Index
A
Altitude
collision velocities and, 88, 89
debris population growth trends, 157
distribution of debris populations by, 64-68, 76
duration of orbital lifetime and, 1, 28, 30
likelihood of collision with debris and, 4, 81-82, 85-86, 98
medium-sized debris distribution, 71-74, 76
meteoroid flux and, 84
object velocity variation, 93
small debris distribution, 74, 76
tracking ability and, 34-35
See also Orbital regions
Aluminum oxide particles, 11, 24, 75, 76, 111
Analytic/numerical impact modeling, 5, 102, 109-110, 112, 114-115, 121-122
Angle of impact, 88, 90-91, 121
Ariane launch vehicle, 137, 141, 142
Astronomical observation, 13
Atmospheric drag, 1, 20, 27-28, 36, 55-56, 70, 71, 75, 145-146
B
Ballistic limit, 109, 111, 197
Batteries, 139
Breakup(s)
collision with debris as cause of, 4, 12, 91-92, 98, 138
debris population growth and, 168-172
defined, 197
explosion model, 138-139
in GEO, distribution of debris, 149
hypervelocity test simulations, 102, 112-114
modeling, 4, 54-55, 70, 91-92, 98, 160, 168-172
numbers of, 25
radioactive materials in, 91
recommendations for prevention of, 8, 181
reducing debris from, 139-142
as source of fragmentation debris, 25, 70, 75
test collisions, 91-92
Brem-Sat spacecraft, 47
BUMPER probability analysis code, 121
C
Cassini spacecraft, 47
Cataloging.
See Tracking and cataloging
CHAIN modeling program, 53, 163
Clementine 1 interstage adaptor, 48
Clouds of debris, 25, 55, 75-76
COBE.
See Cosmic Background Explorer
Collision avoidance/warning systems, 6, 36, 43
applications to date, 125, 127
development prospects, 127-128, 131-132, 143
ground-based sensors for, 126-127
shoot-back schemes, 128
in Space Shuttle operations, 127
spacecraft-based sensors for, 125-126
spacecraft maneuverability for, 126
Collision effects
accuracy of models, 160
analytical/numerical modeling, 5, 102, 109-110, 114-115
angle of impact and, 88, 90-91
breakups as, 4, 12, 91-92, 98, 138
collisional growth of debris population, 6-7, 102, 143, 158, 160-167, 172
damage scaling laws, 46
hazards to crewed missions, 95
impact conditions in determination of, 4, 88-91
impact damage scaling laws, 46
limitations in damage assessment capabilities, 46, 79, 111-114
performance deterioriation models, 97, 109
recommendations for research, 5-6, 179
structural and component damage, 4-5, 93-95, 97, 98-99, 121-122
vulnerability of spacecraft surface, 95-98, 99
Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 25
Crewed missions
impact hazards to, 95
release of mission-related debris, 136, 137
D
Debris flux, definition of, 197
Delta rocket bodies, 140
Depletion burns, 141
Deterioration products, 25-27
Disposal orbits, 22
location of, 148-149, 152, 153
to reduce debris hazards, 8, 147-148, 152-153, 154
reorbiting costs, 150
Drag augmentation, 145-147
Duration of orbit.
See Orbital decay
E
Electromagnetic rail gun, 104, 106
European Retrievable Carrier, 13, 45, 46, 74
European Space Agency, 13, 52, 121, 176, 188
Explorer spacecraft, 47
F
Fragmentation debris, 198
current population estimates, 25
degradation products, 25-27, 75
hypervelocity tests, 102-103
medium-sized, 70
small-sized, 75
sources of, 25
strategies for reducing, 138-142
G
GEO.
See Geosynchronous Earth orbit
Geostationary Earth orbit, 18, 199-200
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite, 23
Geostationary transfer orbits
definition, 199
ground-based optical sampling of, 39
risk of debris collision in, 87
solar-lunar perturbational forces in, 28
Geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO), 1
collision effects in, 93
collision velocities in, 90
collisional growth of debris population in, 167
distribution of debris in, 2, 69, 84-87
ground-based optical sampling of, 39
large debris object distribution in, 63-64, 67-69
likelihood of collision with debris in, 4, 85-87, 98
modeling of breakup debris in, 149
orbital inclination of debris in, 68-69, 86
recommendations for characterization studies, 177
space-based sampling in, 44
spacecraft design for, 23, 24, 121
spacecraft distribution in, 19
stable plane, 152
stable points, 152
uses of, 18
Global Positioning System, 19, 148
Goldstone Deepspace Communications Complex, 40, 41
Gravitational forces, 27, 28, 69, 145
H
Haystack radar, 13, 40-41, 70-74, 81
Auxiliary Radar, 41-42
High Earth orbits, 18-19
definition, 199
density of debris in, 84-85
likelihood of collision with debris in, 84-87, 98
Hypervelocity launcher, 104-106
Hypervelocity testing
access to test data and testing facilities, 5, 6, 108, 114, 179
with analytical/numerical modeling, 5, 102, 109-110, 114-115
capabilities and techniques, 5, 103-107
design of, 102-104
dissimilar materials testing, 106-107
of fragmentation effects in breakup, 102, 112-114
hypervelocity defined, 198
simulated impacts, 107
spacecraft component testing, 102, 130-131
velocity capabilities, 103, 104-105, 106
velocity requirements, 103
I
In situ debris sampling, 2
active measurements, 46-48
advantages, 45
basis of, 45
opportunities for improvement, 48-49
passive measurements, 45-46
Inclination
angle of impact related to, 91
collision velocities and, 88-90
definition, 198
distribution of large debris objects, 67-69
GEO stable plane, 152
likelihood of collision with debris and, 4, 82-84, 86, 98
limits of radar detection, 40
of medium-sized orbital debris, 71-74
tracking and, 35
Infrared Astronomical Satellite, 42
Infrared debris detection systems, 43
Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee, 176, 187
International Astronautical Academy, 187-188
International efforts
debris reduction strategies, 8, 180
national policies and, 188
for orbital debris research, 3
for orbital debris tracking and cataloging, 3, 35, 177-178
recommendations, 3, 176, 177-178, 180
International Law Association, 187
International Space Station, 121, 125, 127
K
Kosmos spacecraft, 25
L
Launch vehicles, 17
Law, international, 180, 185-188
LEO.
See Low Earth orbit
Light gas guns, 104, 105, 107, 198
Long Duration Exposure Facility, 12, 14, 45, 46, 74, 142-143
debris impact prediction, 90-91
debris swarms, detection by, 75-76
Interplanetary Dust Experiment, 47, 75
surface damage from debris impacts, 95, 97-98
surface degradation, 27
Low Earth orbit (LEO), 1
assessment of debris reduction proposals for, 168-169
characterizations of debris population in, 3, 34, 49-50, 57, 63, 80-81
collision effects in, 93
collision velocities in, 88-90
collisional growth of debris population in, 7, 164-167
definition, 199
determinants of orbital lifetime in, 28
disposal orbits in, 8, 181-182
ground-based optical sampling, 38-39
ground-based radar sampling, 39-41, 42
large debris object distribution in, 63-64, 67
likelihood of collision with debris in, 4, 81-84, 98
predictions for growth of debris in, 7, 172
propagation models, 56-57
rocket body debris in, 23
space-based sampling in, 44
spacecraft design for, 23
spacecraft distribution in, 18, 19
spread of fragmentation debris in, 138-139
tracking and cataloging of orbital debris in, 2-3, 36, 57, 177
uncataloged debris in, 81
Lunar effects on orbital lifetimes, 28, 56, 145
M
Materials models, 5, 110, 111, 179
Measurement of debris environment
completeness of current data set, 2, 49-50, 63
estimating atmospheric drag effects, 27-28, 36, 56
estimating methodologies, 31
modeling techniques for, 51-57
opportunities for improvement, 50-51, 177
See also Sampling;
Tracking and cataloging of orbital debris
Meteoroids, 1
collision risk in GEO relative to debris, 86
hazards to space operations from, 3, 11, 76, 84
Midcourse Space Experiment, 43
Mir space station, 12, 13, 24, 45, 74
Mission-related debris
definition, 198-199
intentional dumping of, 24
medium-sized, 70
rocket exhaust as, 24-25, 75, 136, 137
small-sized, 74-75
sources of, 24
strategies for reducing release of, 136-137
Modeling, 3
analytical/numerical impact, 5, 102, 109-110, 114-115
breakup modeling, 54-55, 70, 160
collisional cascading, 161-167
debris cloud, 55
debris impact risk, 120-122
debris reduction strategies, 167-172
ESA Reference Model for Space Debris and Meteoroids, 121
future debris population, 52-53, 58, 157-167
materials research for impact, 5, 110, 111, 179
opportunities for improvement, 58
performance deterioration, 97, 109
population characterization, 51-52, 58
propagation models, 55-57
purpose, 51
recommendations for research, 5-6, 176, 177
standard population characterization reference model, 3, 52, 177
traffic modeling, 53-54
Molniya orbits, 28, 64, 67-68, 86
definition, 199
spacecraft distribution in, 19
N
NEXTEL shield, 125
O
Orbital Debris Radar Calibration Spheres, 41
Orbital decay
orbital lifetime reduction strategies, 144-147, 154, 199
projections of, 28
propagation models, 55-57
Orbital Meteoroid and Debris Counter, 48
collision velocities, 88-90
distribution of spacecraft in, 18-20
hazard from debris and, 79, 80
location of disposal orbits, 8, 148-149, 152, 153
perturbation forces in, 27
probability of collision with debris in, 4
See also Altitude;
specific orbit
P
Paint chips, 11, 26-27, 75, 97-98, 142, 181
Palapa spacecraft, 45
Pegasus spacecraft, 47
Perturbation forces, 27-30
effects on small debris, 75, 158
in GEO stable plane, 152
size of debris objects and effects of, 70
use of, for lifetime reduction maneuvers, 145
Plasma drag launchers, 106
Political and economic contexts, 8, 180
Population characterization models, 51-52, 58
Progress M cargo spacecraft
Propagation models, 55-57
Protection against debris hazards
active systems, 122, 125-128, 131-132
benefit-cost analysis in spacecraft design, 119-120
experimental testing of systems for, 101
mission design for, 128-129
operational protection, 122, 128-129
passive strategies, 122-125
risk assessment for spacecraft design, 120-122
spacecraft design for, 6, 178-179
See also Collision warning/avoidance;
Shielding
Proton launch vehicle, 23
Q
current estimate, 63
debris collisions as source of growth in, 6-7, 102, 143, 158, 160-167, 172
fragmentation sources, 25, 138, 140
from intentional spacecraft breakups, 140
large debris population, 63-67
medium-sized debris population, 3, 70-74, 76
mission-related sources, 136
models for estimating, 157-167
number vs. mass, 143, 154, 167
predictions for growth in, 6-7, 52-53, 119
rocket body fragments, 140
small-sized debris population, 74, 158, 177
spacecraft explosion as a source, 139
strategies for reducing growth in, 7-8, 135-136
variation by orbital region, 84-85
R
Radar cross section, 34
Radar Ocean Reconnaissance satellites, 74
calibration techniques, 41
opportunities for improvement, 41-42, 57
RADARSAT spacecraft, 121, 130-131
Reducing debris hazards
by active in-orbit removal, 7, 143, 153-154, 180
assessment of strategies for, 135-136, 167-172
cost considerations, 136
data needs for, 175
deorbiting/lifetime reduction strategies for, 7-8, 143, 144-147, 154, 169, 171, 172
international efforts, 180
long-term strategies, 135
mass vs. number of objects as goal of, 167
from mission-related debris, 136-137, 154
recommendations for, 8-9, 180-182
by reducing creation of debris from collisions, 143, 172
reorbiting to disposal orbits for, 147-153, 154, 181-182
from spacecraft degradation, 142-143, 181
spacecraft design strategies for, 7, 8, 129-132
from spacecraft explosions, 138-142, 154
spacecraft operations for, 7-8, 128-129, 135
See also Protection from debris hazards
Removal of debris, 7, 143, 153-154, 180
Research
analytical/numerical impact modeling, 5, 102, 109-110
damage assessment and prediction, limitations of, 111-114
data sources, 13-14
on effects of debris impacts, opportunities for, 101
measurement of debris environment, current status of, 49-51
recommendations for, 3, 5-6, 176-178
shielding, 125
See also Hypervelocity testing;
Modeling
Risk of collision
benefit-cost analysis of spacecraft design, 119-120
determinants of, 79, 80, 98, 120
growth in, 11, 12-13, 119, 172
with meteoroids, 3, 11, 76, 84, 86
modeling, 120-122
with objects surviving reentry, 1, 13
orbital altitude and, 4, 81-82, 85-86, 98
orbital inclination and, 4, 82-84, 86, 98
predictions for LDEF, 90-91
radioactive materials and, 91
size of objects and, 3-4
spacecraft design considerations, 120-122
See also Reducing debris hazards
Rocket bodies, 200
contribution to debris population, 11, 23-24, 140
debris distribution, 65
passivation of, to reduce debris growth, 140-142, 181
Rocket exhaust, 11, 24-25, 75, 136, 137
Russian Space Agency, 176
S
Salyut space stations, 12, 45, 46-47, 74
Sampling
completeness of current data set, 49-50
with ground-based optical sensors, 38-39
with ground-based radar, 39-42, 70-71
opportunities for improvement, 58
from orbit, 42-44
collision risk in, 98
debris distribution, 84
orbital velocity, 90
spacecraft distribution in, 19
analytical/numerical modeling of, 109
current research efforts, 125
design considerations, 102, 123, 131
hypervelocity testing of, 102
obstacles to development, 111
size of debris objects and, 122
types of, 123
Whipple type, 123-125
Size of debris objects
breakup fragments, 54-55, 70, 75, 92
debris flux and, 80
distribution estimates, 63
effect of impact and, 12, 88, 93-95
limits of ground-based optical sampling, 2, 38-39
limits of in situ sampling, 49
limits of radar detection, 35-36
limits of space-based remote sensing, 44
limits of space-based sampling, 42, 44
measurement conventions, 21
perturbation forces and, 70, 71, 75
population growth trends, 161
probability of collision in LEO, 4
radar cross section, 34
rocket exhaust particles, 24
shielding considerations, 122
tracking ability, 2-3, 34, 35-36, 57
Solar effects on orbital lifetimes, 27-28, 56, 145, 200
Solar Maximum Mission, 12, 45, 74
collision avoidance procedure, 127
mission design to reduce impact risk, 129
Space Station Freedom, 13, 121
Space suits, 95
Space Surveillance Network, 20, 32, 34, 35, 201
Space Surveillance System, 32, 34, 35, 36, 201
Spacecraft design, 5
analytical/numerical modeling in, 109
benefit-cost analysis, 119-120
debris removal vehicles/devices, 153-154
for deorbiting/lifetime reduction maneuvers, 144-145
drag augmentation devices, 145-147
fuel demands for reorbiting to disposal orbit, 150
historical concerns with debris impacts, 119
hypervelocity testing, 101-103, 121-122
impact risk assessment, 120-122
oversizing, 128
passivation strategies to reduce debris population growth, 139-140, 181, 200
protection from debris impacts in, 7, 88, 90-91, 128, 130-131
recommendations, 6, 8, 178-179, 181
for reducing degradation debris, 142-143, 181
rocket bodies, 23
solar power systems, 98
strategies for reducing breakup debris, 138-142, 181
surface materials, 181
understanding of debris environment for, 175-176
vulnerability of components to debris impacts, 93-95, 99, 121-122
Spacecraft operations
breakup modeling, 54-55
collision avoidance systems, 125, 126
definition of functional spacecraft, 20-21
deorbiting/lifetime reduction maneuvers, 7-8, 143, 144-147
experimental simulation of debris impact effects, 101
historical development, 11, 17, 20
impact risk reduction, mission design in, 128-129
intentional breakups, 8, 25, 140, 181
orbital distribution, 18-20
orbital placement, 17-18
in reducing debris hazard, 7-8, 9
reducing release of mission-related debris in, 136-137, 154
sources of debris from, 21-27
surface damage from debris impacts and, 97-98
traffic modeling, 53-54
venting of residual propellant, 139-140, 141-142
SPELDA device, 137
Sun-synchronous orbit, 18, 199
T
Telescopic observation, 2-3, 35
charge-coupled devices in, 2, 37
limitations of, 38
liquid-mirror, 39
with modeling techniques, 52
opportunities for improvement, 39
for sampling, 38-39
vulnerability of space-based optics to debris impacts, 97
Titan rockets, 137
Toroidal cloud.
See Clouds of debris
Tracking and cataloging of debris objects
current catalog, 20, 21, 57, 63, 67, 70, 84-85
definition, 197
medium-sized debris population, 70-74
need for, 175-176
opportunities for improvement, 2-3, 35-37, 57
predictive ability, 36, 55, 57
recommendations for, 3, 177-178
uncataloged debris in LEO, 81
uncataloged large debris, 69-70
Traffic modeling, 53-54
Types of orbital debris, 1, 11, 20-27
coolant leakage, 74
debris swarms, 75-76
degradation products, 25-27
intentionally dumped, 24
oldest spacecraft debris, 22
radioactive, 91
See also specific types
U
United Nations, 185-187
growth of debris population, 2
international law and treaties, 180, 185-188
predictive modeling, 53-54
trends, 18-19
See also Spacecraft operations
V
Velocity, 67
altitude variation and, 93
energy of high velocity objects, 93
in GEO stable plane, 152
in geostationary transfer orbits, 87
shield design considerations, 123-124
W
Westar spacecraft, 45