c) Suflcient f.imiliarity with the English language to enable the speech reader to judge by context which word of a homophenous group is the word intended by the speaker." 7. From what has been said above it will be seen that we have in actual operation the elements necessary to compel deaf-mutes to select as their partners in life persons who are familiar with the gesture language. This practically limits their selection to deaf-mutes and to hearing persons related to deaf-mutes. They do select such partners in marriage, and a certain proportion of their children inherit their physical defect. We are on the way therefore towards the formation of a deaf variety of the human race. Time alone is necessary to accomplish the result. I f we desired such a result what more could we do to hasten the end m view? W e might attempt to formulate some plan which should lead the deaf children of deaf-mutes to marry one another instead of marrying deaf-mutes who had not inherited their deafness; or to marry hearing persons belonging to families in which deafness is hereditary. If, for instance, a number of the large deat-mute families of the United States—families in which we know deafness to be heredi- tary—were to settle in a common place so as to form a community largely composed of deaf mutes, then the deaf children born in the colony wonld be thrown into association with one another and would probably intermarry m adult life, or marry hearing persons belonging to the deaf-mute fam- ilies. Though fewer in number than the original deaf settlers, they wonld probably be more prolific of deaf offspring; and each succeeding generation of deaf-mutes ^onld increase the probability of the deaf-mute element being rendered permanent by heredity. Such a result would certainly ensue if the numbers of the deaf and dumb in the -colony were constantly kept up by the immigration of congenital deaf mutes from outside; and if a large proportion of the hearing children bom in the colony were to leave and mingle with the outside world. Under such circumstances we might anticipate that a very few generations would suffice for the estabhshment of a permanent race of deaf-mutes with a language and literature of its own. Plans for the formation of a deaf-mute community have a number of times been discussed by the' deaf-mutes themselves. The idea originated in the action of Congress in endowing the American Asylum for Deaf-mutes at Hartford with a tract of land. Mon. Laurent Clerc, in conversation with some of the earlier pupils of the American Asylum, remarked that it wonld be a good 

THE FOEMATION O F A D E A F V A E I E T Y O F T H E HUMAN E A C E . 45 plan to sell a portion of the land for the benefit of the institution and retain the remainder as head-quarters for the deaf and dumb, to which they could emigrate after being educated.* This idea took root in the minds of the pupils of the American Asylum, and afterwards developed iuto a number of independent and eccentric schemes for the formation of a deaf-mute community. Some of the pupils before their graduation formed an agreement to emigrate to the West and settle in a common place.t Then a number of years afterwards a deaf-mute publicly urged the formation of a deaf-mute commonwealth. Congress was to be petitioned to form a deaf-mute state or territory, &c. The details, though quite impracticable, brought forward the fact that a number of schemes of some- what similar character were in the minds of deaf-mutes in different parts of the country. One deaf-mute publicly offered to contribute $5,000 towards such a scheme if others could be found to join him. I t was urged that the natural affection of the parents would lead to the distribution of the land among their children, and that as the majority of their children could hear and speak the land would soon pass out of the control of the deaf-mutes themselves. This was to be remedied in various ways—as, for instance, by legislation—so as to secure descent m the deaf mule line alone. The American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb became the channel of communication between the various thinkers.^ The scheme that received most approbation was the purchase of a tract of land by a few of the wealthy deaf-mutes, who were to agree to sell out the land in small blocks to other deaf-mutes. The whole scheme was afterwards discussed at a convention of the deaf- mutes of New England, and was overthrown by the influence of the E e v . W . W . Turner, Mr. Lau- rent Olerc, and other teachers, in conjunction with the most intelbgent of the deaf-mutes them- selves. Since then the subject has not been publicly discussed, to my knowledge; but such a scheme is still favored by individual deaf-mutes, and may therefore be revived in organized shape at any time.§ CONCLUSION. I think all will agree that the evidence shows a tendency to the formation of a deaf variety of the human race in America. What roint'dial inoasnres can be taken to lessen or chuck this tend- ency? We shall consider the subject under two heads: (1) repressive, (2) preventive measures. (1.) Bepressive measures.—The first thought that occurs m this connection is that the intermar- riage of deaf-mutes might be forbidden by legislative enactment. So long, however, as deaf-mutes of both sexes continue to associate together in adult life, legislative interference with marriage might only promote immorality. But, without entirely prohibiting intermarriage, might not the mar riages of the deaf be so regulated as to reduce the probabilities of the production of deaf offspring to ft minimum.? For instance, a law forbidding congenitally deaf persons from intermarrying would go a long way towards checking the evil. Such a law might, however, become inoperative on account of the impossibility of proving that a person had been born deaf. Legislation forbidding the intermarriage of persons belonging to families containing more than one deaf-mute would be more practicable. This would cover the intermarriage of bearing persons belonging to such families, and also the case of a consanguineoas marriage in a deaf-mute family. -In order to justify the passage of such an act, however, the results of intermarnages of this kind should be more fully investigated than is possible at the present time on account of limited •See speech by Lanrent Clerc, "American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb," vol. x, p. 212. tSee "American Annals of the Deaf and Dum'*'," vol x, p 73 tSee vol X , pp. 72-90; 136-160 ; 212-215 } Since this paper was read, a European philanthropist has commenced the colonization of a tract of land in Manitoba by deaf-mntes I am informed by a fnend who resides in Winnipeg that about 24 deaf-mutes, with their families, have already arrived from Europe and have settled upon the land. More are expected next year. 

46 MEMOIES O F T H E NATIONAL ACADEMY O F SCIENCES. data. Steps should be taken towards the collection of special statistics, and the institutions should be urged to publish the materials in their possession. I wrote to the principals of all the institu- tions in the country, requesting them to forward to me such of their published reports as contained any of the required statistics. Although my request was honored by a response from a large num- ber of institutions, the information contained in the reports in reference to the subject of inquiry was generally of the most meagre description. Among repressive measures should perhaps be included the influence of friends to prevent undesirable intermarriages. While such action might affect individual cases it could not gi-eatly influence the general result. For there is no subject on which a man will so little brook interfer- ence as one of this kind where his affections are involved. A due consideration of all the objections renders it doubtful whether legislative interference with the marriage of the deaf tcould be advisable. (2.) Preventive measwes.—The most promising method of lessening the evil appears to lie in the adoption of preventive measures. I n our search for such measures we should be guided by the following pnnciple: (1.) Determine the causes tliat promote intermat riages among the deaf and dumb; and (2) remove them. The immediate cause is undoubtedly the preference that adult deaf-mutes exhibit for the com- panionship of deaf-mutes rather than that of hearing persons. Among the causes that contribute to bring about this preference we may note: (1) segregation for the purposes of education, and (2) the use, as a means of communication, of a language which is different from that of the people. These, then, are two of the points that should be avoided m the adoption of preventive measures. Nearly all the other causes I have investigated are ultimately referable to these. Segregation really lies at the root of the whole matter; for from this the other causes have themselves been evolved by the operation of the natural law of adaptation to the environment. We commence our efforts on behalf of the deaf-mute by changing his social environment. The tendency is then towards accommodation to the new conditions. I n process of time the adaptation becomes complete; and when, at last, v e restoic liiin to thewoiUl as an adult, he finds that the social conditions to which he has become accustomed do not exist outside of his school life. His efforts are then directed to the restoration of these conditions, with the result of intermarriage and a tendency to the formation of a deaf-mute community. The grand central principle that should guide us, then, in our search for preventive measures should be the retention of the normal environment during the period of education. The natural tend- ency towards adaptation would then co-operate with instruction to produce accommodation to the permanent conditions of life. The direction of change should therefore be towards the establishment of small schools, and the extension of the day-school plan. The practicability of any great development of day schools will depend upon the possibility of conducting very small schools of this kind economically to the State: for the scattered condition of the deaf and dumb in the community precludes the idea of large day schools, excepting in the great centers of population. The principle referred to above indicates that such schools should be of the minimum size possible; fox. the school that would most perfectly fulfil the condition required would contain only one deaf child. I t also points to the advisability of coeducation with hearing children—but this is not practicable to any great extent. No instruction can be given through the ear, and complete coeducation would only therefore be possible by a change m the methods of teaching heanng children. I t is useless to expect that such a change would be made for the benefit of the deaf and dumb on account of their limited number. Partial coeducation is, however, possible, for some studies are pursued in the common schools in which information is gained through the eye. For instance, dettf-mutes could profitably enter 

T H E FORMATION OP A D E A F V A R I E T Y O F T H E HUMAN R A C E . 47 the same classes with hearing children for practice m writing, drawing, map-drawing, arithmetic on the black-board, sewing, &c. For other subjects special methods of instruction would be nec- essary, and these demand the employment of special teachers. They do not, however, necessitate special schools or buildings, and a small room in a public school building would accommodate as many deaf children as one teacher could successfully instruct. Considerations of economy render advisable the appropriation of a room of this kind, as the appliances of a large school might thus be obtained without special outlay. The average2)er capita cost of the education of a deaf child in an American institution is $223.28 per annum.* Very small day schools could be maintained at no greater cost. The cost, at an institution, however, includes board and industrial training. On the day-school plan the parents would generally assume the expense of maintenance, and some special provision would have to be made for industrial training. This need give no concern, for so many deaf-mutes are earning their livelihood by trades which they were not taught in the institutions as to demonstrate the practi- cability of apprenticing deaf-mutes in ordinary shops. The indications are that in all places where three or four deaf children could be brought to- gether near their homes the cost would be no more to form them into a class in the nearest public school building under a special teacher than to send them to an institution. On the basis of the average per capita cost at an institution the sum of $669.84 would be received for three, and §893.12 for four pupils; and such sums would probably be sufficient to pay the salary of d special teacher, as well as to cover incidental expenses. I f this IS so the day school system could be made to penetrate into the smaller centers of popu- lation as well as into the large cities, in which case it would exert a considerable influence as a remedial agent. The plan of forming small classes of deaf children m public school buildings recommends itself as affording the closest approximation possible, on the large scale, to the normal conditions of life. ^ Segregation during education has not only favored the tendency towards the formation of a race of deaf-mutes, but has led to the evolution of a special language adapted for the use of such a race—"the sign-language of the deaf and dumb." This is especially true m America where the sign language is employed by a large majority of the teachers in instructing their pupils. I n for- eign countries the vast majority employ, for this purpose, the ordinary language of the people. This will fully appear by reference to Table V in the Appendix. The lack of articulate speech should also be noted as an indirect cause of segregation in adult Me, operating to separate deaf-mutes from heanng persons. Hence, instruction in articulation and speech-reading should be given to every pupil. This IS done in Germany. Indeed, in 1882, more than 65 per cent, of all the deaf and dumb in foreign schools were being taught to speak and understand the speech of others, whereas in America less than 9 per cent, were to be found in oral schools.t According to more recent statistics compiled by the Clarke Institution J we find that in May, 1883, about 14 per cent, of the deaf and dumb in American institutions were using speech in the * See Table X lu the Appendix tSee American Annals of tbe Deaf and Dumb, vol xxviii, pp 47-61, also, Table V, m the Appendix—from which it will .ippear that of 7,155 American deaf-mutes, only 584, or less than 9 per cent, were to be foand m oral schools, whereas of 19,318 deaf-mutes lu foreign schools, 12,662, or more than 65 per cent., were taught to speak in purely oral schools t See Appendix to Sixteenth Annual Report of the Clarke Institution See, also, Table Y in the Appendix. Complete returns were not obtained, but the cases noted number 6,232, thus comprehending the vast majonty of the pupils under instruction in May, 1883. Of these 886, or 14 per cent, were under oral instruction, 1,105, or 18 per cent, received occasional instruction lu speecn in sign institutions; and 4,241 received uo instruction in articulation whatever. 

48 MEMOIRS O F T H E NATIONAL A C A D E M Y O F SCIENCES. school-room as the language of commnnication with their teachers; 18 per cent, were taught to speak as an accomplishment, and 68 per cent, received no mstrnction whatever in articulation. Nearly one-third of the teachers of the deaf and dumb in Amenca are themselves deaf,* and this mast be considered as another element favorable to the formation of a deaf race—to be therefore avoided. The segregation of deaf-mates, the use of the sign language, and the employment of deaf teachers produce an environment that is unfavorable to the cultivation of articalation and speech- reading, and that sometimes causes the disuse of speech by speaking pupils who are only deaf. Having shown the tendency to the formation of a deaf variety of the human race in America, and some of the means that should be taken to counteract it, I commend the whol^ subject to the attention of scientific men. • See Amencan Anuals of the Deaf and Dumb (January, 188J), vol xxviii, pp 5&-57. Out of 481 teachers 1.54, or 32 per cent, were deaf.