Economic and Social Mobility: New Directions for Data, Research, and Policy (2025)

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs References Aaronson, D., & Mazumder, B. (2008). Intergenerational economic mobility in the United States, 1940 to 2000. Journal of Human Resources, 43(1), 139–172. https://jhr.uwpress.org/content/wpjhr/43/1/139.full.pdf Aaronson, D., Hartley, D., & Mazumder, B. (2021a). The effects of the 1930s HOLC “Redlining” maps. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 13(4), 355–392. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20190414 Aaronson, D., Faber, J., Hartley, D., Mazumder, B., & Sharkey, P. (2021b). The long-run effects of the 1930s HOLC “redlining” maps on place-based measures of economic opportunity and socioeconomic success. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 86(3), 103622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2020.103622 Abramitzky, R., & Boustan, L. (2022). Streets of gold: America’s untold story of immigrant success. The Journal of Economic History, 82(3), 913–914. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050722000298 Abramitzky, R., Boustan, L., Jácome, E., & Perez, S. (2021). Intergenerational mobility of immigrants in the United States over two centuries. American Economic Review, 111(2), 580–608. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20191586 Ackerman, B. (1999). Taxation and the constitution. Columbia Law Review, 99(1), 1–58. https://doi.org/10.2307/1123596 Ackerman, B., & Alstott, A. (1999). The stakeholder society. Yale University Press. Adamsons, K., & Johnson, S. K. (2013). An updated and expanded meta-analysis of nonresident fathering and child well-being. Journal of Family Psychology, 27(4), 589–599. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033786 Addo, F. R., Darity, Jr., W. A., & Myers, Jr., S. L. (2024). Setting the record straight on racial wealth inequality. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 114, 169–173. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20241102 REFS - 1 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Adermon, A., Lindahl, M., & Waldenström, D. (2018). Intergenerational wealth mobility and the role of inheritance: Evidence from multiple generations. The Economic Journal, 128(612), 482–513. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12535 Advisory Committee on Data for Evidence Building. (2022). Year 2 report. Bureau of Economic Analysis. https://www.bea.gov/system/files/2022-10/acdeb-year-2-report.pdf Aeppli, C., & Wilmers, N. (2022). Rapid wage growth at the bottom has offset rising U.S. inequality. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(42), e2204305119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2204305119 Agarwal, S., Chomsisengphet, S., Mahoney, N., & Stroebel, J. (2015). Regulating consumer financial products: Evidence from credit cards. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 130(1), 111–164. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26372597 Agbai, C. O. (2022). Wealth begins at home: The GI bill of 1944 and the making of the racial wealth gap in homeownership and home value. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/t5xby Agénor, M., Perkins, C., Stamoulis, C., Hall, R. D., Samnaliev, M., Berland, S., & Bryn Austin, S. (2021). Developing a database of structural racism-related state laws for health equity research and practice in the United States. Public Health Reports, 136(4), 428–440. https://doi.org/0.1177/0033354920984168 Ahn, M., Batty, M., & Meisenzahl, R. R. (2018). Household debt-to-income ratios in the enhanced financial accounts. FEDS Notes. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. https://doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.2138 Aizer, A., & Currie, J. (2014). The intergenerational transmission of inequality: Maternal disadvantage and health at birth. Science, 344(6186), 856–861. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1251872 Aizer, A., Eli, S., Ferrie, J., & Lleras-Muney, A. (2016). The long-run impact of cash transfers to poor families. American Economic Review, 106(4), 935–971. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20140529 Akee, R. K., Copeland, W. E., Keeler, G., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2010). Parents’ incomes and children's outcomes: A quasi-experiment using transfer payments from casino profits. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2(1), 86–115. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.2.1.86 REFS - 2 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Aladangady, A., Bricker, J., Chang, A., Goodman, S., Krimmel, J., Moore, K., Reber, S., Volz, A., & Windle, R. (2023). Changes in U.S. family finances from 2019 to 2022: Evidence from the survey of consumer finances. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. https://doi.org/10.17016/8799 Alba, R. (2023). When economists eat sociologists’ lunch. Sociological Forum, 38(1), 286–290. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/socf.12878 Alexander, J. T., Bleckley, D., Fisher, J., Genadek, K., Leonard, S. H., & Magganas, A. (2024). Newly available individual-level U.S. tax data from 1969–1994. ADEP Working Paper No. 2024–02. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working- papers/2024/econ/ADEP_WP_Tax-Data-1969-1994.pdf Almond, D., & Currie, J. (2011). Killing me softly: The fetal origins hypothesis. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25(3), 153–172. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.25.3.153 Almond, D., Currie, J., & Duque, V. (2018). Childhood circumstances and adult outcomes: Act II. Journal of Economic Literature, 56(4), 1360–1446. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20171164 Almond, D., Currie, J., & Herrmann, M. (2012). From infant to mother: Early disease environment and future maternal health. Labour Economics, 19(4), 475–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2012.05.015 Ambrose, B. W., Hendershott, P. H., Ling, D. C., & McGill, G. A. (2022). Homeownership and taxes: How the TCJA altered the tax code’s treatment of housing. Real Estate Economics, 50(5), 1167–1200. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6229.12374 Ananat, E. O., & Hungerman, D. M. (2012). The power of the pill for the next generation: Oral contraception’s effects on fertility, abortion, and maternal and child characteristics. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 94(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00230 Ananat, E. O., Gassman-Pines, A., & Gibson-Davis, C. M. (2011). The effects of local employment losses on children’s educational achievement. In G. Duncan & R. Murnane (Eds.), Whither opportunity: Rising inequality, schools, and children’s life chances (pp. 299–315). Russell Sage Foundation. Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. REFS - 3 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Andersson, F., Holzer, H. J., Lane, J. I., Rosenblum, D., & Smith, J. (2024). Does federally funded job training work? Nonexperimental estimates of WIA training impacts using longitudinal data on workers and firms. The Journal of Human Resources, 59(4), 1244– 1283. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.0816-8185R1 Andrews, N. C. Z., Pepler, D. J., & Motz, M. (2019). Research and evaluation with community- based projects: Approaches, considerations, and strategies. American Journal of Evaluation, 40(4), 548–561. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214019835821 Anelli, M., & Peri, G. (2019). The effects of high school peers’ gender on college major, college performance and income. The Economic Journal, 129(618), 553–602. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12556 Angrist, J. D., & Evans, W. N. (1996). Children and their parents’ labor supply: Evidence from exogenous variation in family size. NBER Working Paper No. w5778. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3695 Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011). Academically adrift: Limited learning on college campuses. The University of Chicago Press. Asch, B. J., Heaton, P., Hosek, J., Martorell, F., Simon, C., & Warner, J. T. (2010). Cash incentives and military enlistment, attrition, and reenlistment. RAND National Defense Research Institute, RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG950.html Atkinson, L., Beitchman, J., Gonzalez, A., Young, A., Wilson, B., Escobar, M., Chisholm, V., Brownlie, E., Khoury, J. E., Ludmer, J., & Villani, V. (2015). Cumulative risk, cumulative outcome: A 20-year longitudinal study. PloS One, 10(6), e0127650. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127650 Austin, B. A., Glaeser, E. L., & Summers, L. H. (2018). Jobs for the heartland: Place-based policies in 21st-century America. NBER Working Paper Series No. 24548. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w24548/w24548.pdf Autor, D. H. (2014). Skills, education, and the rise of earnings inequality among the ‘other 99 percent. Science, 344(6186), 843–851. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1251868 Autor, D. H. (2019). Work of the past, work of the future. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 109, 1– 32. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20191110 REFS - 4 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Autor, D. H. & Dorn, D. (2013). The growth of low-skill service jobs and the polarization of the U.S. labor market. American Economic Review, 103(5), 1553–1597. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.103.5.1553 Autor, D. H., Dorn, D., & Hanson, G. (2021). On the persistence of the China shock. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 52(2), 381–476. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3973950 Autor, D. H., Katz, L. F., & Kearney, M. S. (2008). Trends in U.S. wage inequality: Revising the revisionists. Review of Economics and Statistics, 90(2), 300–323. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest.90.2.300 Autor, D. H., Figlio, D., Karbownik, K., Roth, J., & Wasserman, M. (2019). Family disadvantage and the gender gap in behavioral and educational outcomes. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 11(3), 338–381. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20170571 Avellar, S., Covington, R., Moore, Q., Patnaik, A., & Wu, A. (2018). Parents and children together: Effects of four responsible fatherhood programs for low-income fathers. OPRE Report # 2018–50. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/opre/parents_and_children_togethe r.pdf Avery, C., Howell, J., Pender, M., & Sacerdote, C. (2019). Policies and payoffs to addressing America’s college graduation deficit. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Fall, 93– 172. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/policies-and-payoffs-to-addressing-americas- college-graduation-deficit/ Avery, R. B., Brevoort, K. P., & Canner, G. B. (2009). Credit scoring and its effects on the availability and affordability of credit. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 43(3), 516–537. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6606.2009.01151.x Avtar, R., Chakrabarti, R., & Chatterji-Len, K. (2021). Uneven distribution of household debt by gender, race, and education. Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Liberty Street Economics. https://libertystreeteconomics.newyorkfed.org/2021/11/uneven-distribution- of-household-debt-by-gender-race-and-education/ Axinn, W. G, Barber, J. S., & Thornton, A. (1998). The long-term impact of parents' childbearing decisions on children's self-esteem. Demography, 35(4), 435–443. https://doi.org/10.2307/3004012 REFS - 5 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Babiarz, P., Widdows, R., & Yilmazer, T. (2013). Borrowing to cope with adverse health events: Liquidity constraints, insurance coverage, and unsecured debt. Health Economics, 22(10), 1177–1198. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.2877 Bailey, A. K., & Sykes, B. L. (2018). Veteran status, income, and intergenerational mobility across three cohorts of American men. Population Research and Policy Review, 37(4), 539–568. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-018-9477-1 Bailey, B. (2009). America's army: Making the all-volunteer force. Harvard University Press. Bailey, M. J. (2006). More power to the pill: The impact of contraceptive freedom on Women's lifecycle labor supply. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 121(1), 289–320. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/121.1.289 Bailey, M. J. (2013). Fifty years of family planning: New evidence on the long-run effects of increasing access to contraception. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2013(1), 341–409. https://doi.org/10.1353/eca.2013.0001 Bailey, M. J., & Duquette, N. J. (2014). How the U.S. fought the war on poverty: The economics and politics of funding at the Office of Economic Opportunity. Journal of Economic History, 74(2), 351–388. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022050714000291 Bailey, M. J., & Dynarski, S. (2011). Gains and gaps: Changing inequality in U.S. college entry and completion. NBER Working Paper No. 17633. https://doi.org/10.3386/w17633 Bailey, M. J., DiNardo, J., & Stuart, B. A. (2021). The economic impact of a high national minimum wage: Evidence from the 1966 Fair Labor Standards Act. Journal of Labor Economics, 39(S2), 329–367. https://doi.org/10.1086/712554 Bailey, M. J., Guldi, M., & Hershbein, B. (2014). Is there a case for a ‘second demographic transition’? Three distinctive features of the post-1960 U.S. fertility decline. In L. P. Boustan, C. Frydman, & R. A. Margo (Eds.), Human capital and history: The American record (pp. 273–312). University of Chicago Press. Bailey, M. J., Hershbein, B. J., & Miller, A. R. (2012). The opt-in revolution? Contraception and the gender gap in wages. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 4(3), 225– 254. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.4.3.225 Bailey, M. J., Malkova, O., & McLaren, Z. (2018). Do family planning programs increase children's opportunities? Evidence from the war on poverty and the early years of Title X. REFS - 6 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs The Journal of Human Resources, 54(4), 825–856. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.54.4.1216- 8401R1 Bailey, M. J., Hoynes, H. W., Rossin-Slater, M., & Walker, R. (2020). Is the social safety net a long-term investment? Large-scale evidence from the food stamps program. NBER Working Paper No. 26942. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w26942/w26942.pdf Bailey, M. J., Lin, P. Z., Mohammed, A. R. S., Mohnen, P., Murray, J., Zhang, M., & Prettyman, A. (2022). LIFE-M: The longitudinal, intergenerational family electronic micro-database (version v3). ISPSR–Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research. https://doi.org/10.3886/E155186V3 Bailey, M. J., Wanner Lang, V., Prettyman, A., Vrioni, I., Bart, L., Eisenberg, D., Fomby, P., Barber, J., & Dalton. V. K. (2023). How costs limit contraceptive use among uninsured women in the U.S.: A randomized control trial. NBER Working Paper No. 31397. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w31397/w31397.pdf Bailey, T. R., Jaggars, S. S., & Jenkins, D. (2015). Redesigning America’s community colleges: A clearer path to student success. Harvard University Press. Baird, M. D., Engberg, J., Gonzalez, G. C., Goughnour, T., Gutierrez, I. A., & Karam, R. T. (2019). Effectiveness of screened, demand-driven job training programs for disadvantaged workers. RAND Research Reports. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2980.html Baker, C. E., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2020). Early parenting and the intergenerational transmission of self-regulation and behavior problems in African American head start families. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 51(2), 220–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-019- 00921-5 Baker, R. S. (2022). Ethno-racial variation in single motherhood prevalences and penalties for child poverty in the United States, 1995–2018. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 702(1), 20–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162221120759 Ballance, J., Clifford, R., & Shoag, D. (2020). No more credit score: Employer credit check bans and signal substitution. Labour Economics, 63(2), 101769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2019.101769 REFS - 7 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Baradaran, M. (2017). The color of money: Black banks and the racial wealth gap. Harvard University Press. Baradaran, M. (2019). Jim Crow credit. UC Irvine School of Law Research Paper No. 2021-51. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3395876 Barber, J. S., & East, P. L. (2009). Home and parenting resources available to siblings depending on their birth intention status. Child Development, 80(3), 921–939. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01306.x Barber, J. S., & East, P. L. (2011). Children’s experiences after the unintended birth of a sibling. Demography, 48(1), 101–125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-010-0011-2 Barber, J. S., Axinn, W. G., & Thornton, A. (1999). Unwanted childbearing, health, and mother- child relationships. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40(3), 231–257. https://doi.org/10.2307/2676350 Barnes, C. (2020). State of empowerment: Low-income families and the new welfare state. University of Michigan Press. Barr, A. (2019). Fighting for education: Veterans and financial aid. Journal of Labor Economics, 37(2), 509–544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/700191 Barr, A., & Gibbs, C. R. (2022). Breaking the cycle? Intergenerational effects of an antipoverty program in early childhood. Journal of Political Economy, 130(12), 3253–3286. https://doi.org/10.1086/720764 Barr, A., & Smith, A. A. (2023). Fighting crime in the cradle: The effects of early childhood access to nutritional assistance. Journal of Human Resources, 58(1), 43–73. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.58.3.0619-10276R2 Barr, A., Eggleston, J., & Smith, A. A. (2022). Investing in infants: The lasting effects of cash transfers to new families. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 137(4), 2539–2583. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjac023 Barr, M. S. (2012). No slack: The financial lives of low-income Americans. Brookings Institution Press. Barr, T., & Roy, U. (2008). The effect of labor market monopsony on economic growth. Journal of Macroeconomics, 30, 1446–1467. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmacro.2008.05.001 REFS - 8 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Bastian, J., & Michelmore, K. (2018). The long-term impact of the earned income tax credit on children’s education and employment outcomes. Journal of Labor Economics, 36(4), 1127–1163. https://doi.org/10.1086/697477 Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology, 4(1, Pt. 2), 1–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030372 Beaver, W. (2017). The rise and fall of for-profit higher education. Academe, 103(1), 32–37. https://www.aaup.org/article/rise-and-fall-profit-higher-education Beck, A., Corak, M., & Tienda, M. (2012). Age at immigration and the adult attainments of child migrants to the United States. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 643(1), 134–159. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716212442665 Becker, G. S., & Tomes, N. (1986). Human capital and the rise and fall of families. Journal of Labor Economics, 4(3), S1–S39. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2534952 Beckert, J. (2008). Inherited wealth. Princeton University Press. Behrman, J., & Taubman, P. (1985). Intergenerational earnings mobility in the United States: Some estimates and a test of Becker’s intergenerational endowments model. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 67(1), 144–151. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1928446?origin=crossref Beller, E. (2009). Bringing intergenerational social mobility research into the twenty-first century: Why mothers matter. American Sociological Review, 74(4), 507–528. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240907400401 Belley, P., & Lochner, L. (2007). The changing role of family income and ability in determining educational achievement. Journal of Human Capital, 1(1), 37–89. https://doi.org/10.1086/524674 Ben-Shlomo, Y., & Kuh, D. (2002). A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology: Conceptual models, empirical challenges, and interdisciplinary perspectives, International Journal of Epidemiology, 31(2), 285–293. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/31.2.285 Benetton, M., Kudlyak, M., & Mondragon, J., (2024). Dynastic home equity. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4158773 REFS - 9 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Berger, L. M., & Carlson, M.J. (2020). Family policy and complex contemporary families: A decade in review and implications for the next decade of research and policy practice. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), 478–507. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12650 Berger, L. M., & Font, S. A. (2015). The role of the family and family-centered programs and policies. The future of children, 25(1), 155–176. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2015.0007 Berger, L. M., & Houle, J. N. (2016). Parental debt and children’s socioemotional well-being. Pediatrics, 137(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-3059 Berger, L. M., & Houle, J. N. (2019). Rising household debt and children’s socioemotional well- being trajectories. Demography, 56(4), 1273–1301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019- 00800-7 Berger, L. M., & McLanahan, S. (2015). Income, relationship quality, and parenting: Associations with child development in two‐parent families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 77(4), 996–1015. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12197 Berger, L. M., Collins, J. M., & Cuesta, L. (2016). Household debt and adult depressive symptoms in the United States. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 37(1), 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-015-9443-6 Berger, L. M., Paxson, C., & Waldfogel, J. (2009). Income and child development. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(9), 978–989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.04.013 Berger, L. M., Font, S. A., Slack, K. S., & Waldfogel, J. (2017). Income and child maltreatment in unmarried families: Evidence from the earned income tax credit. Review of Economics of the Household, 15(4), 1345–1372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-016-9346-9 Berger, T., & Engzell, P. (2022). Industrial automation and intergenerational income mobility in the United States. Social Science Research, 104, 102686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch Bergman, P., Chetty, R., DeLuca, S., Hendren, N., Katz, L. F., & Palmer, C. (2024). Creating moves to opportunity: Experimental evidence on neighborhood choice. American Economic Review, 114(5), 1281–1337. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20200407 Berlinski, S., Ferreyra, M. M., Flabbi, L., & Martin, J. D. (2024). Childcare markets, parental labor supply, and child development. Journal of Political Economy, 132(6), 2113–2177. https://doi.org/10.1086/728698 REFS - 10 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Berman, Y. (2022). The long-run evolution of absolute intergenerational mobility. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 14(3), 61–83. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20200631 Bhattacharya, D., & Mazumder, B. (2011). A nonparametric analysis of black–white differences in intergenerational income mobility in the United States. Quantitative Economics, 2(3), 335–379. https://doi.org/10.3982/QE69 Bilmes, L. J., & Brooks, C. W. (2024). Normalizing reparations: U.S. precedent, norms, and models for compensating harms and implications for reparations to Black Americans. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 10(2), 30–68. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.2.02 Binder, A. J., David, D. B., & Bloom, N. (2016). Career funneling: How elite students learn to define and desire prestigious jobs. Sociology of Education, 89(1), 20–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040715610883 Bitler, M. P., Hoynes, H. W., & Domina, T. (2014). Experimental evidence on distributional effects of head start. NBER Working Paper No. 20434. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w20434/w20434.pdf Björklund, A., Lindahl, L., & Lindquist, M. J. (2010). What more than parental income, education, and occupation? An exploration of what Swedish siblings get from their parents. The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 10(1), 102. https://doi.org/10.2202/1935-1682.2449 Black, S. E., & Devereux, P. J. (2011). Recent developments in intergenerational mobility. Handbook of Labor Economics, 4(B), 1487–1541. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169721811024142 Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanes, K. G. (2013). Under pressure? The effect of peers on outcomes of young adults. Journal of Labor Economics, 31(1), 119–153. https://doi.org/10.1086/666872 Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., Lundborg, P., & Majlesi, K. (2020). Poor little rich kids? The role of nature versus nurture in wealth and other economic outcomes and behaviours. The Review of Economic Studies, 87(4), 1683–1725. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdz038 Blanden, J., Eyles, A., & Machin, S. (2023). Intergenerational home ownership. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 21(2), 251–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-023-09563-z REFS - 11 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Blattner, L., & Nelson, S. (2021). How costly is noise? Data and disparities in consumer credit. Stanford University Research Paper No. 3978. https://ideas.repec.org/p/ecl/stabus/3978.html Blau, P. M., & Duncan, O. D. (1967). The American occupational structure. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Bleemer, Z., & Quincy, S. (2024). Changes in the college mobility pipeline since 1900. Working Paper. Bloom, H. S., & Riccio, J. A. (2005). Using place-based random assignment and comparative interrupted time-series analysis to evaluate the jobs-plus employment program for public housing residents. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 599(1), 19–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716205274824 Bloom, J. (2007). (Mis)reading social class in the journey towards college: Youth development in urban America. Teachers College Record, 109(2), 343–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810710900201 Bloom-Weltman, J., Honey, R., Meholick, S., & Fettro, M. (2021). Profile of state data capacity in 2018: Statewide Longitudinal Data Systems (SLDS) survey descriptive statistics. Stats in Brief, NCES 2021-126, National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2021/2021126.pdf Bloome, D. (2015). Income inequality and intergenerational income mobility in the United States. Social Forces, 93(3), 1047–1080. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sou092 Bloome, D. (2017). Childhood family structure and intergenerational income mobility in the United States. Demography, 54(2), 541–569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-017-0564-4 Bloome, D., & Western, B. (2011). Cohort change and racial differences in educational and income mobility. Social Forces, 90(2), 375–395. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sor002 Bloome, D., & Opacic, A. (2024). Absolute income mobility obscures marginalized children’s disadvantages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(25), e2321418121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2321418121 Bloome, D., Dyer, S., & Zhou, X. (2018). Educational inequality, educational expansion, and intergenerational income persistence in the United States. American Sociological Review, 83(6), 1215–1253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418809374 REFS - 12 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Blouri, Y., Büchler, S., & Schöni, O. (2023). The geography of mortgage interest deductions. Journal of Urban Economics, 138(C), 103604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2023.103604 Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (U.S.). (2017). Consumer debt service payments as a percent of disposable personal income [CDSP]. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CDSP Boel, P., & Zimmerman, P. (2022). Unbanked in America: A review of the literature. Economic Commentary, Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, 2022(07), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.26509/frbc-ec-202207 Boen, C., Keister, L. A., & Graetz, N. (2021). Household wealth and child body mass index: Patterns and mechanisms. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 7(3), 80–100. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2021.7.3.04 Bogliacino, F., Posso, C., & Villaveces, M. J. (2025). Restoring property rights: The effects of land restitution on credit access. World Development, 186, 106830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2024.106830 Bollinger, C. R., & Troske, K. R. (2023, June 20). Evaluation of a new job training program: Code Louisville. Working Paper. https://gattonweb.uky.edu/faculty/Troske/Working%20papers/Bollinger%20&%20Trosk e- Code%20Louisville%20Paper%20with%20Figures%20and%20Tables%20in%20Text.pd f Bonilla-Silva, E. (1997). Rethinking racism: Toward a structural interpretation. American Sociological Review, 62(3), 465–480. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657316 Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.) (2019). Handbook of parenting (3rd ed.): Volume I: Children and parenting. Routledge. Boserup, S. H., Kopczuk, W., & Kreiner, C. T. (2014). Stability and persistence of intergenerational wealth formation: Evidence from Danish wealth records of three generations. Working Paper. https://web2.econ.ku.dk/ctk/Papers/WealthAcrossGen.pdf Boserup, S. H., Kopczuk, W., & Kreiner, C. T. (2017). Intergenerational wealth formation over the life cycle: Evidence from Danish wealth records 1984-2013. Working Paper. https://www.columbia.edu/~wk2110/bin/WealthAcrossGen.pdf REFS - 13 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Bourgois, P. (2003). In search of respect: Selling crack in El Barrio. 2nd edition. New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bozick, R. (2007). Making it through the first year of college: The role of students’ economic resources, employment, and living arrangements. Sociology of Education, 80(3), 261– 285. https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070708000304 Bozick, R., & DeLuca, S. (2005). Better late than never? Delayed enrollment in the high school to college transition. Social Forces, 84(1), 531–554. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2005.0089 Bozick, R., & DeLuca, S. (2011). Not making the transition to college: School, work, and opportunities in the lives of American youth. Social Science Research, 40(4), 1249–1262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.02.003 Bradbury, B., Waldfogel, J., & Washbrook, E. (2019). Income-related gaps in early child cognitive development: Why are they larger in the United States than in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada? Demography, 56(1), 367–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-018-0738-8 Bradbury, B., Corak, M., Waldfogel, J., & Washbrook, E. (2015). Too many children left behind: The U.S. achievement gap in comparative perspective. Russell Sage Foundation. Brady, D., Finnigan, R., Kohler, U., & Legewie, J. (2020). The inheritance of race revisited: Childhood wealth and income and black–white disadvantages in adult life chances. Sociological Science, 7, 599–627. https://doi.org/10.15195/v7.a25 Braga, A. A. (2005). Hot spots policing and crime prevention: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 1(3), 317–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-005-8133-z Brand, J. E. (2015). The far-reaching impact of job loss and unemployment. Annual Review of Sociology, 41, 359–375. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071913-043237 Brand, J. E. (2023). Overcoming the odds. The benefits of completing college for unlikely graduates. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Braxton, J. C., Chikhale, N., Herkenhoff, K. F., & Phillips, G. M. (2024). Intergenerational mobility and credit. NBER Working Paper No. 32031. https://www.nber.org/papers/w32031 REFS - 14 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Brayne, S., & Christin, A. (2021). Technologies of crime prediction: The reception of algorithms in policing and criminal courts. Social problems, 68(3), 608–624. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spaa004 Breen, R., & Whelan, C. (1996). Social mobility and social class in Ireland. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan. Brevoort, K. P., Clarkberg, J., Kambara, M., & Litwin, B. (2018). The geography of credit invisibility. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau Office of Research Reports Series No. 18-6. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3288848 Bridges, S., & Disney, R. (2010). Debt and depression. Journal of Health Economics, 29(3), 388–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2010.02.003 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press. Bronfenbrenner, U. (Ed.) (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. Sage Publications Ltd. Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1997). The effects of poverty on children. Future Child, 7(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.2307/1602387 Brooks-Gunn, J., & Markman, L. B. (2005). The contribution of parenting to ethnic and racial gaps in school readiness. The future of children, 15(1), 139–168. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2005.0001 Brown, A. R. (2022). Women’s union status at first birth. Family Profiles, FP-22-21. Bowling Green, OH: National Center for Family & Marriage Research. https://doi.org/10.25035/ncfmr/fp-22-21 Brown, D. W., Kowalski, A. E., & Lurie, I. Z. (2020). Long-term impacts of childhood Medicaid expansions on outcomes in adulthood. The Review of Economic Studies, 87(2), 792–821. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdz039 Brown, J. D., Cohen, S. R., Denoeux, G., Dorinski, S., Heggeness, M. L., Lieberman, C., McBride, L., Murray-Close, M., Qin, H., Ross, A. E., Sandler, D. H., Warren, L., & Yi, M. (2023). Real-time 2020 administrative record census simulation: A new design for the 21st century. U.S. Department of Commerce & U.S. Census Bureau. https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/program- management/evaluate-docs/EAE-2020-admin-records-experiment.pdf REFS - 15 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Brown, S., Taylor, K., & Wheatley Price, S. (2005). Debt and distress: Evaluating the psychological cost of credit. Journal of Economic Psychology, 26(5), 642–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2005.01.002 Brown, T. H. (2012). The intersection and accumulation of racial and gender inequality: Black women’s wealth trajectories. The Review of Black Political Economy, 39(2), 239–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12114-011-9100-8 Brown, T. H. (2016). Diverging fortunes: Racial/ethnic inequality in wealth trajectories in middle and late life. Race and Social Problems, 8(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-016-9160-2 Brown, T. H., & Homan, P. (2023), The future of social determinants of health: Looking upstream to structural drivers. The Milbank Quarterly, 101(S1), 36–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12641 Brown, T. H., & Homan, P. (2024). Structural racism and health stratification: Connecting theory to measurement. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 65(1), 141–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/00221465231222924 Brown, T. H., Lee, H. E., Bonilla-Silva, E., Hicken, M. T., & Homan, P. (2025). Conceptualizing and measuring systemic racism. Annual Review of Public Health, 46(1), 69–90. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-060222-032022 Buchmann, C., & DiPrete, T. A. (2006). The growing female advantage in college completion: The role of family background and academic achievement. American Sociological Review, 71(4), 515–541. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240607100401 Bullinger, L. R., Packham, A., & Raissian, K. M. (2023). Effects of universal and unconditional cash transfers on child abuse and neglect. NBER Working Paper No. w31733. https://www.nber.org/papers/w31733 Bulman, G. B., & Hoxby, C. M. (2015). The returns to the federal tax credits for higher education. NBER Working Paper No. 20833. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w20833/w20833.pdf Burdick-Will, J., Ludwig, J., Raudenbush, S., Sampson, R., Sanbonmatsu, L., & Sharkey, P. (2011). Converging evidence for neighborhood effects on children’s test scores: An experimental, quasi-experimental, and observational comparison. In G. Duncan & R. REFS - 16 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Murnane (Eds.), Whither opportunity? Rising inequality, schools, and children’s life chances (pp. 255–276). Russell Sage Foundation. Burtless, G., & Jencks, C. (2003). American inequality and its consequences. In H. Aaron, J. Lindsay, & P. Nivola (Eds.), Agenda for the nation (pp. 61–108). Brookings Institution Press. Busso, M., Gregory, J., & Kline, P. (2013). Assessing the incidence and efficiency of a prominent place based policy. American Economic Review, 103(2), 897–947. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.103.2.897 Cabrera, N. J., Alonso, A., & Chen, Y. (2021). Parenting contributions to Latinx children’s development in the early years. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 696(1), 158–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162211049997 Cabrera, N. J., Volling, B. L., & Barr, R. (2018). Fathers are parents, too! Widening the lens on parenting for children's development. Child Development Perspectives, 12(3), 152–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12275 Calarco, J. M. (2018). Negotiating opportunities: How the middle class secures advantages in school. Oxford University Press. Camarota, S. A., & Zeigler, K. (2021). Fertility among immigrants and native-born Americans: Difference between the foreign-born and the native-born continues to grow. Center for Immigration Studies. https://cis.org/Report/Fertility-Among-Immigrants-and- NativeBorn-Americans Campbell, J. Y., Jackson, H. E., Madrian, B. C., & Tufano, P. (2011). Consumer financial protection. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25(1), 91–114. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.25.1.91 Campante, F. (2011). Redistribution in a model of voting and campaign contributions. Journal of Public Economics, 95(7–8), 646–656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2010.11.013 Cancian, M., & Meyer, D. R. (2018). Reforming policy for single-parent families to reduce child poverty. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 4(2), 91–112. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2018.4.2.05 Cancian, M., Yang, M-Y., & Slack, K. S. (2013). The effect of additional child support income on the risk of child maltreatment. Social Service Review, 87(3), 417–437. https://doi.org/10.1086/671929 REFS - 17 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Card, D., & Krueger, A. B. (1995). Time-series minimum-wage studies: A meta-analysis. American Economic Review, 85(2), 238–243. www.jstor.org/stable/2117925 Card, D., Kluve, J., & Weber, A. (2018). What works? A meta analysis of recent active labor market program evaluations. Journal of the European Economic Association, 16(3), 894– 931. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvx028 Carillo, L., Pattillo, M., Hardy, E., & Acevedo-Garcia, D., (2016). Housing decisions among low-income Hispanic households in Chicago. Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research, 18(2), 109–150. https://www.huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/cityscpe/vol18num2/article6.html Carrell, S. E., & Hoekstra, M. L. (2010). Externalities in the classroom: How children exposed to domestic violence affect everyone's kids. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2(1), 211–228. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.2.1.211 Carrell, S. E., & Sacerdote, B. (2017). Why do college-going interventions work? American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 9(3), 124–151. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20150530 Case, A., & Deaton, A. (2020). Deaths of despair and the future of capitalism. Princeton University Press. Case, A., & Paxson, C. (2002). Parental behavior and child health. Health Affairs, 21(2), 164– 178. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.21.2.164 Case, A., Lubotsky, D., & Paxson, C. (2002). Economic status and health in childhood: The origins of the gradient. American Economic Review, 92(5), 1308–1334. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282802762024520 Caudillo, M. L., & Torche, F. (2014). Exposure to local homicides and early educational achievement in Mexico. Sociology of Education, 87(2), 89–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040714523795 Cellini, S. R., & Turner, N. (2019). Gainfully employed? Journal of Human Resources, 54(2), 342–370. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.54.2.1016.8302R1 Chadwick, L., & Solon, G. (2002). Intergenerational income mobility among daughters. American Economic Review, 92(1), 335–344. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282802760015766 REFS - 18 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Chan Tack, A. M., & Small, A. M. (2017). Making friends in violent neighborhoods: Strategies among elementary school children. Sociological Science, 4(10), 2330–6696. https://doi.org/10.15195/v4.a10 Charles, K. K., & Hurst, E. (2003). The correlation of wealth across generations. Journal of Political Economy, 111(6), 1155–1182. https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/378526 Chaskin, R. J. (1997). Perspectives on neighborhood and community: A review of the literature. Social Services Review, 71(4), 521–547. https://doi.org/10.1177/088541229801300102 Chen, Y-C., Park, S., & Morrow-Howell, N. (2019). Patterns of wealth trajectory in later life: Critical period, accumulation, and social mobility models. Innovation in Aging, 3(Suppl. 1), S382. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igz038.1403 Cherlin, A. J., & Seltzer, J. A. (2014). Family complexity, the family safety net, and public policy. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 654(1), 231–239. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716214530854 Chetty, R., & Hendren, N. (2018). The impacts of neighborhoods on intergenerational mobility I: Childhood exposure effects. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 133(3), 1107–1162. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjy007 Chetty, R., Deming, D. J., & Friedman, J. N. (2023). Diversifying society’s leaders? The determinants and causal effects of admission to highly selective private colleges. NBER Working Paper No. 31492. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w31492/w31492.pdf Chetty, R., Friedman, J. N., Hendren, N., Jones, M. R., & Porter, S. R. (2018). The opportunity atlas: Mapping the childhood roots of social mobility. NBER Working Paper No. 25147. https://doi.org/10.3386/w25147 Chetty, R., Friedman, J. N., Hilger, N., Saez, E., Schanzenbach, D. W., & Yagan, D. (2011). How does your kindergarten classroom affect your earnings? Evidence from Project Star. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(4), 1593–1660. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr041 Chetty, R., Grusky, D. B., Hell, M., Hendren, N., Manduca, R., & Narang, J. (2017). The fading American dream: Trends in absolute income mobility since 1940. Science, 356(6336), 398–406. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aal4617 REFS - 19 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Jones, M. R., & Porter, S. R. (2020). Race and economic opportunity in the United States: An intergenerational perspective. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 135(2), 711–783. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjz042 Chetty, R., Hendren, N., & Katz, L. F. (2016). The effects of exposure to better neighborhoods on children: New evidence from the moving to opportunity experiment. American Economic Review, 106(4), 855–902. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20150572 Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Kline, P., & Saez, E. (2014a). Where is the land of opportunity? The geography of intergenerational mobility in the United States. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 129(4), 1553–1623. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qju022 Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Kline, P., Saez, E., & Turner, N. (2014b). Is the United States still a land of opportunity? Recent trends in intergenerational mobility. American Economic Review, 104(5), 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.5.141 Chetty, R., Jackson, M. O., Kuchler, T., Stroebel, J., Hendren, N., Fluegge, R. B., Gong, S., Gonzalez, F., Grondin, A., Jacob, M., Johnston, D., Koenen, M., Laguna-Muggenburg, E., Mudekereza, F., Rutter, T., Thor, N., Townsend, W., Zhang, R., Bailey, M., Barberá, P., Bhole, M., & Wernerfelt, N. (2022a). Social capital I: Measurement and associations with economic mobility. Nature, 608(7921), 108–121. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586- 022-04996-4 Chetty, R., Jackson, M. O., Kuchler, T., Stroebel, J., Hendren, N., Fluegge, R. B., Gong, S., Gonzalez, F., Grondin, A., Jacob, M., Johnston, D., Koenen, M., Laguna-Muggenburg, E., Mudekereza, F., Rutter, T., Thor, N., Townsend, W., Zhang, R., Bailey, M., Barberá, P., Bhole, M., & Wernerfelt, N. (2022b). Social capital II: Determinants of economic connectedness. Nature, 608(7921), 122–134. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04997- 3 Chevan, A. (1989). The growth of home ownership: 1940–1980. Demography, 26(2), 249–266. https://doi.org/10.2307/2061523 Chin, H. B., Sipe, T. A., Elder, R., Mercer, S. L., Chattopadhyay, S. K., Jacob, V., Wethington, H. R., Kirby, D., Elliston, D. B., Griffith, M., Chuke, S. O., Briss, S. C., Ericksen, I., Galbraith, J. S., Herbst, J. H., Johnson, R. L., Kraft, J. M., Noar, S. M., Romero, L. M., & Santelli, J. (2012). The effectiveness of group-based comprehensive risk-reduction and abstinence education interventions to prevent or reduce the risk of adolescent pregnancy, REFS - 20 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs human immunodeficiency virus, and sexually transmitted infections: two systematic reviews for the Guide to Community Preventive Services. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42(3), 272–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2011.11.006 Choi, J. H., Zhu, J., & Goodman, L. (2018). Intergenerational homeownership: The impact of parental homeownership and wealth on young adults’ tenure choices. The Urban Institute. https://www.urban.org/research/publication/intergenerational-homeownership Choi, K. H., & Tienda, M. (2021). Gender and educational differentials in marital sorting of Hispanic young adults. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 696(1), 179–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162211043774 Christensen, F. (2011). The pill and partnerships: The impact of the birth control pill on cohabitation. Journal of Population Economics, 25(1), 29–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-010-0344-6 Chyn, E. (2018). Moved to opportunity: The long-run effects of public housing demolition on children. American Economic Review, 108(10), 3028–3056. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20161352 Chyn, E., Collinson, R., & Sandler, D. (2023). The long-run effects of residential racial desegregation programs: Evidence from Gautreaux. Working Paper. https://robcollinson.github.io/RobWebsite/CCS_Gautreaux.pdf Chyn, E., Haggag, K., & Stuart, B. A. (2022). The effects of racial segregation on intergenerational mobility: Evidence from historical railroad placement. NBER Working Paper Series No. 30563. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w30563/w30563.pdf Cilesiz, S., & Drotos, S. M. (2014). High-poverty urban high school students’ plans for higher education: Weaving their own safety nets. Urban Education, 51(1), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085914543115 Clampet-Lundquist, S., Edin, K., Kling, J. R., & Duncan, G. J. (2011). Moving teenagers out of high-risk neighborhoods: How girls fare better than boys. American Journal of Sociology, 116(4), 1154–1189. https://doi.org/10.1086/657352 Clayborne, Z. M., Kingsbury, M., Sampasa-Kinyaga, H., Sikora, L., Lalande, K. M., & Colman, I. (2021). Parenting practices in childhood and depression, anxiety, and internalizing REFS - 21 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs symptoms in adolescence: A systematic review. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 56(6), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-020-01956-z Coates, T.-N. (2014, June). The case for reparations. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ Cohodes, S. R., Grossman, D. S., Kleiner, S. A., & Lovenheim, M. F. (2016). The effect of child health insurance access on schooling: Evidence from public insurance expansions. Journal of Human Resources, 51(3), 727–759. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.51.3.1014- 6688R1 Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital and the production of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2780243 Collins, W. J., & Wanamaker, M. H. (2022). African American intergenerational economic mobility since 1880. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 14(3), 84–117. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20170656 Commission on Evidence-Based Policymaking (CEP). (2017). The promise of evidence-based policymaking. www2.census.gov/adrm/fesac/2017-12-15/Abraham-CEP-final-report.pdf Congressional Budget Office. (2019). The effects on employment and family income of increasing the federal minimum wage. https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2019-07/CBO- 55410-MinimumWage2019.pdf Conley, D. (1999). Being black, living in the red: Race, wealth, and social policy in America. University of California Press. Conley, D., & Glauber, R. (2008). Wealth mobility and volatility in black and white. Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/wealth-mobility-and- volatility-in-black-and-white/ Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) Office of Research. (2015). Data point: Credit invisibles. Report by the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. https://www.consumerfinance.gov/data-research/research-reports/data-point-credit- invisibles/ Conzelmann, J. G., Hemelt, S. W., Hershbein, B. J., Martin, S., Simon, A., & Stange, K. M. (2023). Grads on the go: Measuring college-specific labor markets for graduates. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22553 REFS - 22 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Cooper, M., & Pugh, A. J. (2020). Families across the income spectrum: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), 272–299. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12623 Corak, M. (2006). Do poor children become poor adults? Lessons from a cross country comparison of generational earnings mobility. IZA Discussion Paper No. 1993. https://docs.iza.org/dp1993.pdf Corak, M. (2013a). Income inequality, equality of opportunity, and intergenerational mobility. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(3), 79–102. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.27.3.79 Corak, M. (2013b). Inequality from generation to generation: The United States in comparison. In R. Rycorft (Ed.), The economics of inequality, poverty, and discrimination in the 21st century (pp. 107–123). Praeger. Corak, M., & Heisz, A. (1999). The intergenerational earnings and income mobility of Canadian men: Evidence from longitudinal income tax data. Journal of Human Resources, 34(3), 504–533. https://doi.org/10.2307/146378 Corak, M., Lindquist, M. J., & Mazumder, B. (2014). A comparison of upward and downward intergenerational mobility in Canada, Sweden, and the United States. Labour Economics, 30(C), 185–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2014.03.013 Couch, K., & Lillard, D. R. (2004). Non-linear patterns of intergenerational mobility in Germany and the United States. In M. Corak (Ed.), Generational mobility in North America and Europe (pp. 190–206). Cambridge University Press. Cox, R. D. (2016). Complicating conditions: Obstacles and interruptions to low-income students’ college choices. Journal of Higher Education, 87(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2016.11777392 Crnic, K. A., & Coburn, S. S. (2019). Stress and parenting. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (vol. 3, pp. 421–448). Routledge. Cronin, J.-A., DeFilippes, P., & Fisher, R. (2024). Refundable credits by race/Hispanic ethnicity, income, and filing status. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 114, 649–654. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20241037 Cross, C. J. (2018). Extended family households among children in the United States: Differences by race/ethnicity and socio-economic status. Population Studies, 72(2), 235– 251. https://doi.org/10.1080/00324728.2018.1468476 REFS - 23 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Cross, C. J. (2020). Racial/ethnic differences in the association between family structure and children's education. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(2), 691–712. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12625 Cross, C. J. (2023). Beyond the binary: Intraracial diversity in family organization and black adolescents’ educational performance. Social Problems, 70(2), 511–532. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36370.58563 Cross, C. J., Fomby, P., & Letiecq, B. (2022). Interlinking structural racism and heteropatriarchy: Rethinking family structure's effects on child outcomes in a racialized, unequal society. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 14(3), 482–501. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12458 Cross, C. J., Nguyen, A., Taylor, R. J., & Chatters, L. (2018). Instrumental social support exchanges in African American extended families. Journal of Family Issues, 39(13), 3535–3563. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X18783805 Cuddy, M., Krysan, M., & Lewis, A. (2020). Choosing homes without choosing schools? How urban parents navigate decisions about neighborhoods and school choice. Journal of Urban Affairs, 42(8), 1180–1201. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2020.1739537 Cunha, F., Heckman, J. J., Lochner, L., & Masterov, D. V. (2006). Interpreting the evidence on life cycle skill formation. In E. A. Hanushek & F. Welch (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (vol. 1, pp. 697–812). Elsevier. Cutler, D., & Lleras-Muney, A. (2008). Education and health: Evaluating theories and evidence. In R. F. Schoeni, J. S. House, G. A. Kaplan, & H. Pollack (Eds.), Making Americans healthier: Social and economic policy as health policy (pp. 29–61). Russell Sage Foundation. Daly, M. C., & Bengali, L. (2014). Is it still worth going to college? FRBSF Economic Letter. https://www.frbsf.org/wp-content/uploads/el2014-13.pdf Darity, Jr., W. A. (2005). Stratification economics: The role of intergroup inequality. Journal of Economics and Finance, 29(2), 144–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02761550 Darity, Jr., W. A., & Mullen, K. (2020). From here to equality: Reparations for black Americans in the twenty-first century. University of North Carolina Press. REFS - 24 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Darity, Jr., W. A., Craemer, T., Berry, D. R., & Francis, D. V. (2024). Black reparations in the United States, 2024: An introduction. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 10(2), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.2.01 Darrah, J., & DeLuca, S. (2014). Living here has changed my whole perspective: How escaping inner‐city poverty shapes neighborhood and housing choice. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 33(2), 350–384. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.21758 David, H. P. (2006). Born unwanted, 35 years later: The Prague study. Reproductive Health Matters, 14(27), 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(06)27219-7 Davis, A. M. D. (2023). Is working in college worth it? How hours on the job affect postsecondary outcomes. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737231210243 Davis, J., & Mazumder, B. (2022). The decline in intergenerational mobility after 1980. FRB of Chicago Working Paper No. WP-2017-5. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2944584 Dawson, A.F., Brown, W. W., Anderson, J., Datta, B., Donald, J. N., Hong, K., Allan, S., Mole, T. B., Jones, P. B., & Galante, J. (2020). Mindfulness-based interventions for university students: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Applied Psychology, Health, and Well Being, 12(2), 384–410. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12188 Daysal, N. M., Lovenheim, M. F., & Wasser, D. N. (2022). The correlation of net and gross wealth across generations: The role of parent income and child age. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 112, 73–77. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20221058 de Souza Briggs, X. (1997). Moving up versus moving out: Neighborhood effects in housing mobility programs. Housing Policy Debate, 8(1), 195–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.1997.9521252 de Souza Briggs, X., Popkin, S. J., & Goering, J. (2010). Moving to opportunity: The story of an American experiment to fight ghetto poverty. Oxford University Press. Deaver, K. D. (2021). Administrative data used in the 2020 census. U.S. Census Bureau manuscript. https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/program- management/planning-docs/administrative-data-used-in-the-2020-census.pdf REFS - 25 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Deil-Amen, R., & Rosebaum, J. E. (2002). The unintended consequences of stigma-free remediation. Sociology of Education, 75(3), 249–268. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090268 Deil-Amen, R., & Rosebaum, J. E. (2003). The social prerequisites of success: Can college structure reduce the need for social know-how? The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 586(1), 120–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716202250216 DeLuca, S. (2023). Sample selection matters: Moving toward empirically sound qualitative research. Sociological Methods & Research, 52(2), 1073–1085. https://doi.org/10.1177/00491241221140425 DeLuca, S., & Burland, E. (2023). Weighing risk and reward in the postsecondary choices of low income students. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Public Policy and Management, Atlanta: GA. DeLuca, S., Clampet-Lundquist, S., & Edin, K. (2016). Coming of age in the other America. Russell Sage Foundation. DeLuca, S., & Dayton, E. (2009). Switching social contexts: The effects of housing mobility and school choice programs on youth outcomes. Annual Review of Sociology, 35(1), 457– 491. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-120032 DeLuca, S., Duncan, G. J., Keels, M., & Mendenhall, R. M. (2010). Gautreaux mothers and their children: An update. Housing Policy Debate, 20(1), 7–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511481003599829 DeLuca, S., Garboden, P. M. E., & Rosenblatt, P. (2013). Segregating shelter: How housing policies shape the residential locations of low-income minority families. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 647(1), 268–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716213479310 DeLuca, S., & Jang-Trettien, C. (2020). Not just a lateral move: Residential decisions and the reproduction of urban inequality. City & Community, 19(3), 451–488. https://doi.org/10.1111/cico.12515 DeLuca, S., Katz, L. F., & Oppenheimer, S. C. (2023). When someone cares about you, it’s priceless: Reducing administrative burdens and boosting housing search confidence to increase opportunity moves for voucher holders. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 9(5), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.5.08 REFS - 26 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs DeLuca, S., Papageorge, N. W., & Boselovic, J. L. (2024). Exploring the trade-off between exploring and thriving: Heterogenous responses to adversity and disruptive events among disadvantaged black youth. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 10(1), 103–131. https://doi.org/org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.1.05 DeLuca, S., Papageorge, N. W., Boselovic, J. L., Gershenson, S., Gray, A., Nerenberg, K. M., Sausedo, J., & Young, A. (2021). When anything can happen: Anticipated adversity and postsecondary decision-making. NBER Working Paper No. 29472. https://www.nber.org/papers/w29472 DeLuca, S., & Rosen, E. (2022). Housing insecurity among the poor today. Annual Review of Sociology, 48(1), 343–371. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-090921-040646 DeLuca, S., & Rosenblatt, P. (2010). Does moving to better neighborhoods lead to better schooling opportunities? Parental school choice in an experimental housing voucher program. Teachers College Record, 112(5), 1443–1491. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811011200504 DeLuca, S., & Rosenblatt, P. (2017). Walking away from the wire: Housing mobility and neighborhood opportunity in Baltimore. Housing Policy Debate, 27(4), 519–546. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2017.1282884 DeLuca, S., Wood, H., & Rosenblatt, P. (2019). Why poor families move (and where they go): Reactive mobility and residential decisions. City & Community, 18(2), 556–593. https://doi.org/10.1111/cico.12386 Deming, D. J. (2017). The growing importance of social skills in the labor market. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 132(4), 1593–1640. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjx022 Derenoncourt, E. (2022). Can you move to opportunity? Evidence from the Great Migration. American Economic Review, 112(2), 369–408. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20200002 Derenoncourt, E., & Montialoux, C. (2021). Minimum wages and racial inequality. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 136(1), 169–228. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjaa031 Derenoncourt, E., Kim, C. H., Kuhn, M., & Schularick, M. (2023). Changes in the distribution of Black and White wealth since the U.S. civil war. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 37(4), 71–90. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.37.4.71 Desmond, M. (2016). Evicted: Poverty and profit in the American city. Crown. REFS - 27 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Deutscher, N., & Mazumder, B. (2021). Measuring intergenerational income mobility: A synthesis of approaches. FRB of Chicago Working Paper No. 2021-09. http://dx.doi.org/10.21033/wp-2021-09 Deutscher, N., & Mazumder, B. (2023). Measuring intergenerational income mobility: A synthesis of approaches. Journal of Economic Literature, 61(3), 988–1036. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20211413 Dew, J. (2007). Two sides of the same coin? The differing roles of assets and consumer debt in marriage. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 28(1), 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-006-9051-6 Dew, J. (2008). Debt change and marital satisfaction change in recently married couples. Family Relations, 57(1), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2007.00483.x DiNardo, J., & Lee, D. S. (2004). Economic impacts of new unionization on private sector employers: 1984-2001. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119(4), 1383–1441. https://doi.org/10.1162/0033553042476189 DiPrete, T. A., & Buchmann, C. (2006). Gender-specific trends in the value of education and the emerging gender gap in college completion. Demography, 43(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2006.0003 DiPrete, T. A., & Buchmann, C. (2013). The rise of women: The growing gender gap in education and what it means for American schools. Russell Sage Foundation. Dobbie, W., & Fryer, Jr., R. G. (2011). Are high-quality schools enough to increase achievement among the poor? Evidence from the Harlem children’s zone. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 3(3), 158–187. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.3.3.158 Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization, 597 U.S. ___ (2022) Doepke, M., & Zilibotti, F. (2019). Love, money, and parenting: How economics explains the way we raise our kids. Princeton University Press. Doleac, J. L., & Stevenson, M. T. (2020). Algorithmic risk assessments in the hands of humans. The Salem Center, The University of Texas at Austin. https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/items/126f743a-f7c4-4833-b4df-ee621fc40117 Doren, C., & Grodsky, E. (2016). What skills can buy: Transmission of advantage through cognitive and noncognitive skills. Sociology of Education, 89(4), 321–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040716667994 REFS - 28 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Dotti Sani, G. M., & Treas, J. (2016). Educational gradients in parents' child‐care time across countries, 1965–2012: Educational gradients in parents' child-care time. Journal of Marriage and Family, 78(4), 1083–1096. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12305 Drake, K., Belsky, J., & Fearon, R. M. P. (2014). From early attachment to engagement with learning in school: The role of self-regulation and persistence. Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1350–1361. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032779 Dreier, P., Mollenkopf, J., & Swanstrom, T. (2014). Place matters: Metropolitics for the twenty- first century (3rd rev. ed.). University Press of Kansas. Drentea, P. (2000). Age, debt, and anxiety. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41(4), 437– 450. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2676296 Drentea, P., & Lavrakas, P. J. (2000). Over the limit: The association among health, race, and debt. Social Science & Medicine, 50(4), 517–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277- 9536(99)00298-1 Drentea, P., & Reynolds, J. R. (2012). Neither a borrower nor a lender be: The relative importance of debt and SES for mental health among older adults. Journal of Aging and Health, 24(4), 673–695. https://doi.org/10.1177/089826431143130 Dressel, J., & Farid, H. (2018). The accuracy, fairness, and limits of predicting recidivism. Science Advances, 4(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aao5580 Du Bois, W. E. B. (1898). The study of the Negro problems. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 11(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/000271629801100101 Duncan, G. J., Bos, H., Gennetian, L. A., & Hill, H. (2009). New hope: A thoughtful and effective approach to “make work pay”. Northwestern Journal of Law and Social Policy, 4(1), 101–115. https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1035&conte xt=njlsp Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.) (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. Russell Sage Foundation. Duncan, G. J., Kalil, A., Mogstad, M., & Rege, M. (2023). Investing in early childhood in preschool and at home. In E. A. Hanushek, L. Woessmann, & S. Machin (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (vol. 6, pp. 1–91). Elsevier. REFS - 29 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Duncan, G. J., Kalil, A., & Ziol-Guest, K. M. (2017). Increasing inequality in parent incomes and children’s schooling. Demography, 54(5), 1603–1626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-017-0600-4 Duncan, G. J., Morris, P. A., & Rodrigues, C. (2011). Does money really matter? Estimating impacts of family income on young children's achievement with data from random- assignment experiments. Developmental Psychology, 47(5), 1263–1279. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023875 Duncan, G. J., & Murnane, R. J. (Eds.) (2011). Whither opportunity? Rising inequality, schools, and children's life chances. Russell Sage Foundation. Dunifon, R. (2013). The influence of grandparents on the lives of children and adolescents. Child Development Perspectives, 7(1), 55–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12016 Duran, C. A. K., Cottone, E., Ruzek, E. A., Mashburn, A. J., & Grissmer, D. W. (2020). Family stress processes and children's self‐regulation. Child Development, 91(2), 577–595. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13202 Durlauf, S. N. (1996). A theory of persistent income inequality. Journal of Economic Growth, 1(1), 75–93. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40215882?origin=JSTOR-pdf Durlauf, S. N., Kourtellos, A., & Tan, C. M. (2022). The great Gatsby curve. Annual Review of Economics, 14, 571–605. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-082321-122703 Dvir-Djerassi, A. (2024). Closing the racial wealth gap: A counterfactual historical simulation of universal inheritance. The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 10(3), 70–91. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.3.04 Dwyer, R. E. (2018). Credit, debt, and inequality. Annual Review of Sociology, 44(1), 237–261. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053420 Dwyer, R. E., McCloud, L., & Hodson, R. (2011). Youth debt, mastery, and self-esteem: Class- stratified effects of indebtedness on self-concept. Social Science Research, 40(3), 727– 741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.02.001 Dwyer, R. E., Neilson, L. A., Nau, M., & Hodson, R. (2016). Mortgage worries: Young adults and the U.S. housing crisis. Socioeconomic Review, 14(3), 483–505. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwv018 REFS - 30 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Dyer, J., Bailey, C., & Tran, N. V. (2008). Ownership characteristics of heir property in a Black Belt county: A quantitative approach. Journal of Rural Social Sciences, 24(2), article 10. https://egrove.olemiss.edu/jrss/vol24/iss2/10 Dynarski, S. (2014), Building better longitudinal surveys (on the cheap) through links to administrative data. Paper Presented at the Workshop to Examine Current and Potential Uses of National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Longitudinal Surveys by the Education Research Community. https://naeducation.org/wp- content/uploads/2016/10/dynarski-nces-longitudinal-surveys.pdf Dynarski, S., Libassi, C. J., Michelmore, K., & Owen, S. (2021). Closing the gap: The effect of reducing complexity and uncertainty in college pricing on the choices of low-income students. American Economic Review, 111(6), 1721–1756. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20200451 Dynarski, S., Page, L.C., & Scott-Clayton, J. (2023a). College costs, financial aid, and student decisions. In E. Hanushek, S. Machin, & Woessmann, L. (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (vol. 7, pp. 227–285). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.hesedu.2023.03.006 Dynarski, S., Nurshatayeva, A., Page. L. C., & Scott-Clayton, J. (2023b). Addressing non- financial barriers to college access and success: Evidence and policy implications. In E. Hanushek, S. Machin, & L. Woessmann (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (vol. 6, pp. 319–403). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.hesedu.2022.11.007 Dynarski, S., & Scott-Clayton, J. (2016). Tax benefits for college attendance. NBER Working Paper No. 22127. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w22127/w22127.pdf East, C. N., Miller, S., Page, M., & Wherry, L. R. (2023). Multigenerational impacts of childhood access to the safety net: Early life exposure to Medicaid and the next generation’s health. American Economic Review, 113(1), 98–135. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20210937 Eberharter, V. V. (2013). The intergenerational dynamics of social inequality: Empirical evidence from Europe and the United States. SOEP Paper No. 588. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2331887 REFS - 31 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Edin, K. J., Fields, C. D., Grusky, D. B., Leskovec, J., Mattingly, M. J., Olson, K., & Varner, C. (2024). Listening to the voices of America. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 10(5), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.5.01 Edin, K. J., & Kefalas, M. J. (2005). Promises I can keep: Why poor women put motherhood before marriage. University of California Press. Edin, K. J., Rosenblatt, P., & Zhu, Q. (2015). I do me: Young black men and the struggle to resist the street. In O. Patterson (Ed.), The cultural matrix: Understanding black youth (pp. 229–251.). Harvard University Press. Edin, K. J., Shaefer, H. L., & Nelson, T. J. (2023). The injustice of place: Uncovering the legacy of poverty in America. HarperCollins Publishers. Eide, E. R., & Showalter, M. H. (1999). Factors affecting the transmission of earnings across generations: A quantile regression approach. The Journal of Human Resources, 34(2), 253–267. https://doi.org/10.2307/146345 Elango, S., García, J. L., Heckman, J. J., & Hojman, A. (2015). Early childhood education. In R. A. Moffitt (Ed.), Economics of means-tested transfer programs in the United States (vol. 2, pp. 235–297). University of Chicago Press. Elder, G. H., Jr. (1999). Children of the great depression: Social change in life experience (25th anniversary edition). Westview Press. Elder, G. H., Jr., Johnson, M. K., & Crosnoe, R. (2003). The emergence and development of life course theory. In J. T. Mortimer & M. J. Shanahan (Eds.), Handbook of the life course (pp. 3–22). Plenum. Elder, G. H., Jr., Shanahan, M. J., & Jennings, J. A. (2015). Human development in time and place. In M. H. Bornstein, T. Leventhal, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Ecological settings and processes (7th ed., pp. 6– 54). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Ellis, B. J., & Boyce, W. T. (2008). Biological sensitivity to context. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(3), 183–287. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 8721.2008.00571.x Elvery, J. A. (2009). The impact of enterprise zones on resident employment: An evaluation of the enterprise zone programs of California and Florida. Economic Development Quarterly, 23(1), 44–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891242408326994 REFS - 32 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Engzell, P., & Mood, C. (2023). Understanding patterns and trends in income mobility through multiverse analysis. American Sociological Association, 88(4), 600–626. https://doi.org/10.1177/00031224231180607 Ermisch, J., Jäntti, M., Smeeding, T., & Wilson, J. A. (2012). Advantage in comparative perspective. In J. Ermisch, M. Jäntti, & T. Smeeding (Eds.), From parents to children: The intergenerational transmission of advantage (pp. 3–31). Russell Sage Foundation. Everett, B. G., Limburg, A., Homan, P., & Philbin, M. M. (2022). Structural heteropatriarchy and birth outcomes in the United States. Demography, 59(1), 89–110. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-9606030 Evidence-Based Policymaking Act of 2018, Pub. L. No. 115-435, 132 Stat. 5529 (2019). Faber, J. W. (2020). We built this: Consequences of new deal era intervention in America’s racial geography. American Sociological Review, 85(5), 739–775. https://doi.org/10.1177/00031224209484 Fagereng, A., Mogstad, M., & Rønning, M. (2021). Why do wealthy parents have wealthy children? Journal of Political Economy, 129(3), 703–756. https://doi.org/10.1086/712446 Farber, H. S., Herbst, D., Kuziemko, I., & Naidu, S. (2021). Unions and inequality over the twentieth century: New evidence from survey data. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 136(3), 1325–1385. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjab012 Federal Reserve Bank of New York. (2017). Quarterly Report on Household Debt and Credit. https://www.newyorkfed.org/medialibrary/interactives/householdcredit/data/pdf/HHDC_ 2017Q1.pdf Federal Reserve Bank of New York. (2023a). Quarterly report on household debt and credit. https://www.newyorkfed.org/microeconomics/hhdc Federal Reserve Bank of New York. (2023b, March). State level household debt statistics 2003– 2022. https://www.newyorkfed.org/microeconomics/hhdc Feigenbaum, J. J. (2018). Multiple measures of historical intergenerational mobility: Iowa 1915 to 1940. The Economic Journal, 128(612), F446–F481. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12525 Feiveson, L., & Sabelhaus, J. E. (2019). Lifecycle patterns of saving and wealth accumulation. Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2019–010. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. https://doi.org/10.17016/FEDS.2019.010 REFS - 33 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Feller, A., Grindal, T., Miratrix, L., & Page, L. C. (2016). Compared to what? Variation in the impacts of early childhood education by alternative care type. Annuals of Applied Statistics, 10(3), 1245–1285. https://doi.org/10.1214/16-AOAS910 Ferrie, J. P. (2005). History lessons: The end of American exceptionalism? Mobility in the United States since 1850. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(3), 199–215. https://doi.org/10.1257/089533005774357824 Finer, L. B., & Zolna, M. R. (2016). Declines in unintended pregnancy in the United States, 2008–2011. New England Journal of Medicine, 374(9), 843–852. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1506575 Finnigan, R., & Meagher, K. D. (2019). Past due: Combinations of utility and housing hardship in the United States. Sociological Perspectives, 62(1), 96–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121418782927 Fiorini, M., & Keane, M. P. (2014). How the allocation of children’s time affects cognitive and noncognitive development. Journal of Labor Economics, 32(4), 787–836. https://doi.org/10.1086/67723 Fischel, W. A. (2005). The homevoter hypothesis: How home values influence local government taxation, school finance, and land-use policies. Harvard University Press. Fischer, W., & Huang, C.-C. (2013). Mortgage interest deduction is ripe for reform. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. https://www.cbpp.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/4-4- 13hous.pdf Fischer, W., & Sard, B. (2017). Chart book: Federal housing spending is poorly matched to need. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. https://www.cbpp.org/research/chart-book- federal-housing-spending-is-poorly-matched-to-need Fisher, J., & Johnson, D. S. (2023). Intergenerational mobility using income, consumption, and wealth. Washington Center for Equitable Growth Working Paper No. 060723. https://equitablegrowth.org/working-papers/intergenerational-mobility-using-income- consumption-and-wealth/ Fisher, J., Johnson, D. S., Latner, J. P., Smeeding, T., & Thompson, J. (2016). Inequality and mobility using income, consumption, and wealth for the same individuals. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 2(6), 44–58. https://doi.org/org/10.7758/rsf.2016.2.6.03 REFS - 34 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Fitzgerald, S. T., & Leicht, K. T. (2014). Introductory Comments: Does the American middle class have a future? The Sociological Quarterly, 55(2), 233–235. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24581858 Fleming, A. (2018). The long history of “truth in lending”. Journal of Policy History, 30(2), 236–271. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0898030618000064 Fletcher, J. M., & Wolfe, B. (2016). The importance of family income in the formation and evolution of non-cognitive skills in childhood. Economics of Education Review, 54(C), 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2016.07.004 Flippen, C. (2004). Unequal returns to housing investments? A study of real housing appreciation among Black, White, and Hispanic households. Social Forces, 82(4), 1523– 1551. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2004.0069 Flynn, J. (2023). Can expanding contraceptive access reduce adverse infant health outcomes? SSRN Working Paper No. 4408753. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4408753 Fomby, P. (2024). Prioritize families, not marriage. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 43(4), 1284–1289. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22630 Fomby, P., & Cherlin, A. J. (2007). Family instability and child well-being. American Sociological Review, 72(2), 181–204. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240707200203 Fortson, K., Rotz, D., Burkander, P., Mastri, A., Schochet, P., Rosenberg, L., McConnell, S., & D'Amico, R. (2017). Providing public workforce services to job seekers: 30-month impact findings on the WIA adult and dislocated worker programs. Mathematica Policy Research. https://www.mathematica.org/publications/providing-public-workforce- services-to-job-seekers-30-month-impact-findings-on-the-wia-adult Fourcade, M., & Healy, K. (2013). Classification situations: Life-chances in the neoliberal era. Accounting, Organizations, and Society, 38(8), 559–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2013.11.002 Fox, L. E. (2016). Parental wealth and the Black–White mobility gap in the U.S. Review of Income and Wealth, 62(4), 706–723. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12200 Fox, L. E., Torche, F., & Waldfogel, J. (2016). Intergenerational mobility. In D. Brady & L. M. Burton (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of the social science of poverty (pp. 528–554). Oxford University Press. REFS - 35 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Frazier, M. (2021, May 20). When no landlord will rent to you, where do you go? The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/20/magazine/extended-stay-hotels.html Freeman, R. B., & Medoff, J. L. (1985). What do unions do? ILR Review, 38(2), 244–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/001979398503800207 Friedberg, L., Hynes, R. M., & Pattison, N. (2021). Who benefits from bans on employers’ credit checks? The Journal of Law and Economics, 64(4), 675–703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/714352 Fry, R., & Cilluffo, A. (2019). A rising share of undergraduates are from poor families, especially at less selective colleges. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2019/05/Pew-Research- Center-Undergrad-report-FINAL-05.22.19.pdf Furstenberg, Jr., F. F., Cook, T. D., Eccles, J., Elder, Jr., G. H., & Sameroff, A. (1999). Managing to make it: Urban families and adolescent success. Chicago University Press. Galor, O., & Tsiddon, D. (1997). Technological progress, mobility, and economic growth. American Economic Review, 87(3), 363–382. https://econpapers.repec.org/article/aeaaecrev/v_3a87_3ay_3a1997_3ai_3a3_3ap_3a363- 82.htm Galster, G. C. (2012). The mechanism(s) of neighbourhood effects: Theory, evidence, and policy implications. In M. van Ham, D. Manley, N. Bailey, L. Simpson, & D. Maclennan (Eds.), Neighbourhood effects research: New perspectives (pp. 23–56). Springer. Galster, G. C., & Sharkey, P. (2017). Spatial foundations of inequality: A conceptual model and empirical overview. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 3(2), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2017.3.2.01 Galster, G. C., Santiago, A., Stack, L., & Cutsinger, J. (2016). Neighborhood effects on secondary school performance of Latino and African American youth: Evidence from a natural experiment in Denver. Journal of Urban Economics, 93(C), 30–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2016.02.004 Galvez, M. M. (2010). What do we know about housing choice voucher program location outcomes? A review of recent literature. What Works Collaborative. The Urban Institute. https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/29176/412218-What-Do-We-Know- About-Housing-Choice-Voucher-Program-Location-Outcomes-.PDF REFS - 36 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Gardyan, A., Mwase, G., Sigelman, M., Trumbore, A., & Stevens, M. (2024). Education and learning for longer lives: Building a national vision for human capital development and shared prosperity. Stanford Center on Longevity & Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. https://longevity.stanford.edu/wp- content/uploads/2024/11/Education-and-Learning-for-Longer-Lives.pdf Gelbgiser, D. (2018). College for all, degrees for few: For-profit colleges and socioeconomic differences in degree attainment. Social Force, 96(4), 1785–1824. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy022 Genadek, K. R., & Alexander, J. T. (2019). The decennial census digitization and linkage project. ADEP Working Paper Series No. 2019–01. U.S. Census Bureau, Washington DC. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working- papers/2019/econ/dcdl-workingpaper.pdf Genschel, P., Limberg, J., & Seelkopf, L. (2023). Revenue, redistribution, and the rise and fall of inheritance taxation. Comparative Political Studies, 57(9), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/00104140231194065 Gershenson, S., & Tekin, E. (2018). The effect of community traumatic events on student achievement: Evidence from the beltway sniper attacks. Education Finance and Policy, 13(4), 513–544. https://doi.org/10.1162/edfp_a_00234 Ghaffary S. (2019, September 6). It looks like Uber is getting into the small loan business for its drivers. Vox. https://www.vox.com/2019/9/6/20853357/uber-driver-direct-loans-payday- small-lorena-gonzalez-ab5 Gibbs, B. G., & Downey, D. (2020). The black/white skill gap in early childhood: The role of parenting. Sociological Perspectives, 63(6), 525–551. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121419896812 Gibson-Davis, C., & Hill, H. D. (2021). Childhood wealth inequality in the United States: Implications for social stratification and well-being. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 7(3), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2021.7.3.01 Gipson, J. D., Koenig, M. A., & Hindin, M. J. (2008). The effects of unintended pregnancy on infant, child, and parental health: A review of the literature. Studies in Family Planning, 39(1), 18–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2008.00148.x REFS - 37 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Glaeser, E. L., & Gottlieb, J. D. (2008). The economics of place-making policies. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 39(1), 155–253. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1299046 Glaeser, E. L., & Gyourko, J., (2002). The impact of zoning on housing affordability. NBER Working Paper No. 8835. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w8835/w8835.pdf Glass, T. A., & McAtee, M. J. (2006). Behavioral science at the crossroads in public health: Extending horizons, envisioning the future. Social Science & Medicine, 62(7), 1650– 1671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.08.044 Goda, G. S., & Streeter, J. L. (2021). Wealth trajectories across key milestones: Longitudinal evidence from life-course transitions. NBER Working Paper No. 28329. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w28329/w28329.pdf Goering, J. M., & Feins, J. D. (Eds.) (2003). Choosing a better life? Evaluating the moving to opportunity social experiment. The Urban Institute. Gold, S., & Edin, K. J. (2021). Re-thinking stepfathers’ contributions: Fathers, stepfathers, and child wellbeing. Journal of Family Issues, 44(3), 745–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X211054471 Golden, D. (2007). The price of admission: How America’s ruling class buys its way into elite colleges — and who gets left outside the gates. Crown Publishing Group/Random House. Goldin, C., & Katz, L. F. (2002). The power of the pill: Oral contraceptives and women's career and marriage decisions. Journal of Political Economy, 110(4), 730–770. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2008.00148.x Goldin, C., & Katz, L. F. (2008). The race between education and technology. Harvard University Press. Goldin, C., Katz, L. F., & Kuziemko, I. (2006). The homecoming of American college women: The reversal of the college gender gap. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20(4), 133– 156. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.20.4.133 Goldrick-Rab, S., Richardson, J., Schneider, J., Hernandez, A., & Cady, C. (2018). Still hungry and homeless in college. Wisconsin Hope Lab. https://www.pdx.edu/basic-needs- hub/sites/studentaccesscenter.web.wdt.pdx.edu/files/2020-08/Wisconsin-HOPE-Lab- Still-Hungry-and-Homeless_0.pdf REFS - 38 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Goldstein, A., & Hastings. O. P. (2019). Buying in: Positional competition, schools, income inequality, and housing consumption. Sociological Sciences, 6(16), 416–445. https://doi.org/10.15195/v6.a16 Goodman, J., Hurwitz, M., & Smith, J. (2017). Access to 4-year public colleges and degree completion. Journal of Labor Economics, 35(3), 829–867. https://doi.org/10.1086/690818 Goodman, S., Mezza, A., & Volz, A. H. (2020). On intergenerational immobility: Evidence that adult credit health reflects the childhood environment. Economic Inquiry, Western Economic Association International, 58(2), 780–801. https://ideas.repec.org/a/bla/ecinqu/v58y2020i2p780-801.html Goodman-Bacon, A. (2021). The long-run effects of childhood insurance coverage: Medicaid implementation, adult health, and labor market outcomes. American Economic Review, 111(8), 2550–2593. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20171671 Gorostiaga, A., Aliri, J., Balluerka, N., & Lameirinhas, J. (2019). Parenting styles and internalizing symptoms in adolescence: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(17), 3192. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16173192 Graham, B., & Sharkey, P. (2013). Mobility and the Metropolis: The Relationship between Inequality in Urban Communities and Economic Mobility. The Economic Mobility Project, An Initiative of The Pew Charitable Trusts. https://nyuscholars.nyu.edu/en/publications/mobility-and-the-metropolis-the-relationship- between-inequality-i Graham, M., McEntarfer, E., McKinney, K., Tibbets, S., & Tucker, L. (2022). LEHD Snapshot Documentation. Working Papers No. 22-51, Center for Economic Studies & U.S. Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/library/working-papers/2022/adrm/CES-WP-22-51.html Grall, T. (2020). Custodial mothers and fathers and their child support: 2017. Current Population Reports, P60-269. U.S. Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2020/demo/p60-269.html Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. The American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360–1380. https://doi.org/10.1086/225469 REFS - 39 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Green, G. P., & Sanchez, L. (2007). Does manufacturing still matter? Population Research and Policy Review, 26(5), 529–551. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-007-9043-8 Greenberg, K., Gudgeon, M., Isen, A., Miller, C., & Patterson, R. (2022). Army Service in the all-volunteer era. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 137(4), 2363–2418. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjac026 Gregg, P., & Kanabar, R. (2022). Intergenerational wealth transmission in Great Britain. The Review of Income and Wealth, 69(4), 807–837. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12620 Grusky, D. B., Hall, P. A., & Markus, H. R. (2019). The rise of opportunity markets: How did it happen & what can we do? Daedalus, 148(3), 19–45. https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_01749 Grusky, D. B., Smeeding, T. M., & Snipp, C. M. (2015). A new infrastructure for monitoring social mobility in the United States. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 657(1), 63–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716214549941 Guerrero, D. (2023). Revisiting the intergenerational effects of the earned income tax credit on the long-run income of children. SSRN Working Paper No. 4603903. https://ssrn.com/abstract=4603903 Guldi, M. (2008). Fertility effects of abortion and birth control pill access for minors. Demography, 45(4), 817–827. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.0.0026 Guryan, J., Hurst, E., & Kearney, M. (2008). Parental education and parental time with children. Journal of Economic perspectives, 22(3), 23–46. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.22.3.23 Guzman, G., & Kollar, M. (2023). Income in the United States: 2022. U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P60-279. U.S. Department of Commerce, Government Publishing Office. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2023/demo/p60- 279.pdf Guzzo, K. B. (2021). Thirty years of change in unintended births. Family Profiles, FP-21-01. National Center for Family & Marriage Research. https://doi.org/10.25035/ncfmr/fp-21- 01 Guzzo, K. B., & Hayford, S. R. (2020). Pathways to parenthood in social and family contexts: Decade in review, 2020. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), 117–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12618 REFS - 40 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Gyourko, J., Mayer, C., & Sinai, T. (2013). Superstar cities. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 5(4), 167–199. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.5.4.167 Hacker, J. S. (2019). The great risk shift: The new economic insecurity and the decline of the American dream. Oxford University Press. Hacker, J. S. & Pierson, P. (2002). Business power and social policy: Employers and the formation of the American welfare state. Politics & Society, 30(2), 277–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032329202030002004 Hackworth, J. (2007). The neoliberal city: Governance, ideology, and development in American urbanism. Cornell University Press. Hällsten, M. (2024). The intergenerational transmission of wealth. In M. Albertini (Ed.), Handbook on intergenerational relations. Edward Elgar. Hällsten, M., & Pfeffer, F. T. (2017). Grand advantage: Family wealth and grandchildren’s educational achievement in Sweden. American Sociological Review, 82(2), 328–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122417695791 Halpern-Meekin, S. (2019). Social poverty: Low-income parents and the struggle for family and community ties. NYU Press. Halpern-Meekin, S., Edin, K., Sykes, J., & Tach, L. (2015). It’s not like I’m poor: How working families make ends meet in a post-welfare world. University of California Press. Hamilton, B. E., Martin, J. A., & Osterman, M. J. K. (2023). Births: Provisional data for 2022. Vital Statistics Rapid Release Report No. 28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/vsrr/vsrr028.pdf Hamilton, D., & Darity, Jr. W. (2010). Can ‘baby bonds’ eliminate the racial wealth gap in putative post-racial America? Review of Black Political Economy, 37(3–4), 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12114-010- 9063-1 Hamilton, L., Roksa, J., & Nielsen, K. (2018). Providing a leg-up: Parental involvement and opportunity hoarding in college. Sociology of Education, 91(2), 111–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040718759557 Hamilton, L. T. (2016). Parenting to a degree: How family matters for college women’s success. University of Chicago Press. Hamilton, L. T., Dawson, C. E., Armstrong, E. A., & Waller-Bey, A. (2024). Racialized horizontal stratification in U.S. higher education: Politics, process, and consequences. REFS - 41 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Annual Review of Sociology, 50, 475–499. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-083123- 035938 Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2008). The role of cognitive skills in economic development. Journal of Economic Literature, 46(3), 607–668. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.46.3.607 Harding, D. J. (2009). Collateral consequences of violence in disadvantaged neighborhoods. Social Forces, 88(2), 757–782. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.0.0281 Harding, D. J. (2010). Living the drama: Community, conflict, and culture among inner-city boys. University of Chicago Press. Harding, D. J., Gennetian, L., Winship, C., Sanbonmatsu, L., & Kling, J. (2011). Unpacking neighborhood influences on education outcomes: Setting the stage for future research. In G. Duncan & R. Murnane (Eds.), Whither opportunity: Rising inequality, schools, and children’s life chances (pp. 277–296). Russell Sage Foundation; Chicago: Spencer Foundation. Harris, A. (2016). A pound of flesh: Monetary sanctions as punishment for the poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Harris, K. M., Halpern, C. T., Whitsel, E. A., Hussey, J. M., Killeya-Jones, L. A., Tabor, J. W., & Dean, S. C. (2019). Cohort profile: The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). International Journal of Epidemiology, 48(5), 1415–1415k. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyz115 Hart, B. A. (2019). Hanging in, stopping out, dropping out: Community college students in an era of precarity. Teachers College Record, 121(1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811912100105 Harvey, H., Dunifon, R., & Pilkauskas, N. (2021). Under whose roof? Understanding the living arrangements of children in doubled-up households. Demography, 58(3), 821–846. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-9101102 Harvey, H., Fong, K., Edin, K., & DeLuca, S. (2020). Forever homes and temporary stops: Housing search logics and residential selection. Social Forces, 98(4), 1498–1523. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soz110 REFS - 42 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2016). Structural stigma: Research evidence and implications for psychological science. American Psychologist, 71(8), 742–751. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000068 Hauser, R. M. (2010). Intergenerational economic mobility in the United States: Measures, differentials, and trends. Euramerica, 40(3), 635–681. https://www.ea.sinica.edu.tw/eu_file/128506421414.pdf Hauser, R. M., Dickinson, P. J., Travis, H. P., & Koffel, J. N. (1975). Structural changes in occupational mobility among men in the United States. American Sociological Review, 40(5), 585–598. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094197 Heckman, J. J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312(5782), 1900–1902. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1128898 Heckman, J. J. (2008). Schools, skills, and synapses. Economic Inquiry, 46(3), 289. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.2008.00163.x Heckman, J. J., & Landersø, R. (2022). Lessons for Americans from Denmark about inequality and social mobility. Labour Economics, 77(C), 101999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2021.101999 Heckman, J. J., Stixrud, J., & Urzua, S. (2006). The effects of cognitive and noncognitive abilities on labor market outcomes and social behavior. Journal of Labor Economics, 24(3), 411–482. https://doi.org/10.1086/504455 Heinrich, C. J., Mueser, P. R., & Troske, K. R. (2008). Workforce investment act non- experimental net impact evaluation. Final Report, IMPAQ International. https://wdr.doleta.gov/research/FullText_Documents/Workforce%20Investment%20Act %20Non-Experimental%20Net%20Impact%20Evaluation%20-%20Final%20Report.pdf Heinrich, C. J., Mueser, P. R., Troske, K. R., Jeon, K.-S., & Kahvecioglu, D. C. (2013). Do public employment and training programs work? IZA Journal of Labor Economics, 2(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-8997-2-6 Heinz, W. R., & Marshall, V. W. (Eds.). (2003). Social dynamics of the life course: Transitions, institutions, and interrelations. Aldine de Gruyter. Helgertz, J., Price, J., Wellington, J., Thompson, K. J., Ruggles, S., & Fitch, C. A. (2022). A new strategy for linking U.S. historical censuses: A case study for the IPUMS REFS - 43 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs multigenerational longitudinal panel. Historical Methods: A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History, 55(1), 12–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/01615440.2021.1985027 Heller, S. B. (2014). Summer jobs reduce violence among disadvantaged youth. Science, 346(6214), 1219–1223. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1257809 Heller, S. B., Pollack, H. A., Ander, R., & Ludwig, J. (2013). Preventing youth violence and dropout: A randomized field experiment. NBER Working Paper No, w19014. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w19014/w19014.pdf Hendra, R., Greenberg, D. H., Hamilton, G., Oppenheim, A., Pennington, A., Schaberg, K., & Tessler, B. L. (2016). Encouraging evidence on a sector-focused advancement strategy: Two-year impacts from the WorkAdvance demonstration. MDRC. https://www.mdrc.org/work/publications/encouraging-evidence-sector-focused- advancement-strategy-0 Hendren, N., & Sprung-Keyser, B. (2020). A unified welfare analysis of government policies. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 135(3), 1209–1318. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjaa006 Henshaw, S. K., & Kost, K. (2008). Trends in the characteristics of women obtaining abortions, 1974 to 2004. Report by the Guttmacher Institute. https://www.guttmacher.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/trendswomenabortions- wtables.pdf Hertz, T. (2007). Trends in the intergenerational elasticity of family income in the United States. Industrial Relations, 46(1), 22–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-232X.2007.00456.x Hertzman, C., & Boyce, T. (2010). How experience gets under the skin to create gradients in developmental health. Annual Review of Public Health, 31, 329–347. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.012809.103538 Hicken, M. T., Miles, L., Haile, S., & Esposito, M. (2021). Linking history to contemporary state-sanctioned slow violence through cultural and structural racism. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 694(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/0.1177/00027162211005690 Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-315, 122 Stat. 3078 (2008). Hirsch, A. R. (2009). Making the second ghetto: Race and housing in Chicago 1940–1960. University of Chicago Press. REFS - 44 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Hirschl, N., Schwartz, C. R., & Boschetti, E. (2022). Eight decades of educational assortative mating. CDE Working Paper No. 2022-01. https://cde.wisc.edu/wp- content/uploads/sites/839/2023/02/cde-working-paper-2022-01-1.pdf Hitlin, S., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (2007). Time, self, and the curiously abstract concept of agency. Sociological Theory, 25(2), 170–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2007.00303.x Hodson, R., Dwyer, R. E., & Neilson, L. A. (2014). Credit card blues: The middle class and the hidden costs of easy credit. The Sociological Quarterly, 55(2), 315–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/tsq.12059 Holland, M. M., & DeLuca, S. (2016). Why wait years to become something? Low-income African American youth and the costly career search in for-profit trade schools. Sociology of Education, 89(4), 261–278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040716666607 Holzer, H. J., & Baum, S. (2017). Making college work: Pathways to success for disadvantaged students. Brookings Institution Press. Homan, P. (2019). Structural sexism and health in the United States: A new perspective on health inequality and the gender system. American Sociological Review, 84(3), 486–516. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419848723 Homan, P., Brown, T. H., & King, B. (2021). Structural intersectionality as a new direction for health disparities research. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 62(3), 350–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/00221465211032947 Homan, P., Everett, B., & Brown, T. H. (2024). Methods for studying structural oppression in quantitative family research. Journal of Marriage and Family 86(4), 1272–1304. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.13003 Horan, P. M. (1978). Is status attainment research atheoretical? American Sociological Review, 43(4), 534–541. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2094777 Horn, R. (2017). Policy watch: The consumer financial protection bureau’s consumer research: Mission accomplished? Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 36(1), 170–183. https://doi.org/10.1509/jppm.17.037 Hosek, J. R., Asch, B. J., Mattock, M. G., & Smith, T. D. (2018). Military and civilian pay levels, trends, and recruit quality. RAND National Security Research Division, RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2396.html REFS - 45 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Houle, J. N. (2014a). A generation indebted: Young adult debt across three cohorts. Social Problems, 61(3), 448–465. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2014.12110 Houle, J. N. (2014b). Disparities in debt: Parents’ socioeconomic status and young adult student loan debt. Sociology of Education, 87(1), 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040713512213 Houle, J. N., & Addo, F. R. (2022). A dream defaulted: The student loan crisis among black borrowers. Harvard Education Press. Houle, J. N., & Keene, D. E. (2015). Getting sick and falling behind: health and the risk of mortgage default and home foreclosure. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 69(4), 382–387. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2014-204637 Hout, M. (2004). How inequality may affect intergenerational mobility. In K. Neckerman (Ed.), Social inequality (pp. 969–987). Russell Sage Foundation. Hout, M. (2012). Social and economic returns to college education in the United States. Annual Review of Sociology, 38, 379–400. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102503 Hout, M. (2015). A summary of what we know about social mobility. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 657(1), 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716214547174 Hoynes, H., Schanzenbach, D. W., & Almond, D. (2016). Long-run impacts of childhood access to the safety net. American Economic Review,106(4), 903–934. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20130375 Humphries, J. E., Mader, N. S., Tannenbaum, D. I., & Van Dijk, W. L (2019). Does eviction cause poverty? Quasi-experimental evidence from Cook County, IL. NBER Working Paper No. 26139. https://dpo:10.3386/w26139 Huston, A. C., Duncan, G. J., Granger, R., Bos, J., McLoyd, V., Mistry, R., Crosby, D., Gibson, C., Magnuson, K., Romich, J., & Ventura, A. (2001). Work-based antipoverty programs for parents can enhance the school performance and social behavior of children. Child Development, 72(1), 318–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00281 Huston, A. C., Miller, C., Richburg-Hayes, L., Duncan, G. J., Eldred, C. A., Weisner, T. S., Lowe, E., McLoyd. V. C., Crosby, D. A., Ripke, M. N., & Redcross, C. (2003). New hope for families and children: Five-year results of a program to reduce poverty and reform welfare. Report by MDRC. https://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/full_457.pdf REFS - 46 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Hwang J., Hankinson M., & Brown K. S. (2015). Racial and spatial targeting: Segregation and subprime lending within and across metropolitan areas. Social Forces, 93(3), 1081–1108. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sou099 Hyman, L. (2011). Debtor nation: The history of America in red ink. Princeton University Press. Ibsen, K., & Rosholm, M. (2024). What works? Interventions aimed at reducing student dropout in higher education. IZA Institute of Economics. IZA DP No. 16853. https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/16853/what-works-interventions-aimed-at-reducing- student-dropout-in-higher-education Iloh, C. (2018). Toward a new model of college choice for a twenty-first-century context. Harvard Educational Review, 88(2), 227–244. https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045- 88.2.227 Iloh, C., & Tierney, W. G. (2014). Understanding for-profit college and community college choice through rational choice. Teachers College Record, 116(8), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811411600808 Isaacs, J. B., Sawhill, I. V, & Haskins, R. (2008). Getting ahead or losing ground: Economic mobility in America. Brookings Institution Press. Islam, T. M. T., Minier, J., & Ziliak, J. P. (2015). On persistent poverty in a rich country. Southern Economic Journal, 81(3), 653–678. https://doi.org/10.4284/0038-4038- 2012.243 Jack, A. A. (2016). (No) harm in asking: Class, acquired cultural capital, and academic engagement at an elite university. Sociology of Education, 89(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040715614913 Jack, A. A. (2019). The privileged poor: How elite colleges are failing disadvantaged students. Harvard University Press. Jackson, C. K., Johnson, R. C., & Persico, C. (2016). The effects of school spending on educational and economic outcomes: Evidence from school finance reforms. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 131(1), 157–218. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjv036 Jackson, M., & Holzman, B. (2020). A century of educational inequality in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(32), 19108–19115. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1907258117 REFS - 47 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Jácome, E., Kuziemko, I., & Naidu, S. (2025). Mobility for all: Representative intergenerational mobility estimates over the twentieth century. Journal of Political Economy, 133(1), 306–354. https://doi.org/10.1086/732527 James, S., McLanahan, S., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2021). Contributions of the fragile families and child wellbeing study to child development. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 3(1), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-050620-113832 Jang-Trettien, C. (2022). House of cards: Informal housing markets and precarious pathways to homeownership in Baltimore, Social Problems, 69(4), 928–951. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spab004 Jäntti, M., & Jenkins, S. P. (2015). Income mobility. In A. B. Atkinson & F. Bourguignon (Eds.), Handbook of income distribution (vol. 2A, pp. 807–935). Elsevier-North Holland. Jargowsky, P. A. (2015). The architecture of segregation: Civil unrest, the concentration of poverty, and public policy. The Century Foundation Issue Brief. https://tcf.org/content/report/architecture-of-segregation/ Jencks, C., & Tach, L. (2006). Would equal opportunity mean more mobility? In S. L. Mogan, D. B. Grusky, & G. S. Fields (Eds.), Mobility and inequality: Frontiers of research in sociology and economics (pp. 23–58). Stanford University Press. doi.org/10.1515/9781503625495-004 Jenkins, R., Bhugra, D., Bebbington, P., Brugha, T., Farrell, M., Coid, J., Fryers, T., Weich, S., Singleton, N., & Meltzer, H. (2008). Debt, income, and mental disorder in the general population. Psychological Medicine, 38(10), 1485–1493. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707002516 Jez, R. J. (2024). Culturally responsive/sustaining transition for at-promise youth. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/21651434241235886 Johnson, D., Massey, C., & O’Hare, A. (2015). The opportunities and challenges of using administrative data linkages to evaluate mobility. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 657(1), 247–264. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716214552780 REFS - 48 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Johnson, H., & Leary, J. (2017). Policy watch: Research priorities on disclosure at the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 36(1), 184–191. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44878407 Johnson, K. (2015). Behavioral education in the 21st century. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 35(1-2), 135–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/01608061.2015.1036152 Johnson, R. C. (2020). The impact of parental wealth on college degree attainment: Evidence from the housing boom and bust. American Economic Review: Papers & Proceedings, 110, 405–410. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20201110 Johnson, R. C., & Nazaryan, A. (2019). Children of the dream: Why school integration works. Basic Books. Jones, N. (2009). Between good and ghetto: African American girls and inner-city violence. Rutgers University Press. Juras, R., Tanner-Smith, E., Kelsey, M., Lipsey, M., & Layzer, J. (2019). Adolescent pregnancy prevention: Meta-analysis of federally funded program evaluations. American Journal of Public Health, 109(4), e1–e8. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304925 Kain, J. F. (1992). The spatial mismatch hypothesis: Three decades later. Housing Policy Debate, 3(2), 371–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.1992.9521100 Kahlenberg, R. D. (2010). Affirmative action for the rich. Century Foundation Press. Kalil, A. (2014a). Inequality begins at home: The role of parenting in the diverging destinies of rich and poor children. In P. R. Amato, A. Booth, S. M. McHale, & J. Van Hook (Eds.), Families in an era of increasing inequality: Diverging destinies (pp. 63–82). Springer International Publishing Switzerland. Kalil, A. (2014b). Proposal 2: Addressing the parenting divide to promote early childhood development for disadvantaged children. Policies to Address Poverty in America 29. The Hamilton Project. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/addressing-the-parenting-divide-to- promote-early-childhood-development-for-disadvantaged-children/ Kalil, A., & Ryan, R. (2020). Parenting practices and socioeconomic gaps in childhood outcomes. The Future of Children, 30(1), 29–54. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2020.0004 REFS - 49 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Kalil, A., & Ryan, R. (2024). How parenting contributes to intergenerational inequality. In E. Kilpi-Jakonen, J. Blanden, J. Erola, & L. Macmillan (Eds.), Research handbook on intergenerational inequality (pp. 306–320). Edward Elgar Publishing. Kalleberg, A. L. (2011). Good jobs, bad jobs: The rise of polarized and precarious employment systems in the United States 1970s to 2000s. Russell Sage Foundation. Kapelle, N. (2022). Time cannot heal all wounds: Wealth trajectories of divorcees and the married. Journal of Marriage and Family, 84(2), 592–611. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12824 Karlson, K. B. (2023). Blac-White trends in intergenerational educational mobility: A positional analysis. American Journal of Sociology, 128(6), 1597–1649. https://doi.org/10.1086/724884 Katz, L. F., & Autor, D. H. (1999). Changes in the wage structure and earnings inequality. In O. Ashenfelter & D. Card (Eds.), Handbook of labor economics (vol. 3, pp. 1463–1555). Elsevier Science. Katz, L. F., Roth, J., Hendra, R., & Schaberg, K. (2022). Why do sectoral employment programs work? Lessons from WorkAdvance. Journal of Labor Economics, 40(S1), S249–S291. https://doi.org/10.1086/717932 Kaufman, J. E., & Rosenbaum, J. E. (1992). The education and employment of low-income black youth in white suburbs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 14(3), 229– 240. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737014003229 Kearney, M. S. (2023). The two-parent privilege: How the decline in marriage has increased inequality and lowered social mobility, and what we can do about it. Swift Press. Keels, M., Duncan, G. J., DeLuca, S., Mendenhall, R., & Rosenbaum, J. (2005). Fifteen years later: Can residential mobility programs provide a long-term escape from neighborhood segregation, crime, and poverty? Demography, 42(1), 51–73. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2005.0005 Keese, M., & Schmitz, H. (2014). Broke, ill, and obese: Is there an effect of household debt on health? Review of Income and Wealth, 60(3), 525–541. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12002 REFS - 50 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Keister, L. A. (2004). Race, family structure, and wealth. The effect of childhood family on adult asset ownership. Sociological Perspectives, 47(2), 161–187. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2004.47.2.161 Keister, L. A., & Moller, S. (2000). Wealth inequality in the United States. Annual Review of Sociology, 26(1), 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.63 Keister, L. A., Vallejo, J. A., & Borelli, E. P. (2015). Mexican American mobility: Early life processes and adult wealth ownership. Social Forces, 93(3), 1015–1046. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sou102 Kelly, A., Lindo, J. M., & Packham, A. (2020). The power of the IUD: Effects of expanding access to contraception through Title X clinics. Journal of Public Economics, 192(C), 104288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104288 Kelty, R., Kleykamp, M., & Segal, D. R. (2010). The military and the transition to adulthood. The Future of Children, 20(1), 181–207. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.0.0045 Kemple, J. J., & Willner, C. J. (2008). Career academies: Long-term impacts on labor market outcomes, educational attainment, and transitions to adulthood. MDRC. https://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/full_50.pdf Kiernan, K. E., & Mensah, F. K. (2011). Poverty, family resources, and children's early educational attainment: The mediating role of parenting. British Educational Research Journal, 37(2), 317–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/01411921003596911 Killewald, A., & Bryan, B. (2016). Does your home make you wealthy? RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 2(6), 110–128. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2016.2.6.06 Killewald, A., & Bryan, B. (2018). Falling behind: The role of inter- and intragenerational processes in widening racial and ethnic wealth gaps through early and middle adulthood. Social Forces, 97(2), 705–740. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy060 Killewald, A., Pfeffer, F. T., & Schachner, J. N. (2017). Wealth inequality and accumulation. Annual Review of Sociology, 43, 379–404. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-060116- 053331 Kim, C., & Tamborini, C. R. (2019). Are they still worth it? The long-run earnings benefits of an associate degree, vocational diploma or certificate, and some college. RSF: The Russell REFS - 51 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 5(3), 64–85. https://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2019.5.3.04 Kiviat, B. (2019). The moral limits of predictive practices: The case of credit-based insurance scores. American Sociological Review, 84(6), 1134–1158. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419884917 Kleykamp, M. (2009). A great place to start? The effect of prior military service on hiring. Armed Forces & Society, 35(2), 266–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X07308631 Kleykamp, M. (2013). Labor market outcomes among veterans and military spouses. In J. M. Wilmoth & A. S. London (Eds.), Life course perspectives on military service (pp. 144– 164). Routledge. Kline, P., & Moretti, E. (2014). Local economic development, agglomeration economies, and the big push: 100 years of evidence from the Tennessee valley authority. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 129(1), 275–331. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjt034 Kline, P., & Walters, C. R. (2016). Evaluating public programs with close substitutes: The case of head start. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 131(4), 1795–1848. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjw027 Kling, J. R., Liebman, J. B., & Katz, L. F. (2005). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. NBER Working Paper No. 11577. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w11577/w11577.pdf Kong, J., Riser, Q., Cancian, M., & Meyer, D. R. (2024). The long‐term effects of formal child support. Journal of Marriage and Family, 86(4), 1034–1052. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12998 Kost, K., & Lindberg, L. (2015). Pregnancy intentions, maternal behaviors, and infant health: Investigating relationships with new measures and propensity score analysis. Demography, 52(1), 83–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-014-0359-9 Kost, K., & Zolna, M. (2019). Challenging unintended pregnancy as an indicator of reproductive autonomy: A response. Contraception, 100(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2019.04.010 Kost, K., Zolna, M., & Murro, R. (2023). Pregnancies in the United States by desire for pregnancy: Estimates for 2009, 2011, 2013, and 2015. Demography, 60(3), 837–863. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-10690005 REFS - 52 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Krause, E., & Reeves, R. V. (2017). Rural dreams: Upward mobility in America’s countryside. Center on Children and Families at Brookings Institute. https://www.brookings.edu/wp- content/uploads/2017/08/es_20170905_ruralmobility.pdf Krieger, N. (2011). Epidemiology and the people's health: Theory and context. Oxford University Press. Krueger, A. (2012). The rise and consequences of inequality [paper presentation]. The Center for American Progress, January 12th, Washington, DC. https://www.americanprogress.org/events/the-rise-and-consequences-of-inequality/ Kubisch, A. C., Auspos, P., Brown, P., & Dewar, T. (2010). Community change initiatives from 1990–2010: Accomplishments and implications for future work. Community Investments, 22(1), 8–12. https://www.frbsf.org/community-development/wp- content/uploads/sites/3/A_Kubisch.pdf Labaree, D. F. (2017). A perfect mess: The unlikely ascendancy of American higher education. The University of Chicago Press. LaBriola, J. (2024). Housing market appreciation and the White-Black wealth gap. Social Problems, spae030. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spae030 Ladd, H. F. (1994). Spatially targeted economic development strategies: Do they work? Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research, 1(1), 193–218. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/20868371.pdf LaLonde, R. J., Marschke, G., & Troske, K. (1996). Using longitudinal data on establishments to analyze the effects of union organizing campaigns in the United States. Annals of Economics and Statistics, 41–42, 155–185. https://gattonweb.uky.edu/faculty/Troske/My%20published%20papers/lalonde_marschke _troske_vol4142-08.pdf Lareau, A. (2002). Invisible inequality: Social class and childrearing in Black families and White families. American Sociological Review, 67(5), 747–776. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240206700507 Lareau, A. (2011). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. University of California Press. Lareau, A., & Goyette, K. (Eds.). (2014). Choosing homes, choosing schools. Russell Sage Foundation. REFS - 53 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Lavy, V., & Schlosser, A. (2011). Mechanisms and impacts of gender peer effects at school. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 3(2), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.3.2.1 Lea, S. E. G., Mewse, A. J., & Wrapson, W. (2012). The psychology of debt in poor households in Britain. In R. Brubaker, R. M. Lawless, & C. J. Tabb (Eds.), A debtor world: Interdisciplinary perspectives on debt (pp. 151–166). Oxford University Press. Lederman, D. (2011, August 1). The number of colleges continues to shrink. Inside Higher Ed. Lee, C-I., & Solon, G. (2009). Trends in intergenerational income mobility. Review of Economics and Statistics, 91(4), 766–772. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest.91.4.766 Lee, H. (2024). How does structural racism operate (in) the contemporary U.S. criminal justice system? Annual Review of Criminology, 7, 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev- criminol-022422-015019 Lee, J. C., & Staff, J. (2007). When work matters: The varying impact of work intensity on high school dropout. Sociology of Education, 80(2), 158–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070708000204 Lehmann, W. (2014). Habitus transformation and hidden injuries: Successful working-class university students. Sociology of Education, 87(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040713498777 Lens, M. C. (2022). Zoning, land use, and the reproduction of urban inequality. Annual Review of Sociology, 48(1), 421–439. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-030420-122027 Lersch, P. M., Longmuir, M., & Schnitzlein, D. D. (2024). Intergenerational persistence of wealth. In E. Kilpi-Jakonen, J. Blanden, J. Erola, L. Macmillan (Eds.), Research handbook on intergenerational inequality (pp. 86–99). Edward Elgar Publishing. Levine, P., Staiger, D., Kane, T., & Zimmerman, D. (1999). Roe v Wade and American Fertility. American Journal of Public Health, 89(2), 199–203. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.89.2.199 Limberg, J., & Seelkopf, L. (2022). The historical origins of wealth taxation. Journal of European Public Policy, 29(5), 670–688. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2021.1992486 REFS - 54 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Lindo, J. M., & Packham, A. (2017). How much can expanding access to long-acting reversible contraceptives reduce teen birth rates? American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 9(3), 348–376. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20160039 Lipset, S. M., & Bendix, R. (1952). Social mobility and occupational career patterns I. Stability of jobholding. American Journal of Sociology, 57(4), 366–374. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/220972 Livingston, G. (2016). Births outside of marriage decline for immigrant women. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/wp- content/uploads/sites/3/2016/10/ST_2016.10.26_fertility_FINAL.pdf Lochner, L. (2011). Nonproduction benefits of education: Crime, health, and good citizenship. In E. A. Hanushek, S. Machin, & L. Woessmann (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (vol. 4, ch. 2, pp. 183–282). Elsevier Science. Lochner, L., & Monge-Naranjo, A. (2012). Credit constraints in education. Annual Review of Economics, 4(1), 225–256. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-080511-110920 Lochner, L., & Monge-Naranjo, A. (2016). Student loans and repayment. EconPapers. Elsevier. https://econpapers.repec.org/bookchap/eeeeduchp/v_3a5_3ay_3a2016_3ai_3ac_3ap_3a3 97-478.htm Loibl, C., Moulton, S., Haurin, D., & Edmunds, C. (2020). The role of consumer and mortgage debt for financial stress. Aging & Mental Health, 26(1), 116–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2020.1843000 Long, J., & Ferrie, J. (2013). Intergenerational occupational mobility in Great Britain and the United States since 1850. American Economic Review, 103(4), 1109–1137. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.103.4.1109 Looney, A., & Yannelis, C. (2024). What went wrong with federal student loans? NBER Working Paper No. 32469. https://www.nber.org/papers/w32469 Love, J. M., Chazan-Cohen, R., Raikes, H., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2013). What makes a difference: Early Head Start evaluation findings in a developmental context. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(1), 1–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540- 5834.2012.00699.x Lovenheim, M. F. (2011). The effect of liquid housing wealth on college enrollment. Journal of Labor Economics, 29(4), 741–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/660775 REFS - 55 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Lovenheim, M. F., & Smith, J. (2023). Returns to different postsecondary investments: Institution type, academic programs, and credentials. In E. A. Hanushek, S. Manchin, & L. Woesmann (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (pp. 187–313). Elsevier. Lubell, J., Gubits, D., McInnis, D., Fisman, L., Paulen, L., & Levy, D. (2023). Research design, data collection, and analysis plan (RDDCAP): Evaluation of the community choice demonstration. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research. https://www.huduser.gov/portal/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/Research-Design-Data- Collection-and-Analysis-Plan.pdf Ludwig, J., Jacob, B., Duncan, G., Rosenbaum, J., & Johnson, M. (2010). Neighborhood effects on low-income families: Evidence from a housing-voucher lottery in Chicago. Working Paper, University of Chicago. Ludwig, J., Duncan, G. J., Gennetian, L. A., Katz, L. F., Kessler, R. C., Kling, J. R., & Sanbonmatsu, L. (2012). Neighborhood effects on the long-term well-being of low- income adults. Science, 337(6101), 1505–1510. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1224648 Ludwig, J., Sanbonmatsu, L., Gennetian, L., Adam, E., Duncan, G., Katz, L. F., Kessler, R. C., Kling, J. R., Lindau, S. T., Whitaker, R. C., & McDade, T. W. (2011). Neighborhoods, obesity, and diabetes—A randomized social experiment. New England Journal of Medicine, 365(16), 1509–1519. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1103216 Lundberg, S. (2020). Educational gender gaps. Southern Economic Journal, 87(2), 416–439. https://doi.org/10.1002/soej.12460 Lundquist, E., Hsueh, J., Lowenstein, A. E., Faucetta, K., Gubits, D., Michalopoulos, C., & Knox, V. (2014). A family-strengthening program for low-income families: Final impacts from the supporting healthy marriage evaluation. OPRE Report No. 2014-09A. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/opre/shm2013_30_month_impact_ reportrev2.pdf MacLeod, J. (1987). Ain't no makin’ it: Aspirations and attainment in a low-income neighborhood. Westview Press. Maddow-Zimet, I., & Kost, K. (2020). Effect of changes in response options on reported pregnancy intentions: A natural experiment in the United States. Public Health Reports, 135(3), 354–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354920914344 REFS - 56 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Madigan, S., Prime, H., Graham, S. A., Rodrigues, M., Anderson, N., Khoury, J., & Jenkins, J. M. (2019). Parenting behavior and child language: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 144(4), e20183556. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-3556 Majumder, M. A. (2016). The impact of parenting style on children’s educational outcomes in the United States. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 37(1), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-015-9444-5 Manduca, R., Hell, M., Adermon, A., Blanden, J., Bratberg, E., Gielen, A. C., Van Kippersluis, H., Lee, K. B., Machin, S., Munk, M. D., Nybom, M., Ostrovsky, Y., Rahman, S., & Sirniö, O. (2024). Measuring absolute income mobility: Lessons from North America and Europe. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 16(2), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20210137 Mann, O., Edin, K. J., & Schaefer, H. L. (2024). Understanding the relationship between intergenerational mobility and community violence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 121(33), e2309066121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2309066121 Mare, R. D. (2011). A multigenerational view of inequality. Demography, 48(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-011-0014-7 Mare, R. D. (2014). Multigenerational aspects of social stratification: Issues for further research. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 35, 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2014.01.004 Marks, R., Jones, N., & Battle, K. (2024, April 8). What updates to OMB’s race/ethnicity standards mean for the Census Bureau. Random Samplings Blog. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/random-samplings/2024/04/updates-race- ethnicity-standards.html Marseille, E., Mirzazadeh, A., Biggs, M. A., Miller, M. P., Horvath, H., Lightfoot, M., Malekinejad, M., & Kahn, J. G. (2018). Effectiveness of school-based teen pregnancy prevention programs in the USA: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Prevention Science, 19(4), 468–489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-017-0861-6 Marshall, V. W. & Mueller. M. M. (2003). Theoretical roots of the life-course perspective. In W. R. Heinz & V. W. Marshall (Eds.), Social dynamics of the life course (pp. 3–32.). Aldine de Gruyter. REFS - 57 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Massey, D. S., Albright, L., Casciano, R., Derickson, E., & Kinsey, D. (2013). Climbing mount laurel: The struggle for affordable housing and social mobility in an American suburb. Princeton University Press. Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. (1993). American apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass. Harvard University Press. Masud, H., Ahmad, M. S., Cho, K. W., & Fakhr, Z. (2019). Parenting styles and aggression among young adolescents: A systematic review of literature. Community Mental Health Journal, 55(6), 1015–1030. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-019-00400-0 Masud, H., Thurasamy, R., & Ahmad, M. S. (2015). Parenting styles and academic achievement of young adolescents: A systematic literature review. Quality & Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, 49(6), 2411–2433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-014-0120-x Mayer, E. J. (2021). Big banks, household credit access, and intergenerational economic mobility. Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 59(6), 2933–2969. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022109023001114 Mayer, S. E., & Lopoo, L. M. (2005). Has the intergenerational transmission of economic status changed? The Journal of Human Resources, 40(1), 169–185. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4129569 Mazumder, B. (2018). Intergenerational mobility in the United States: What we have learned from the PSID. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 680(1), 213–234. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716218794129 McCabe, B. J. (2016). No place like home: Wealth, community, and the politics of homeownership. Oxford University Press. McCann, A., Walker, A. S., Sasani, A., Johnston, T., Buchanan, L., & Huang, J. (2024, October 1). Tracking the states where abortion is now banned. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2024/us/abortion-laws-roe-v-wade.html McCloud, L., & Dwyer, R. E. (2011). The fragile American: Hardship and financial troubles in the 21st century. The Sociological Quarterly, 52(1), 13–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01197.x McDonald, M., Martinez, S., Selekman, R., & Abendroth, E. (2024). Factors that impact the child support program’s role in reducing child poverty: Convening summary. Issue Brief. Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. REFS - 58 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs https://aspe.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/d3636e92120856f652a0d796d29a886d/ factors-impact-child-support-programs.pdf McInnis, N. S., Michelmore, K., & Pilkauskas, N. (2023). The intergenerational transmission of poverty and public assistance: Evidence from the earned income tax credit. NBER Working Paper No. 31429. https://doi.org/10.3386/w31429 McLanahan, S. (2004). Diverging destinies: How children are faring under the second demographic transition. Demography, 41(4), 607–627. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2004.0033 McLanahan, S., & Jacobsen, W. (2014). Diverging destinies revisited. In P. Amato, A. Booth, S. McHale, & J. Van Hook (Eds.), Families in an era of increasing inequality: Diverging destinies (pp. 3–23). Springer International Publishing. McLanahan, S., & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing up with a single parent: What hurts, what helps. Harvard University Press. McLanahan, S., & Sawhill, I. (2015). Marriage and child wellbeing revisited: Introducing the issue. The Future of Children, 25(2), 3–9. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43581969 McLanahan, S., Tach, L., & Schneider, D. (2013). The causal effects of father absence. Annual Review of Sociology, 39(1), 399–427. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071312- 145704 Mendenhall, R., DeLuca, S., & Duncan, G. (2006). Neighborhood resources, racial segregation, and economic mobility: Results from the Gautreaux program. Social Science Research, 35(4), 892–923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2005.06.007 Meschede, T., Eden, M., Jain, S., Jee, E., Miles, B., Martinez, M., Stewart, S., Jacob, J., & Madison, M. (2022). Final report from our GI bill study. IERE Research Brief, The Heller School for Social Policy and Management. https://heller.brandeis.edu/iere/pdfs/racial-wealth-equity/racial-wealth-gap/gi-bill-final- report.pdf Meursault, V., Moulton, D., Santucci, L., & Schor, N. (2022). One threshold doesn’t fit all: Tailoring machine learning predictions of consumer default for lower-income areas. Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia Working Paper No. 22-39. https://doi.org/10.21799/frbp.wp.2022.39 REFS - 59 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Miller, S., & Wherry, L. R. (2019). The long-term effects of early life Medicaid coverage. Journal of Human Resources, 54(3), 785–824. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.54.3.0816.8173R1 Miller, S., Wherry, L. R., & Foster, D. G. (2020). The economic consequences of being denied an abortion. NBER Working Paper No. 26662. https://doi.org/10.3386/w26662 Mills, C. W. (1997). The racial contract. Cornell University Press. Mills, C. K, Landau, R., Rodriguez, B., & Scally, J. (2022). The state of low-income America: Credit access & debt payment. Federal Reserve Bank of New York. https://www.newyorkfed.org/medialibrary/media/press/the-state-of-low-income-america- credit-access-debt-payment-march-2022 Mitchell, C., McLanahan, S., Notterman, D., Hobcraft, J., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Garfinkel, I. (2015). Family structure instability, genetic sensitivity, and child well-being. American Journal of Sociology, 120(4), 1195–1225. https://doi.org/10.1086/680681 Mitnik, P. A., Bryant, V. L., & Grusky, D. B. (2023). A very uneven playing field: Economic mobility in the United States. The American Journal of Sociology, 129(4), 1216–1276. https://doi.org/10.1086/728737 Modigliani, F. (1988). The role of intergenerational transfers and life cycle saving in the accumulation of wealth. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 2(2), 15–40. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.2.2.15 Mohai, P., Pellow, D., & Roberts, J. T. (2009). Environmental justice. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 34, 405–430. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ- 082508-094348 Mohllajee, M. P., Curtis, K. M., Morrow, B., & Marchbanks, P. A. (2007). Pregnancy intention and its relationship to birth and maternal outcomes. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 109(3), 678–686. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000255666.78427.c5 Mollborn, S., Fomby, P., & Dennis, J. A. (2011). Who matters for children’s early development? Race/ethnicity and extended household structures in the United States. Child Indicators Research, 4(3), 389–411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-010-9090-2 Monteiro, J., & Rocha, R. (2017). Drug battles and school achievement: Evidence from Rio de Janeiro's favelas. Review of Economics and Statistics, 99(2), 213–228. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00628 REFS - 60 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Moore, Q., Avellar, S., Patnaik, A., Covington, R., & Wu, A. (2018). Parents and children together: Effects of two healthy marriage programs for low-income couples. OPRE Report No. 2018-58. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/opre/pact_hm_impacts_to_opre_b5 08.pdf Moran, K. M., Turiano, N. A., & Gentzler, A. L. (2018). Parental warmth during childhood predicts coping and well-being in adulthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 32(5), 610– 621. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000401 Morduch, J., & Schneider, R. (2017). The financial diaries: How American families cope in a world of uncertainty. Princeton University Press. Morris, A. S., Criss, M. M., Silk, J. S., & Houltberg, B. J. (2017). The impact of parenting on emotion regulation during childhood and adolescence. Child Development Perspectives, 11(4), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12238 Morrissey, T. W. (2017). Child care and parent labor force participation: A review of the research literature. Review of Economics of the Households, 15(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-016-9331-3 Mortimer, J. T. (2010). The benefits and risks of adolescent employment. The Prevention Researcher, 17(2), 8–11. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2936460/pdf/nihms220511.pdf Mosher, W. D., Jones, J., & Abma, J. C. (2012). Intended and unintended births in the United States: 1982–2010. National Health Statistics Reports, 24(55), 1–28. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23115878/ Moullin, S., Waldfogel, J., & Washbrook, E. (2018). Parent-child attachment as a mechanism of intergenerational (dis) advantage. Families, Relationships, and Societies, 7(2), 265–284. https://doi.org/10.1332/204674317X15071998786492 Moulton, S. (2022). Researching homeownership inequalities: A life-cycle perspective. Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research, 24(2), 153–164. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48680623?seq=1 Moulton, S., Rhodes, A., Haurin, D., & Loibl, C. (2022). Managing the onset of a new disease in older age: Housing wealth, mortgage borrowing, and medication adherence. Social Science & Medicine, 314, 115437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115437 REFS - 61 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Mountjoy, J. (2022). Community colleges and upward mobility. American Economic Review, 112(8), 2580–2630. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20181756 Mountjoy, J. (2024). Marginal returns to public universities. NBER Working Paper No. 32996. https://www.nber.org/papers/w32296 Mouw, T., & Kalleberg, A. L. (2010). Occupations and the structure of wage inequality in the United States, 1980s to 2000s. American Sociological Review, 75(3), 402–431. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122410363564 Mueser, P., Troske, K., & Orrell, B. (2023). Government-supported job training in the U.S.: Paths toward reforming the workforce. American Enterprise Institute. https://www.aei.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Government-Supported-Job-Training- in-the-US-Paths-Toward-Reforming-the-Workforce.pdf?x85095 Muller, C., Sampson, R. J., & Winter, A. S. (2018). Environmental inequality: The social causes and consequences of lead exposure. Annual Review of Sociology, 44(1), 263–282. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041222 Mulligan, C. B. (1997). Parental priorities and economic inequality. The University of Chicago Press. Nadworny, E. (2023, September 28). Feds offer students new protections against programs that lead to high debt, low pay. National Public Radio. https://www.nhpr.org/2023-09- 28/feds-offer-students-new-protections-against-programs-that-lead-to-high-debt-low-pay Nagaraj, A., & Tranchero, M. (2023). How does data access shape science? Evidence from the impact of U.S. census's research data centers on economics research. NBER Working Paper No. 31372. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w31372/w31372.pdf Nam, C. B., & Powers, M. G. (1968). Changes in the relative status level of workers in the United States, 1950–1960. Social Forces, 47(2), 158–170. https://www.academia.edu/880947/Changes_in_the_relative_status_level_of_workers_in _the_United_States_1950_60 Narayan, A., van der Weide, R., Cojocaru, A., Lakner, C., Redaelli, S., Mahler, D. G., Ramasubbaiah, R. G. N., & Thewissen, S. (2018). Fair progress? Economic mobility across generations around the world. World Bank. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/28428 REFS - 62 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. The National Academies Press. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2015). The integration of immigrants into American society. The National Academies Press. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2019b). Strengthening the military family readiness system for a changing American society. The National Academies Press. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2023a) Closing the opportunity gap for young children. The National Academies Press. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2023b). Reducing intergenerational poverty. The National Academies Press. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2023c). An updated measure of poverty: (Re)Drawing the line. The National Academies Press. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2023d). Toward a 21st century national data infrastructure: Enhancing survey programs by using multiple data sources. The National Academies Press. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2024a). Creating an integrated system of data and statistics on household income, consumption, and wealth: Time to build. The National Academies Press. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2024b). Toward a 21st century national data infrastructure: Managing privacy and confidentiality risks with blended data. The National Academies Press. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2022). Graduation rate from first institution attended within 150 percent of normal time for first-time, full-time degree/certificate- seeking students at 2-year postsecondary institutions, by race/ethnicity, sex, and control of institution: Selected cohort entry years, 2000 through 2018. Digest of Education Statistics, Table 326.20. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d22/tables/dt22_326.20.asp?current=yes REFS - 63 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2023). Postsecondary institution expenses. Condition of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cue/postsecondary- institution-expense National Research Council. (2004). Measuring racial discrimination. R. M. Blank, M. Dabady, & C. F. Citro (Eds.). Panel on Methods for Assessing Discrimination, Committee on National Statistics, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/10887 Neal, D. & Johnson, W. R. (1996). The role of premarket factors in black-white wage differences. Journal of Political Economy, 104(5), 869–895. https://doi.org/10.1086/262045 Neckerman, K. M., & Torche, F. (2007). Inequality: Causes and consequences. Annual Review of Sociology, 33(1), 335–357. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131755 Nekoei, A., & Seim, D. (2023). How do inheritances shape wealth inequality? Theory and evidence from Sweden. The Review of Economic Studies, 90(1), 463–498. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdac016 Nepomnyaschy, L. (2007). Child support and father-child contact: Testing reciprocal pathways. Demography, 44(1), 93–112. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4137223 Nepomnyaschy, L., Thomas, M., Haralampoudis, A., & Jin, H. (2022). Nonresident fathers and the economic precarity of their children. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 702(1), 78–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162221119348 Nepomnyaschy, L., Emory, A. D., Eickmeyer, K. J., Waller, M. R., & Miller, D. P. (2021). Parental debt and child well-being: What type of debt matters for child outcomes? RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 7(3), 122–151. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2021.7.3.06 Neumark, D. (2018). Experimental research on labor market discrimination. Journal of Economic Literature, 56(3), 799–866. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20161309 Neumark, D., Salas, J. M. I., & Wascher, W. (2014). Revisiting the minimum wage employment debate: Throwing out the baby with the bathwater. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 67(3), 608–648. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1177/00197939140670S307?src=getftr&utm_s ource=wiley&getft_integrator=wiley REFS - 64 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Newman, K. S. (1999). Falling from grace: Downward mobility in the age of affluence. University of California Press. Noghanibehambari, H. (2022). Intergenerational health effects of Medicaid. Economics & Human Biology, 45(C), 101114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2022.101114 Norvilitis, J. M., Merwin, M. M., Osberg, T. M., Roehling, P. V., Young, P., & Kamas, M. M. (2006). Personality factors, money attitudes, financial knowledge, and credit‐card debt in college students. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(6), 1395–1413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00065.x Nybom, M., & Stuhler, J. (2024). Interpreting trends in intergenerational mobility. Journal of Political Economy, 132(8), 2531–2570. https://doi.org/10.1086/729582 O’Brien, R. L., & Robertson, C. L. (2018). Early-life Medicaid coverage and intergenerational economic mobility. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 59(2), 300–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146518771910 O’Brien, R., Neman, T., Seltzer, N., Evans, L., & Venkataramani, A. (2020). Structural racism, economic opportunity, and racial health disparities: Evidence from U.S. counties. SSM- Population Health, 11, 100564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100564 O’Connor, A. (1995). Evaluating comprehensive community initiatives: A view from history. In J. P. Connell, A. C. Kubisch, L. B. Schorr, & C. H. Weiss (Eds.), New approaches to evaluating community initiatives: Concepts, methods, and contexts (pp. 23–63). Aspen Institute. O’Connor, A. (1999). Swimming against the tide: A brief history of federal policy in poor communities. In R. F. Ferguson & W. T. Dickens (Eds.), Urban problems and community development (pp. 77–138). Brookings Institution Press. Oakley, D., & Tsao, H.-S. (2006). A new way of revitalizing distressed urban communities? Assessing the impact of the federal empowerment zone program. Journal of Urban Affairs, 28(5), 443–471. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9906.2006.00309.x Ogg, J., & Anthony, C. J. (2020). Process and context: Longitudinal effects of the interactions between parental involvement, parental warmth, and SES on academic achievement. Journal of School Psychology, 78, 96–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.11.004 REFS - 65 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Oh, B., Tilbrook, N., & Shifrer, D. (2024). Shifting tides: The evolution of racial inequality in higher education from the 1980s through the 2010s. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 10. https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231231225578 Oliver, M. L., & Shapiro, T. M. (2006). Black wealth, White wealth. A new perspective on racial inequality (2nd ed.). Routledge. Oreopoulos, P., & Salvanes, K. G. (2011). Priceless: The nonpecuniary benefits of schooling. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25(1), 159–184. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.25.1.159 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2021). Measuring what matters to child well-being and policies. Osborne, C., & McLanahan, S. (2007). Partnership instability and child well‐being. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(4), 1065–1083. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741- 3737.2007.00431.x Owens, A. (2017). Racial residential segregation of school-age children and adults: The role of schooling as a segregating force. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 3(2), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2017.3.2.03 Owens, A., & Smith, R. B. (2023). Producing affordable housing in higher-opportunity neighborhoods: Incentives in California’s LIHTC program. Journal of Urban Affairs, 1– 29. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2023.2288582 Pager, D., & Shepherd, H. (2008). The sociology of discrimination: Racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit, and consumer markets. Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 181–209. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131740 Parman, J. (2011). American mobility and the expansion of public education. The Journal of Economic History, 71(1), 105–132. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050711000040 Parolin, Z., Pintro-Schmitt, R., Esping-Andersen, G., & Fallesen, P. (2024). Intergenerational persistence of poverty in five high-income countries. Nature Human Behavior, 9, 254– 267. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-02029-w Pastor, M., & Turner, M. A. (2010, March). Reducing poverty and economic distress after ARRA: Potential roles for place-conscious strategies. Paper Prepared for the Georgetown University and Urban Institute Conference on Reducing Poverty and Economic Distress after ARRA. https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/28516/412067- Reducing-Poverty-and-Economic-Distress-after-ARRA.PDF REFS - 66 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Pattillo, M. (1999). Black picket fences: Privilege and peril among the Black middle class. University of Chicago Press. Pender, J., & Reeder, R. (2011). Impact of regional approaches to rural development: Initial evidence on the delta regional authority. Economic Research Service Report No. 119. U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/44855/7407_err119.pdf Persell, C. H., & Cookson, Jr., P. W. (1985). Chartering and bartering: Elite education and reproduction. Social Problems, 33(2), 114–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/800556 Peters, H. E. (1992). Patterns of intergenerational mobility in income and earnings. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 74(3), 456–466. https://doi.org/10.2307/2109490 Pfeffer, F. T. (2011). Status attainment and wealth in the United States and Germany. In T. Smeeding, R. Erikson, & M. Jäntti, M. (Eds.), Persistence, privilege, and parenting (pp. 109–137). Russell Sage Foundation. Pfeffer, F. T. (2014). Multigenerational approaches to social mobility. A multifaceted research agenda. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 35, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2014.01.001 Pfeffer, F. T. (2018). Growing wealth gaps in education. Demography, 55(3), 1033–1068. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-018-0666-7 Pfeffer, F. T., & Killewald, A. (2018). Generations of advantage. Multigenerational correlations in family wealth. Social Forces, 96(4), 1411–1442. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sox086 Pfeffer, F. T., & Killewald, A. (2019). Intergenerational wealth mobility and racial inequality. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 5(2), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023119831799 Pfeffer, F. T., & Waitkus, N. (2021). The wealth inequality of nations. American Sociological Review, 86(4), 567–602. https://doi.org/10.1177/00031224211027800 Pierson, P. (1994). Dismantling the welfare state: Reagan, Thatcher, and the politics of retrenchment. Cambridge University Press. Pierson, P. (1996). The new politics of the welfare state. World Politics, 48(2), 143–179. https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.1996.0004 Pietila, A. (2010). Not in my neighborhood: How bigotry shaped a great American city. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. REFS - 67 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the twenty-first century. Harvard University Press. Piketty, T. (2020). Capital and ideology. Harvard University Press. Pilkauskas, N. V. (2012). Three-generation family households: Differences by family structure at birth. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(5), 931–943. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741- 3737.2012.01008.x Pilkauskas, N. V. (2014). Living with a grandparent and parent in early childhood: Associations with school readiness and differences by demographic characteristics. Developmental Psychology, 50(12), 2587–2599. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038179 Pilkauskas, N. V., & Cross, C. (2018). Beyond the nuclear family: Trends in children living in shared households. Demography, 55(6), 2283–2297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-018- 0719-y Pirtle, W. N. L., & Wright, T. (2021). Structural gendered racism revealed in pandemic times: Intersectional approaches to understanding race and gender health inequities in COVID- 19. Gender & Society, 35(2), 168–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/08912432211001302 Pollack, C. E., Blackford, A. L., Du, S., Deluca, S., Thornton, R. L. J., & Herring, B. (2019). Association of receipt of a housing voucher with subsequent hospital utilization and spending. Journal of the American Medical Association, 322(21), 2115–2124. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.17432 Pollack, C. E., Bozzi, D. G., Blackford, A. L., Deluca, S., Thornton, R. L. J., & Herring, B. (2023a). Using the moving to opportunity experiment to investigate the long-term impact of neighborhoods on healthcare use by specific clinical conditions and type of service. Housing Policy Debate, 33(1), 269–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2021.1951804 Pollack, C. E., Roberts, L. C., Peng, R. D., Cimbolic, P., Judy, D., Balcer-Whaley, S., Grant, T., Rule, A., Deluca, S., Davis, M. F., Wright, R. J., Keet, C. A., & Matsui, E. C. (2023b). Association of a housing mobility program with childhood asthma symptoms and exacerbations. Journal of the American Medical Association, 329(19), 1671–1681. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2023.6488 Posselt, J. R., & Grodsky, E. (2017). Graduate education and social stratification. Annual Review of Sociology, 43(1), 353–378. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-081715-074324 Potter, J. E., Stevenson, A. J., Coleman-Minahan, K., Hopkins, K., White, K., Baum, S. E., & Grossman, D. (2019). Challenging unintended pregnancy as an indicator of reproductive REFS - 68 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs autonomy. Contraception, 100(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2019.02.005 Price, J., Buckles, K., Haws, A., and Wilbert, H. (2023). The Census tree, 1850-1860. Inter- university Consortium for Political and Social Research. https://doi.org/10.3886/E193225V1 Price, J., Buckles, K., Van Leeuwen, J., & Riley, I. (2021). Combining family history and machine learning to link historical records: The Census Tree data set. Explorations in Economic History, 80(3), 101391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2021.101391 Provenzi, L., Brambilla, M., Scotto di Minico, G., Montirosso, R., & Borgatti, R. (2020). Maternal caregiving and DNA methylation in human infants and children: Systematic review. Genes, Brain, and Behavior, 19(3), e12616. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12616 Puma, M., Bell, S., Cook, R., Heid, C., Shapiro, G., Broene, P., Jenkins, F., Fletcher, P., Quinn, L., Friedman, J., Ciarico, J., Rohacek, M., Adams, G., & Spier, E. (2010). Head start impact study: Final report. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED507845 Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon and Schuster. Quillian, L., Lee, J. J., & Honoré. (2020). Racial discrimination in the U.S. housing and mortgage lending markets: A quantitative review of trends, 1976–2016. Race and Social Problems, 12(1), 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-019-09276-x Randles, J. M. (2016). Proposing prosperity? Marriage education policy and inequality in America. Columbia University Press. Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Harvard University Press. Reading, R., & Reynolds, S. (2001). Debt, social disadvantage, and maternal depression. Social Science & Medicine, 53(4), 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00347-6 Ream, R. K., & Gottfried, M. A. (2019). Household wealth and adolescents’ social-emotional functioning in schools. Social Science Research, 83, 102316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2019.06.007 Reardon, S. F., & Bischoff, K. (2011). Income inequality and income segregation. American Journal of Sociology, 116(4), 1092–1153. https://doi.org/10.1086/657114 REFS - 69 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Reber, S., & Smith, E. (2023). College enrollment disparities: Understanding the role of academic preparation. Center for Economic Security and Opportunity, The Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/wp- content/uploads/2023/02/20230123_CCF_CollegeEnrollment_FINAL2.pdf Reeves, R. V. (2018). Dream hoarders: How the American upper middle class is leaving everyone else in the dust, why that is a problem, and what to do about it. Brookings Institution Press. Reeves, R. V., & Howard, K. (2013). The parenting gap. Center for Economic Security and Opportunity, The Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the- parenting-gap/ Reichman, N. E., & Teitler, J. O. (2013). Lifecourse exposures and socioeconomic disparities in child health. In N. S. Landale, S. M. McHale, & A. Booth (Eds.), Families and child health (pp. 107–134). Springer. Reichman, N. E., Teitler, J. O., Garfinkel, I., & McLanahan, S. S. (2001). Fragile families: Sample and design. Children and Youth Services Review, 23(4–5), 303–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-7409(01)00141-4 Reosti, A. (2021). The costs of seeking shelter for renters with discrediting background records. City & Community, 20(3), 235–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/15356841211012483 Rich, P., & Owens, A. (2023). Neighborhood-school structures: A new approach to the joint study of social contexts. Annual Review of Sociology, 49, 297–317. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-110311 Rigbi, O. (2013). The effects of usury laws: Evidence from the online loan market. Review of Economics and Statistics, 95(4), 1238–1248. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00310 Ringo, D. (2019). Parental credit constraints and child college attendance. Education Finance and Policy, MIT Press, 14(4), 548–571. https://ideas.repec.org/a/tpr/edfpol/v14y2019i4p548-571.html Rittenhouse, K. (2023). Income and child maltreatment: Evidence from a discontinuity in tax benefits. Social Science Research Network. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4349231 REFS - 70 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Rodems, R., & Pfeffer, F. T. (2021). Avoiding material hardship: The buffer function of health. Journal of European Social Policy, 31(5), 517–532. https://doi.org/10.1177/09589287211059043 Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973). Roksa, J., & Potter, D. (2011). Parenting and academic achievement: Intergenerational transmission of educational advantage. Sociology of Education, 84(4), 299–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040711417013 Roksa, J., & Velez, M. (2010). When studying schooling is not enough: Incorporating employment in models of educational transitions. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 28(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2009.03.001 Romich, J. L., & Weisner, T. (2000). How families view and use the EITC: Advance payment versus lump sum delivery. National Tax Journal, 53(4.2), 1245–1265. https://doi.org/10.17310/ntj.2000.4S1.09 Rosen, E. (2017). Horizontal immobility: How narratives of neighborhood violence shape housing decisions. American Sociological Review, 82(2), 270–296. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122417695841 Rosen, E. (2020). The voucher promise: “Section 8” and the fate of an American neighborhood. Princeton University Press. Rosen, E., Garboden, P. M. E., & Cossyleon, J. E. (2021). Racial discrimination in housing: How landlords use algorithms and home visits to screen tenants. American Sociological Review, 86(5), 787–822. https://doi.org/10.1177/00031224211029618 Rosenbaum, J. E., Deil-Amen, R., & Person, A. E. (2006). After admission: From college access to college success. Russell Sage Foundation. Rosenbaum, J. E., Popkin, S. J., Kaufman, J. E., & Rusin, J. (1991). Social integration of low- income Black adults in middle-class White suburbs. Social Problems, 38(4), 448–461. https://doi.org/10.2307/800564 Rosenblatt, P., & DeLuca, S. (2012). We don’t live outside, we live in here: Neighborhood and residential mobility decisions among low-income families. City & Community, 11(3), 254–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6040.2012.01413.x REFS - 71 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Rosenblatt, P., & DeLuca, S. (2017). What happened in Sandtown-Winchester? Understanding the impacts of a comprehensive community initiative. Urban Affairs Review, 53(3), 463– 494. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087415617852 Rothbaum, J., & Hokayem, C. (2021). How did the pandemic affect survey response: Using administrative data to evaluate nonresponse in the 2021 current population survey annual social and economic supplement. United States Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/research-matters/2021/09/pandemic-affect- survey-response.html Rothstein, R. (2013). For public schools, segregation then, segregation since: Education and the unfinished march. Report by the Economic Policy Institute. https://files.epi.org/2013/Unfinished-March-School-Segregation.pdf Rothstein, R. (2017). The color of law: A forgotten history of how our government segregated America. Liveright Publishing. Rothwell, J. T., & Massey, D. S. (2010). Density zoning and class segregation in U.S. metropolitan areas. Social Science Quarterly, 91(5), 1123–1143. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1322128 Rotz, D. (2016). Why have divorce rates fallen? The role of women's age at marriage. Journal of Human Resources, 51(4), 961–1002. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.51.4.0214-6224R Rubinowitz, L. S., & Rosenbaum, J. E. (2000). Crossing the class and color lines: From public housing to White suburbia. University of Chicago Press. Ruggles, S. (2006). Linking historical censuses: A new approach. History and Computing 14(1– 2), 213–224. https://doi.org/10.3366/hac.2002.14.1-2.213 Rugh, J. S., & Massey, D. S. (2010). Racial segregation and the American foreclosure crisis. American Sociological Review, 75(5), 629–651. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122410380868 Ryan, A., Trumbull, G., & Tufano, P. (2011). A brief postwar history of U.S. consumer finance. Business History Review, 85(3), 461–498. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41301431?seq=1 Ryan, R. M., & Padilla, C. (2019). Public policy and family psychology. In B. H. Fiese, M. Celano, K. Deater-Deckard, E. N. Jouriles, & M. A. Whisman (Eds.), APA handbook of contemporary family psychology: Applications and broad impact of family psychology (pp. 639–655). American Psychological Association. REFS - 72 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Saez, E., & Zucman, G. (2019). Progressive wealth taxation. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 50(2), 437–533. https://doi.org/10.1353/eca.2019.0017 Sakamoto, A., & Wang, S. X. (2020). The declining significance of occupation in research on intergenerational mobility. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 70, 100521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100521 Samari, G., Nagle, A., & Coleman-Minahan, K. (2021). Measuring structural xenophobia: U.S. state immigration policy climates over ten years. SSM - Population Health, 16, 100938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100938 Sampson, R. J. (2008). Moving to inequality: Neighborhood effects and experiments meet social structure. American Journal of Sociology, 114(1), 189–231. https://doi.org/10.1086/589843 Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1996). Socioeconomic achievement in the life course of disadvantaged men: Military service as a turning point, circa 1940–1965. American Sociological Review, 61(3), 347–367. https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/sampson/files/1996_asr_laub.pdf Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277(5328), 918–924. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918 Sanbonmatsu, L., Kling, J. R., Duncan, G. J., Brooks-Gunn, J. (2006). Neighborhoods and academic achievement: Results from the moving to opportunity experiment. NBER Working Paper No. 11909. https://econpapers.repec.org/paper/nbrnberwo/11909.htm Sanbonmatsu, L., Katz, L., Ludwig, J., Gennetian, L., Duncan, G., Kessler, R., Adam, E., McDa de, T., & Lindau, S. T. (2011). Moving to opportunity for fair housing demonstration program: Final impacts evaluation. Report by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Policy Development and Research. https://www.huduser.gov/portal/publications/pubasst/MTOFHD.html Sandel, M. J. (2020). The tyranny of merit: What's become of the common good? Penguin UK. Sassler, S., & Lichter, D. T. (2020). Cohabitation and marriage: Complexity and diversity in union‐formation patterns. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), 35–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12617 REFS - 73 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Satter, B. (2009). Family properties: Race, real estate, and the exploitation of Black urban America. Metropolitan Books. Sawhill, I. V. (2014). Generation unbound: Drifting into sex and parenthood without marriage. Brookings Institution Press. Schoeni, R. F., & Wiemers, E. E. (2015). The implications of selective attrition for estimates of intergenerational elasticity of family income. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 13, 351–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-015-9297-z Schoeni, R. F., Freedman, V. A., Cornman, J. C., & Seltzer, J. A. (2022). The strength of parent– adult child ties in biological families and stepfamilies: Evidence from time diaries from older adults. Demography, 59(5), 1821–1842. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370- 10177468 Schreiner, M., & Sherraden, M. (2007). Can the poor save? Saving and asset building in individual development accounts. Transaction Publishers. Schwartz, A. (2015). Housing policy in the United States: An introduction. Routledge. Schwartz, C. R. (2010). Earnings inequality and the changing association between spouses’ earnings. American Journal of Sociology, 115(5), 1524–1557. https://doi.org/10.1086/651373 Schwartz, H. (2010). Housing policy is school policy: Economically integrative housing promotes academic success in Montgomery County, Maryland. The Century Foundation. https://tcf.org/content/report/housing-policy-school-policy-economically-integrative- housing-promotes-academic-success-montgomery-county-maryland/ Schochet, P. Z. (2021). Long‐run labor market effects of the job corps program: Evidence from a nationally representative experiment. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 40(1), 128–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22233 Scott-Clayton, J. (2012). What explains trends in labor supply among U.S. undergraduates? National Tax Journal, 65(1), 181–210. https://doi.org/10.17310/ntj.2012.1.07 Scrivener, S., Weiss, M. J., Ratledge, A., Rudd, T., Sommo, C., & Fresques, H. (2015). Doubling graduation rates: Three-year effects of CUNY’s accelerated study in associate programs (ASAP) for developmental education students. A Report by MDRC. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED558511.pdf REFS - 74 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Seamster, L., & Charron-Chénier, R. (2017). Predatory inclusion and education debt: Rethinking the racial wealth gap. Social Currents, 4(3), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329496516686620 Seira, E., Elizondo, A., & Laguna-Müggenburg, E. (2017). Are information disclosures effective? Evidence from the credit card market. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 9(1), 277–307. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20140404 Seltzer, J. A. (2019). Family change and changing family demography. Demography, 56(2), 405–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00766-6 Seltzer, N. (2024). Cohort-specific experiences of industrial decline and intergenerational income mobility. Social Forces, 102(4), 1223–1248. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soad145 Servon, L. (2017). The unbanking of America: How the new middle class survives. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Sewell, W. H., Haller, A. O., & Portes, A. (1969). The educational and early occupational attainment process. American Sociological Review, 34(1), 82–92. https://doi.org/10.2307/2092789 Shah, A. K., Mullainathan, S., & Shafir, E. (2012). Some consequences of having too little. Science, 338(6107), 682–685. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1222426 Shanahan, M. J., Mortimer, J. T., & Johnson, M. K. (2016). Introduction: Life course studies— Trends, challenges, and future directions. In M. J. Shanahan, J. T. Mortimer, & M. K. Johnson (Eds.) Handbook of the life course (Vol. 2, pp. 1-23). Springer. Shanks, T. R. (2007). The impacts of household wealth on child development. Journal of Poverty, 11(2), 93–116. https://doi.org/10.1300/J134v11n02_05 Shapiro, T. M. (2004). The hidden cost of being African American. How wealth perpetuates inequality. Oxford University Press. Shapiro, T. M. (2017). Toxic inequality: How America’s wealth gap destroys mobility, deepens the racial divide, and threatens our future. Basic Books. Sharkey, P. (2010). The acute effect of local homicides on children’s cognitive performance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(26), 11733–11738. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1000690107 Sharkey, P. (2013). Stuck in place: Urban neighborhoods and the end of progress toward racial equality. The University of Chicago Press. REFS - 75 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Sharkey, P. (2016). Neighborhoods, cities, and economic mobility. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 2(2), 159–177. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2016.2.2.07 Sharkey, P., & Faber, J. W. (2014). Where, when, why, and for whom do residential contexts matter? Moving away from the dichotomous understanding of neighborhood effects. Annual Review of Sociology, 40, 559–579. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071913- 043350 Sharkey, P., Schwartz, A. E., Ellen, I. G., & Lacoe, J. (2014). High stakes in the classroom, high stakes on the street: The effects of community violence on student's standardized test performance. Sociological Science, 1(14), 199–220. https://doi.org/10.15195/v1.a14 Sharkey, P., Tirado-Strayer, N., Papachristos, A. V., & Raver, C. C. (2012). The effect of local violence on children’s attention and impulse control. American Journal of Public Health, 102(12), 2287–2293. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300789 Sharkey, P., & Torrats-Espinosa, G. (2017). The effect of violent crime on economic mobility. Journal of Urban Economics, 102(C), 22–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2017.07.001 Shaw, Z. A., & Starr, L. R. (2019). Intergenerational transmission of emotion dysregulation: The role of authoritarian parenting style and family chronic stress. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(12), 3508–3518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01534-1 Sherraden, M. (1991). Assets and the poor. A new American welfare policy. Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group. Skocpol, T. (1995). Protecting soldiers and mothers: The political origins of social policy in the United States. Harvard University Press. Small, M. L. (2004). Villa Victoria: The transformation of social capital in a Boston barrio. University of Chicago Press. Small, M. L., Harding, D. J., & Lamont, M. (2010). Reconsidering culture and poverty. The ANNUALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 629(1), 6–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716210362077 Smock, P. J., & Schwartz, C. R. (2020). The demography of families: A review of patterns and change. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), 9–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12612 REFS - 76 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Solon, G. (2004). A model of intergenerational mobility variation over time and place. In M. Corak (Ed.), Generational income mobility (pp.38–47). Cambridge University Press. Solon, G. (2008). Intergenerational income mobility. In M. Vernengo, E. P. Caldentey, & B. J. Rosser Jr. (Eds.), New Palgrave dictionary of economics (pp. 1–5). Palgrave Macmillan. Song, X., Massey, C. G., Rolf, K. A., Ferrie, J. P., Rothbaum, J. L., & Xie, Y. (2020). Long-term decline in intergenerational mobility in the United States since the 1850s. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(1), 251–258. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1905094116 Spera, C. (2005). A review of the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles, and adolescent school achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 125–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-3950-1 Spilerman, S. (2000). Wealth and stratification processes. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 497– 524. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.497 Sroufe, L. A., Coffino, B., & Carlson, E. A. (2010). Conceptualizing the role of early experience: Lessons from the Minnesota longitudinal study. Developmental Review, 30(1), 36–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.002 Stanley, M., Katz, L. F., & Krueger, A. (1998, October). Developing skills: What we know about the impact of American employment and training programs on employment, earnings, and educational outcomes. Report for G8 Economic Summit. https://scholar.harvard.edu/lkatz/publications/developing-skills-what-we-know-about- impact-american-educational-and-training-pro Starke, P. (2007). Radical welfare state retrenchment: A comparative analysis. Palgrave Macmillan London. Starr, S. B. (2014). Evidence-based sentencing and the scientific rationalization of discrimination. Stanford Law Review, 66(4), 803–872. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286656685_Evidence- based_sentencing_and_the_scientific_rationalization_of_discrimination Stevens, M. L., & Kirst, M. W. (Eds.) (2015). Remaking college: The changing ecology of higher education. Stanford University Press. Stevens, M. L., Alston, G. D., Cini, M., Gallagher, S., Horwitz, I., Kazin, C., McCann, P. C., Pardos, Z., Roumell, E. A., Sheffer, H., Zanville, H., & Settersten, R. (2022). An applied REFS - 77 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs science to support working learners. A Report to the National Science Foundation Re: Award #2128165. Stanford Graduate School of Education. https://workinglearners.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/SUGSE-Working- Learners-Report-2022-v07-FINAL.pdf Streib, J. (2011). Class reproduction by four year olds. Qualitative Sociology, 34, 337–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-011-9193-1 Stuber, J. M. (2011). Inside the college gates: How class and culture matter in higher education. Lexington Books. Sullivan, J. X. (2008). Borrowing during unemployment unsecured debt as a safety net. The Journal of Human Resources, 43(2), 383–412. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.43.2.383 Sullivan, T. A., & Kaufman, G. (2012). Debt and the simulation of social class. In R. Brubaker, R. M., Lawless, & Tabb, C. J. (Eds.), A debtor world: Interdisciplinary perspectives on debt (pp. 36–59). Oxford University Press. Sullivan, T. A., Warren, E., and Westbrook, J. (2001). The fragile middle class: Americans in debt. Yale University Press. Sun, A. R., & Houle, J. N. (2020). Trajectories of unsecured debt across the life course and mental health at midlife. Society and Mental Health, 10(1), 61–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869318816742 Sun, S. T., & Yannelis, C. (2016). Credit constraints and demand for higher education: Evidence from financial deregulation. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 98(1), 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00558 Swift, A. (2004). Would perfect mobility be perfect? European Sociological Review, 20(1), 1– 11. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/20.1.1 Tach, L., & Wimer, C. (2017). Evaluating policies to transform distressed urban neighborhoods. The Urban Institute. https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/94026/evaluating-policies-to- transform-distressed-urban-neighborhoods.pdf Tach, L., Edin, K., Harvey, H., & Bryan, B. (2014). The family-go-round: Family complexity and father involvement from a father’s perspective. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 654(1), 169–184. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716214528655 REFS - 78 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Tach, L. M., & Greene, S. S. (2014). Robbing Peter to pay Paul: Economic and cultural explanations for how lower-income families manage debt. Social Problems 61(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2013.11262 Tax Policy Center. (2024). How many people pay the estate tax? Tax Policy Center Briefing Book, Key Elements of the U.S. Tax System. Urban Institute & Brookings Institution https://www.taxpolicycenter.org/briefing-book/how-many-people-pay-estate-tax Taylor, K.-Y. (2019). Race for profit: How banks and the real estate industry undermined Black homeownership. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Teachman, J., & Tedrow, L. M. (2004). Wages, earnings, and occupational status: Did World War II veterans receive a premium? Social Science Research, 33(4), 581–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2003.09.007 The Council of Economic Advisors. (2014, June). The economics of paid and unpaid leave. Executive Office of the President of the United States. https://archive.org/details/TheEconomicEffectsOfPaidAndUnpaidLeave The Joint Committee on Taxation. (2015, March 16). History, present law, and analysis of the federal wealth transfer tax system. Congress of United States. https://www.jct.gov/publications/2015/jcx-52-15/ The Pew Charitable Trusts. (2012). Economic mobility of the States. https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/0001/01/01/economic- mobility-of-the-states The Pew Charitable Trusts. (2019). Two decades of change in federal and state higher education funding. https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2019/10/two- decades-of-change-in-federal-and-state-higher-education-funding Theodos, B., Coulton, C. J., & Pitingolo, R. (2015). Housing unit turnover and the socioeconomic mix of low-income neighborhoods. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 660(1), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716215576112 Thompson, J., & Conley, D. (2016). Health shocks and social drift: Examining the relationship between acute illness and family wealth. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 2(6), 153–171. https://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2016.2.6.08 REFS - 79 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Thompson, R. A. (2014). Stress and child development. The Future of Children, 24(1), 41–59. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2014.0004 Toney, J., & Robertson, C. L. (2021). Intergenerational economic mobility and the racial wealth gap. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 111, 206–210. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20211113 Torche, F. (2015a). Analyses of intergenerational mobility: An interdisciplinary review. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 657(1), 37–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716214547476 Torche, F. (2015b). Intergenerational mobility and equality of opportunity. European Journal of Sociology, 56(3), 343–371. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003975615000181 Torche, F., & Abufhele, J. (2021). The normativity of marriage and the marriage premium for children’s outcomes. American Journal of Sociology, 126(4), 931–968. https://doi.org/10.1086/713382 Torche, F., & Nobles, J. (2024). Early life exposures and social stratification. Annual Review of Sociology, 50, 407–430. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-091523-023313 Torche, F., & Rauf, T. (2021). The transition to fatherhood and the health of men. Journal of Marriage and Family, 83(2), 446–465. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12732 Trosper, R. L. (1994). American-Indian reparations. PRRAC—Poverty & Race Research Action Council. Poverty and Race Journal. https://www.prrac.org/american-indian-reparations- by-ronald-l-trosper-november-december-1994-pr-issue/ Turner, M. A., Toder, E., Pendall, R., & Sharygin, C. A. (2013). How would reforming the mortgage interest deduction affect the housing market? Report by The Urban Institute. https://www.urban.org/research/publication/how-would-reforming-mortgage-interest- deduction-affect-housing-market Turner, S. E. (2004). Going to college and finishing college: Explaining different educational outcomes. In C. M. Hoxby (Ed.), College choices: The economics of where to go, when to go, and how to pay for it (pp. 13–62). University of Chicago Press. Turner, S. E., & Bound, J. (2003). Closing the gap or widening the divide: The effects of the GI Bill and World War II on the educational outcomes of black Americans. The Journal of Economic History, 63(1), 145–177. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3132498 REFS - 80 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Turney, K., Kissane, R., & Edin, K. (2013). After moving to opportunity: How moving to a low- poverty neighborhood improves mental health among African American women. Society and Mental Health, 3(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869312464789 Turunen, E., & Hiilamo, H. (2014). Health effects of indebtedness: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-489 Ulferts, H. (2020). Why parenting matters for children in the 21st century: An evidence-based framework for understanding parenting and its impact on child development. OECD Education Working Papers No. 222. https://doi.org/10.1787/129a1a59-en U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce. (2023). News release: Gross domestic product (third estimate), corporate profits, and GDP by industry, fourth quarter and year 2022. https://www.bea.gov/sites/default/files/2023-03/gdp4q22_3rd_0.pdf U.S. Department of State. (2020). The JUST act report. Office of the Special Envoy for Holocaust Issues. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/JUST-Act5.pdf U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB). (2024). Revisions to OMB’s statistical policy directive No. 15: Standards for maintaining, collecting, and presenting federal data on race and ethnicity. Federal Register, 89(62). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR- 2024-03-29/pdf/2024-06469.pdf Van Bavel, J., Schwartz, C. R., & Esteve, A. (2018). The reversal of the gender gap in education and its consequences for family life. Annual Review of Sociology, 44(1), 341–360. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041215 Wadsworth, M. E., & Ahlkvist, J. A. (2015). Inequality begins outside the home: Putting parental educational investments into context. In P. R. Amato, A. Booth, S. M. McHale, & J. Van Hook (Eds.), Diverging destinies: Families in an era of increasing inequality (pp. 3–24). Springer International Publishing. Walsemann, K. M., Gee, G. C., & Gentile, D. (2015). Sick of our loans: Student borrowing and the mental health of young adults in the United States. Social Science & Medicine, 124, 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.11.027 Ward, Z. (2023). Intergenerational mobility in American history: Accounting for race and measurement error. American Economic Review, 113(12), 3213–3248. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20200292 REFS - 81 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Warren, J. R., & Hauser, R. M. (1997). Social stratification across three generations: New evidence from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study. American Sociological Review, 62(4), 561–572. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657426 Washbrook, E., Gregg, P., & Propper, C. (2014). A decomposition analysis of the relationship between parental income and multiple child outcomes. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society), 177(4), 757–782. https://doi.org/10.1111/rssa.12074 Waters, M. C. (1990). Ethnic options: Choosing identities in America. University of California Press. Waters, M. C. (2009). Black identities: West Indian immigrant dreams and American realities. Harvard University Press. Weber, B. A., Fannin, J. M., Cordes, S. M., & Johnson, T. G. (2017). Upward mobility of low- income youth in metropolitan, micropolitan, and rural America. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 672(1), 103–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716217713477 Weeden, K. A., Kim, Y.-M., Di Carlo, M., & Grusky, D. B. (2007). Social class and earnings inequality. American Behavioral Scientist, 50(5), 702–736. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764206295015 Welch, F. (1999). In defense of inequality. American Economic Review, 89(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.89.2.1 Western, B., & Pettit, B. (2010). Incarceration & social inequality. Daedalus, 139(3), 8–19. https://doi.org/10.1162/DAED_a_00019 Wherry, F. F. & Chakrabarti, P. (2022). Accounting for credit. Annual Review of Sociology, 48(1), 131–147. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-030320-114444 Wherry, F. F., & Perry, V. G. (2021). Anti-black currents in consumer affairs: An introduction to the special issue. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 55(2), 356–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/joca.12374 Wherry, F. F., Seefeldt, K. S., & Alvarez, A. S. (2019). Credit where it’s due: Rethinking financial citizenship. Russell Sage Foundation. REFS - 82 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Wikle, J., & Wilson, R. (2023). Access to head start and maternal labor supply: Experimental and quasi-experimental evidence. Journal of Labor Economics, 41(4), 1081–1127. https://doi.org/10.1086/720980 Wildeman, C., & Fallesen, P. (2017). The effect of lowering welfare payment ceilings on children's risk of out-of-home placement. Children and Youth Services Review, 72(C), 82–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.10.017 Williams, D. T., & Baker, R. S. (2021). Family structure, risks, and racial stratification in poverty. Social Problems, 68(2), 964–985. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spab018 Williams, R., Nesiba, R., & McConnell, E. D. (2005). The changing face of inequality in home mortgage lending. Social Problems, 52(2), 181–208. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2005.52.2.181 Williamson, V. (2020). Closing the racial wealth gap requires heavy, progressive taxation of wealth. Brief Prepared for Brookings Blueprints for American Renewal & Prosperity, Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/closing-the-racial-wealth-gap- requires-heavy-progressive-taxation-of-wealth/ Wilson, N. J., & Kizer, K. W. (1997). The VA health care system: An unrecognized national safety net. Health Affairs, 16(4), 200–204. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.16.4.200 Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. University of Chicago Press. Wilson, W. J. (1996). When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor. Alfred A. Knopf. Wodtke, G. T., Yildirim, U., Harding, D. J., & Elwert, F. (2023). Are neighborhood effects explained by differences in school quality? American Journal of Sociology, 128(5), 1472–1528. https://doi.org/10.1086/724279 Wolfe, B., Jakubowski, J., Haveman, R., & Courey, M. (2012). The income and health effects of tribal casino gaming on American Indians. Demography, 49(2), 499–524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-012-0098-8 Wolff, E. N. (2017). A century of wealth in America. Belknap Press. Wong, K. K. (1999). Funding public schools: Politics and policies. University Press of Kansas. Wood, R. G., McConnell, S., Moore, Q., Clarkwest, A., & Hsueh, J. (2012). The effects of building strong families: A healthy marriage and relationship skills education program REFS - 83 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs for unmarried parents. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 31(2), 228–252. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.21608 Wood, R. G., Moore, Q., Clarkwest, A., & Killewald, A. (2014). The long-term effects of building strong families: A program for unmarried parents. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(2), 446–463. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12094 Worthington, A. C. (2006). Debt as a source of financial stress in Australian households. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 30(1), 2–15. https://hdl.handle.net/10779/uow.27726501.v1 Xiao, J. J., & Yao, R. (2011a). Consumer debt delinquency over life cycle stages. Networks Financial Institute Working Paper No. 2011-WP 18. https://ideas.repec.org/p/nfi/nfiwps/2011-wp-18.html Xiao, J. J., & Yao, R. (2011b). Debt holding and burden by family structure in 1989–2007. Networks Financial Institute Working Paper No. 2011-WP-04. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1799362 Yoshikawa, H., Aber, J. L., & Beardslee, W. R. (2012). The effects of poverty on the mental, emotional, and behavioral health of children and youth: Implications for prevention. The American Psychologist, 67(4), 272–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028015 Young, A., & DeLuca, S. (2020). I don’t want to rush everything and end up where I started: Disadvantaged youth, college choice, and the reverse life course. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association. Zaidi, B., & Morgan, S. P. (2017). The second demographic transition theory: A review and appraisal. Annual Review of Sociology, 43, 473–492. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev- soc-060116-053442 Zakeri, H., & Karimpour, M. (2011). Parenting styles and self-esteem. Procedia–Social and Behavioral Sciences, 29(4), 758–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.302 Zang, E., Gibson-Davis, C., & Li, H. (2024). Beyond parental wealth: Grandparental wealth and the transition to adulthood. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 89, 100878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2023.100878 Zewde, N. (2020). Universal baby bonds reduce black-white wealth inequality, progressively raise net worth of all young adults. Review of Black Political Economy, 47(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034644619885321 REFS - 84 

PREPUBLICATION COPY – uncorrected proofs Zhai, F., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Waldfogel, J. (2014). Head Start’s impact is contingent on alternative type of care in comparison group. Developmental Psychology, 50(12), 2572– 2586. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038205 Zucman, G. (2019). Global wealth inequality. Annual Review of Economics, 11, 109–138. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-080218-025852 REFS - 85