Index
A
Acreage, wetlands, 1, 16, 37, 158, 159-160, 195
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS), 68, 69 , 193
Agricultural wetlands, 2, 9, 17, 73, 158-162, 167, 179, 191, 196, 206, 208, 222
Alaska, 8, 58, 85, 97-98, 100, 112, 149-150, 151, 152, 174
Alder (Alnus rubra), 173
Alpine wet meadows, 155
Altered wetlands (nonagricultural), 9, 51-52, 74, 86-88, 146, 162-165, 167, 184, 185, 201, 202
Amphibians, 38
Anaerobic conditions, 94-96, 107, 111-113, 115, 118, 121, 172
Arctic Coastal Plain, 151
Arctic tundra, 25, 98, 99-100, 151
Arnold, Richard W., 116-117
Arrowhead (Sagittaria latifolia), 104
Assessment of wetlands.
See also Delineation of wetlands
administrative differences, 208-209
aerial photography, 10, 69, 73, 77, 78, 86, 108, 144, 164, 165, 190-194, 195-196, 205, 206, 211
boundary detection, 193-194, 204-206, 207
field methodology, 71-72, 73, 77, 82, 120, 147, 185, 192-193, 212
geographic information systems, 199-201
goals, 184-185
hierarchical approach, 143-144, 145, 148
hydrology, 91-92, 93, 106-108, 147, 165, 191, 202-204, 218, 222
models and modeling, 10, 103, 146, 187, 202-204, 206, 221
modified approach, 139-141
National Food Security Act Manual, 222
and permit applications, 223
professional judgment in, 212
quality control and quality assurance, 10, 187, 195, 207-208, 210-212
recommendations, 146
reference sites, 108, 148, 187, 214, 221
regionalization of, 168-169, 181, 185, 186, 208, 220-21
responsibility for, 10-11
satellite imaging, 10, 108, 191, 193, 201, 205, 206
seed banks used for, 104-105
soil maps, 69, 73, 77, 86, 119-120, 144, 146, 164-165, 192
standards, 212
timeliness of, 212-213
topographic maps, 192
training and certification, 10, 81, 147, 148, 194, 208, 209-210, 211, 214
vegetation, 129-131
Atchafalaya Basin, 157
Atriplex watsonii, 172
B
Beavers, 25
Bentsen, Lloyd, 53
Biota of wetlands.
See also Hydrophytic vegetation;
Vegetation
and definition of wetlands, 59, 61, 136-137
organisms other than vegetation, 136-137
Black cottonwood, 172
Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica var biflora), 126
Black spruce (Picea mariana), 104, 150, 151
Bogs, 40
Bureau of Land Management, 48, 114
Bureau of Reclamation, 48
Bush administration, 2, 18, 73
C
Canada geese, 25
Canadian National Wetlands Working Group, 152
Canadian Wildlife Service, 48
Carex riparia (C. lacustris), 104
Cases (litigation)
Hobbs v. United States, 69
Natural Resources Defense Council v. Callaway, 47, 53
United States v. Akers, 69
United States v. Cumberland Farms of Connecticut, Inc., 69
United States v. Grand River Dam Authority, 47
United States v. Huebner, 69
United States v. Riverside Bayview Homes, 55
Characterization of wetlands. See Hydrology;
Soils;
Vegetation
''Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States'' (Cowardin Report), 54-55, 58
Clean Water Act
exclusions/exemptions, 11, 66, 68-69, 158
jurisdiction, 66
protection of wetlands, 18, 66-68, 153, 160
Section 404, 2, 9, 51, 52-54, 55, 66-69, 155, 158, 179, 184, 195, 211, 217, 218
Clinton administration, 18, 69, 158
Coalition to Restore Coastal Louisiana, 89
Coastal Zone Management Act amendments of 1980, 224
Colorado, 156
Conifer swamps, 85
Connecticut, 219
Conservation Foundation, 48
Conversion of wetlands, 1, 16-17, 44, 69, 100, 158-160
Cottonwood, 172
Cypress (Taxodium) swamps, 25
D
Databases
Annotated National Wetland Plant Species Database, 124
Soil Survey Data Base, 201
Soil Interpretations Record database, 115
STORET water quality, 201
wetland delineations, 212
Definition of wetlands.
See also Terminology
agricultural wetlands, 158
application of, 63-64
charge to Committee, 14
Clean Water Act and, 52-54
controversial wetlands, 8, 152, 155
ecosystem concept in, 57, 58, 59
evolution of, 47-56
Food Security Act, 2, 8, 56, 118, 152, 161
hydrologic criterion, 4, 8, 51, 55, 57, 58, 61, 62, 92-93, 100
importance, 2
interrelationships of criteria, 7-8, 133, 137-145, 148
NRCS, 57
recommendations, 64
reference, 3-4, 12, 59-61, 63-64, 88
regulatory, 3, 8, 12, 47-56, 58-64, 65-66
scientific principles applied to, 43
status of, 57-58
Swamp Land Act of 1850, 44
substrate criterion, 6, 55, 57-58, 61, 62-63
USACE, 2, 49, 51-52, 57, 62, 65-66, 161
vegetation criterion, 6-7, 52, 55, 57, 61, 63
Delineation of wetlands.
See also Assessment of wetlands;
Manuals, federal;
National Wetlands Inventory
agricultural lands, 161
authority for, 67
biological indicators, potential, 137, 148
Clean Water Act and, 66-68
consistency and reliability problems, 207-208
EPA, 68
exemptions and exceptions, 67, 68-69, 72-73, 88, 161
Food Security Act and, 68-70, 190, 192-195
motivation for, 66
reference materials for, 146, 196, 198
regionalization and, 9-10, 146, 168, 180
soils, 71, 74, 85-86, 118-119, 142-143, 144-145, 146
transition zones and, 9, 14-15, 24, 41-42, 54-55, 58, 64
vegetation, 71, 78-85, 121-122, 126-131, 137, 142, 145
Depressional wetlands, 9, 25, 40, 151, 156, 160, 171
Disturbed areas. See Altered wetlands
Duck Stamp Program, 17, 45, 48
E
Ecology of wetlands.
See also Functions of wetlands
classes, 20-21
dry phases, 36
ecosystem nature, 21-34, 57, 59
hydrogeomorphic characteristics, 24-25
hydrology, 22-25
natural disturbances and, 25, 32, 151, 162
nutrient transformation, 25, 32-34
permafrost, 150-151
soil formation processes, 110-111
transitional zones, 41-42, 139
variations among wetlands, 15-16, 24-25
Ellender, Allan, 46
Emergency Wetland Reserve Program, 160
Environmental Defense Fund, 89
Environmental movement, 17
Executive Order 11574, 46
Executive Order 11988, 154
F
Fairchild Tropical Garden, 123
Fairy shrimp, 38
Federal Emergency Management Agency, 154
Federal Highway Administration, 218-219
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.
See also Clean Water Act
judicial interpretation, 47
Section 402, 46
Section 404, 46-47
Flooding, indicators, 108-109, 146
Floodplain wetlands, 36, 38, 105, 119, 121, 151, 154-155, 185
Food, Agricultural, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990, 56, 194
Food Security Act
appeals process, 194
definition of wetlands, 2, 8, 56, 118, 152
delineation of wetlands, 68-70, 190, 192-195
exemptions and exclusions, 69, 152, 222
Hydric Soils List, 114
manual, 2, 69, 72-73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82, 85, 86, 88, 159, 161 , 195, 211
swampbuster provisions, 18, 56, 68, 69, 70, 158, 160, 195, 211
Forested bottomlands, 41-42, 89, 91, 92, 102-103, 111, 172, 185,196
Freshwater tidal marshes, 104
Functions of wetlands
agricultural wetlands, 160-161
capacity, 216
classification of wetlands by, 49
definition of, 34
headwater wetlands, 156
indicators, 216-217
isolated wetlands, 156
landscape perspective, 36-37
measurement of, 217-220
nutrient cycling, 32-34, 38, 40
permit assessments, 217
riparian zones, 8-9
shallow/intermittently flooded wetlands, 157
thresholds, 217
unique, 35-36
value to society and, 11, 15, 17-18, 34-35, 36-37, 215-216, 221,223
watershed hydrology and, 38, 40-41, 42
G
Geographic information systems, 199-201, 206
Growing season, 78, 94-103, 107, 146, 172, 181, 183-184
Great Dismal Swamp, 20, 89, 104
H
Headwater wetlands, 9, 154, 155-156
Hemlock swamps and bogs, 85, 126, 131
H.R. 11896, 46
Hubbard Brook, New Hampshire, 187
Hydric soils
atypical, 88
criteria for, 114-116
definition, 56, 85, 96, 110, 114-116, 254
delineation of wetlands with, 118-119, 133, 139
fidelity indicators, 117-118, 146, 189
hydrology and, 76
hydrophytic vegetation and, 118, 130, 134-135
importance, 4, 6, 57-58, 61, 144-145
indicators, 6, 62-63, 85-86, 116, 120, 133, 141, 147, 211
microbial activity, 99
regional technical committees, 146
redoximorphic features, 61, 94
saturation frequency threshold, 103-104
water table data and, 115, 118-119
Hydric Soils List, 6, 10, 55, 97, 113-118, 146, 148, 181, 186, 188
Hydrology
assessment, 4, 5, 91-92, 93, 104-105, 106-108, 138, 139, 140, 146, 185, 191, 202-204, 218, 222
boundary delineation with, 91, 108
classification schemes, 174, 180
critical depth (water table), 5, 75, 76, 93, 102, 103, 104-107, 108, 111, 115, 118-119, 146, 203-204
definition of wetlands and, 4, 8, 51, 55, 57, 59, 61, 62
degree-day concept, 95
duration of saturation/innundation, 38, 91, 94-103, 105, 146, 181, 183-184, 189
growing season concept, 5, 78, 94-103, 107, 146, 181, 183-184
hydroperiods, 23-24, 26-27, 32, 91, 109
importance of, 90-91, 138, 139
indicators, 76-77, 92, 108-109, 143, 146, 147-148, 185
interannual variation, 104-106, 138
manuals compared, 75-78, 93, 96, 97, 100-101, 103, 107
models/modeling, 100-102, 103, 105-107, 109, 165, 191, 201-204
natural disturbances and, 25
nature of, 91
and nutrient transformation, 25, 32-34
and organic matter, 25
regional variation, 170-171, 174, 175, 186
thresholds, 5, 51, 55, 61, 75, 76, 92-93, 95, 100-101, 103-108, 146, 202
vegetation and, 24, 133-134, 140, 143, 147-148, 184
visual indicators, 5
weather and, 146
Hydrophyte List, 6, 10, 56, 80, 122-126, 128-129, 134, 147, 148,181, 186, 188, 189
Hydrophytic vegetation
absence of, 136-137
adaptations, 123, 131, 141, 172
boundary delineation with, 126, 148
definitions, 56, 78-80, 121, 122-123
dominance measure, 7, 82-83, 126-128, 129, 135, 147
hydrology and, 76, 104, 140, 147-148, 184
indicators, 81-84, 124, 133, 141, 147-148
manuals compared, 78-85, 122-123
prevalence index, 7, 56, 80-85, 126, 128-129, 135, 144, 147, 205
soil requirements, 118, 133, 134-135
thresholds, 129-130
wetland ecotypes, 125-126, 131-132
I
Institute of Ecology, 48
International Committee on Aquic Moisture Regime, 254
Invertebrates, aquatic, 137, 157, 172
Iowa, 174
Island biogeography, 37
See also Depressional wetlands
K
Kirkham wetlands, 133
L
Lake Calumet, 216
Lodgepole pine bogs, 85
Longleaf pine wet savannahs, 85
M
Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, 206
Manuals, delineation
comparisons, 3, 74-89, 93, 97, 103
definitions and, 65-66
differential applications, 88-89, 214
flow diagrams and charts, 213
interagency (1989), 2, 3, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76-77, 78, 79, 81, 83-84, 86, 88, 89, 93, 97, 98, 103, 111, 128, 165, 174, 185, 190, 205
National Food Security Act Manual (1985), 2, 69, 72-73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82, 85, 86, 88, 159, 161, 195, 211, 222
regionalization, 185-186
revisions, proposed (1991), 2, 3, 73-74, 76, 77, 78, 79-80, 82, 84 -85, 87-88, 93, 97, 103
USACE (1987), 2, 3, 70-71, 72, 73, 74, 75-76, 77, 78, 80-81, 82, 85-86, 87, 88, 89, 96, 97, 100-101, 103, 105, 107, 128, 161, 165, 185, 205
Maps/mapping
digitization, 201
soils, 69, 110, 119-120, 144, 146, 165, 171, 181, 192, 193, 201, 256
wetlands inventory, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195-201
McCracken, Ralph, 114
Methane fluxes, 99
Minnesota peatlands, 20-21, 99, 157, 171
Mississippi River delta, 20, 40, 119, 171
Mississippi River Valley, 160
Missouri River Basin (Upper), 132
Models and modeling, 10, 100-102, 103, 105, 106, 146, 165, 187, 191, 201-204, 206, 221
Monanthochloe littoralis, 172
Montana, 153
Mosses, 98, 125, 137, 150, 151, 157
Muskegs, 85
Muskrats, 25
N
National Aerial Photography Program, 196
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 191, 201
National Flood Insurance Program, 154
National High Altitude Photography program, 196
National List of Plant Species that Occur in Wetlands. See Hydrophyte List
National Marine Fisheries Service, 48
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 50
National Stream Quality Accounting Network, 175
National Technical Committee for Hydric Soils (NTCHS), 6, 85, 96, 114, 181
National Wetlands Inventory, 10, 48, 66, 69, 114, 118, 123, 164, 190, 191, 192, 194, 195-201, 217
National Wetlands Policy Forum, 18, 225
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
Agricultural Water Quality Incentives Program, 194
budget, 158
definition of wetlands, 57, 159
delineation of wetlands, 68, 69, 72-73, 158, 190, 194-195, 211
Environmental Conservation Acreage Program, 194
hydric soils definition, 110
National Resources Inventory, 147, 175, 187
regionalization, 179, 181, 183
Soil Interpretations Record database, 115
Wetlands Reserve Program, 19, 194
Nature Conservancy, 48
New Hampshire, 219
New Jersey, 219
Nixon administration, 46
North Carolina, 196
North Dakota, 191
O
Office of Coastal Zone Management, 48
Okefenoke Swamp, 38
Organic matter, 25, 110-111, 121, 150-151
P
Paper birch swamps and bogs, 85
Parker, W.B., 114
Peatlands, 20-21, 25, 99, 125, 131
Peltandra virginica, 104
Permafrost
Permitting systems and programs
Advanced Identification, 224
altered sites, 51-52
compensatory mitigation, 223
exemptions, 67
functional assessments, 217, 218-219, 223
Nationwide Permit 26, 9, 154, 155-156, 166-167
permits by rule, 67-68
reforms, 19
Refuse Act of 1899, 46
state authority, 53-54
timeliness of assessments, 212-213
verification of delineations, 211
Pitch pine lowlands, 85
Plymouth, North Carolina, 100-102, 105, 107
Policies, federal.
See also Regulation of wetlands
Bush administration, 2
excluded lands, 8-9, 11-12, 58, 63-64, 69-70, 155
floodplains, 154
"no net loss" principle, 18-19
protection of wetlands, 13-14, 45, 56
Prairie potholes
biodiversity and, 37
boundary determination, 41, 141
classification schemes, 174
drainage and fill permits, 155
regionalization, 171, 172, 174, 186
satellite imaging of, 191
sedimentation and nutrient cycling, 40
R
Recommendations
altered lands, 167
assessment methodologies, 203
delineation of wetlands, 64, 188, 226
federal administration, 214
functional assessment of wetlands, 226
isolated wetlands and headwaters, 166-167
manuals, 144-148
permafrost wetlands, 166
quality control and quality assurance, 214
recordkeeping, 214
regionalization, 188-189
reference definition, 64
reference wetlands, 214
riparian ecosystems, 166
studies of wetland phenomena, 42, 96, 146
training and certification of delineators, 214
transition zones, 167
Red maple swamps, 126, 129-130, 131, 132, 141
Reed, P.B., 123
Reference sites, 108, 148, 187, 214, 221
Refuse Act of 1899, 46
Regionalization
abundance of wetlands, 173-174
advantages and disadvantages, 185-186
classification schemes, 174-179, 225
climatic and physiographic basis, 169, 175, 180, 184-185, 186, 188
and delineation of wetlands, 9-10, 146, 168-169, 185
ecological basis, 175, 176-178, 188
federal agencies, 179-180
growing season concept and, 146
hierarchy of variation, 169-174
hydrogeomorphic classification, 175, 179, 220-221
hydrology, 170-171, 174, 175, 180, 181, 183-184, 186, 188
implementation, 188
recommendations, 188-189
research support for, 186-187
soils, 117, 146, 171, 181, 186
vegetation, 123, 172-173, 174, 181, 186
Regulation of wetlands.
See also individual statutes
agricultural wetlands, 161-162
consistency and reliability problems, 207-208
current context for, 18-19
history, 16-18
jurisdiction, 15, 47, 51, 52, 53-54, 64, 66, 70, 88
permafrost, 152
riparian ecosystems, 153
staff requirements, 148
Restoration of wetlands, 167, 225
Riparian zones, 8-9, 25, 37, 41, 112, 152-155, 166, 171
River bottomlands, 37
Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, 45
S
S. 2770, 46
Salicornia subterminalis, 172
Salicornia virginica, 172
Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, 52
Shallow/intermittently flooded wetlands, 9, 156-157, 167
Slope wetlands, 25
Smith, Rep. 53
Smithsonian Institution, 123
Society of Wetland Scientists, 210
Soil Conservation Service, 48, 175, 254.
See also National Resources Conservation Service
Soils.
See also Hydric soils
alterations in, 163
anaerobic conditions, 94-96, 107, 111-113, 115, 118, 121
aquic conditions, 110, 118, 254-256
Canadian classification system, 112
definitions of, 109-110
inundation, 257
maps/surveys, 69, 110, 119-120, 144, 146, 165, 171, 181, 196, 201, 256
microbes and microbial activity, 98-99
moisture regime, 110, 171, 254
natural drainage classes, 256-257
permafrost, 112
recommendations, 146-147
reduction, 255-256
redoximorphic features, 113, 255, 256
regionalization, 117, 146, 171
saturation, 255
taxonomy, 171
temperature, 94-96
variation, 139
South Carolina, 103
Sport Fishing Institute, 48
Substrates.
See also Hydric soils;
Soils assessment, 6-7
criterion, 6, 55, 57-58, 61, 62-63
nonhydric indicators, 6, 136, 147
Sugar maple swamps, 85
Swamp Land Act of 1850, 16-17, 44, 160
Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), 126
T
Taiga ecosystems, 98
Tennessee Valley Authority, 48
Terminology
"disturbed areas,"; 87-88
"dominant dpecies,"; 82-83
history of, 43-47
"hydrophytic vegetation, 56, 78-80
"indicators,"; 62-63
"navigable waters,"; 45, 47, 53, 55, 66
normality issue, 51-52
"swamp,"; 43
Thermokarst lakes, 151
Transition zones, 9, 14-15, 24, 41-42, 58, 64, 131, 132-133, 134, 135-136, 139, 166, 167
Tundra See Arctic tundra;
Permafrost wetlands
U
University of Rhode Island, 50
See also Transition zones
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)
certification of wetland delineators, 209, 210, 211, 214
conversion of wetlands, 16-17, 45
definition of wetlands, 2, 49, 51-52, 56, 57, 62
delineation manual, 2, 65-66, 70-71, 73, 74, 75-76, 77, 78, 80-81, 82, 85-86, 88, 89, 96, 100-101, 103, 105, 107, 161, 165
dredge and fill program, 46-47
functional assessment manual, 217-218, 219-220
permitting authority, 46-47, 54, 66-67, 179, 180, 217
regionalization, 179, 180, 182
Special Area Management Plans, 224-225
Waterways Experiment Station, 70, 218, 220
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Agricultural Conservation Program, 160
conversion of wetlands, 17, 160
manual, 2
regionalization, 175
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
North American Landscape Characterization program, 201
regionalization, 175, 179, 182
wetlands evaluation authority, 46, 68, 211, 223
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS).
See also National Wetlands Inventory
Annotated National Wetland Plant Species Database, 124
definition of wetlands, 48, 49-51, 57-58
Habitat Evaluation Procedure, 218
manual, 2
Soil-Vegetation Correlation reports, 174
U.S. Geological Survey, 48, 50, 175, 187, 196, 201
U.S. Water Resources Council, 218
V
Vegetation.
See also Hydrophytic vegetation
alterations in, 162-163
boundary setting with, 135-136, 141
criterion, 6-7, 52, 55, 57, 61, 63
evapotranspiration, 112-113
facultative species, 84-85, 125-126, 131-133, 135, 173
opportunistic species, 132
permafrost wetlands, 150-151
prevalence, 52
regional variation, 172-173, 174
succession, 150-151
transition zones, 131, 132-133, 134, 135-136
variation over time, 138-139
Vernal pools, 41, 82, 85, 112, 155, 157
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, 219