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Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (1996)

Chapter: 4 Physical Plant

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Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
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4
Physical Plant

A well-planned, well-designed, well-constructed, and properly maintained facility is an important element of good animal care and use, and it facilitates efficient, economical, and safe operation (see Appendix A, ''Design and Construction of Animal Facilities"). The design and size of an animal facility depend on the scope of institutional research activities, the animals to be housed, the physical relationship to the rest of the institution, and the geographic location. Effective planning and design should include input from personnel experienced with animal-facility design and operation and from representative users of the proposed facility. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling of new facilities and caging might be beneficial (Reynolds and Hughes 1994). An animal facility should be designed and constructed in accord with all applicable state and local building codes. Modular units (such as custom-designed trailers or prefabricated structures) should comply with construction guidelines described in this chapter.

Good animal management and human comfort and health protection require separation of animal facilities from personnel areas, such as offices and conference rooms. Separation can be accomplished by having the animal quarters in a separate building, wing, floor, or room. Careful planning should make it possible to place animal housing areas next to or near research laboratories but separated from them by barriers, such as entry locks, corridors, or floors. Animals should be housed in facilities dedicated to or assigned for that purpose and should not be housed in laboratories merely for convenience. If animals must be maintained in a laboratory area to satisfy a protocol, the area should be appropriate to house and

Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×

care for the animals; if needed, measures should be taken to minimize occupational hazards related to exposure to animals.

Building materials should be selected to facilitate efficient and hygienic operation of animal facilities. Durable, moisture-proof, fire-resistant, seamless materials are most desirable for interior surfaces. Surfaces should be highly resistant to the effects of cleaning agents, scrubbing, high-pressure sprays, and impact. Paints and glazes should be nontoxic if used on surfaces with which animals will have direct contact. In the construction of outdoor facilities, consideration should be given to surfaces that withstand the elements and can be easily maintained.

FUNCTIONAL AREAS

Professional judgment should be exercised in the development of a practical, functional, and efficient physical plant for animal care and use. The size, nature, and intensity of an institutional animal program will determine the specific facility and support functions needed. In facilities that are small, maintain few animals, or maintain animals under special conditions—such as facilities used exclusively for housing gnotobiotic or specific-pathogen-free (SPF) colonies or animals in runs, pens, or outdoor housing—some functional areas listed below might be unnecessary or might be included in a multipurpose area.

Space is required for

  • Animal housing, care, and sanitation.

  • Receipt, quarantine, and separation of animals.

  • Separation of species or isolation of individual projects when necessary.

  • Storage.

Most multipurpose animal facilities also include the following:

  • Specialized laboratories or space contiguous with or near animal housing areas for such activities as surgery, intensive care, necropsy, radiography, preparation of special diets, experimental procedures, clinical treatment, and diagnostic laboratory procedures.

  • Containment facilities or equipment, if hazardous biologic, physical, or chemical agents are to be used.

  • Receiving and storage areas for food, bedding, pharmaceuticals, biologics, and supplies.

  • Space for washing and sterilizing equipment and supplies and, depending on the volume of work, machines for washing cages, bottles, glassware, racks, and waste cans; a utility sink; an autoclave for equipment, food, and bedding; and separate areas for holding soiled and clean equipment.

  • Space for storing wastes before incineration or removal.

Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×
  • Space for cold storage or disposal of carcasses.

  • Space for administrative and supervisory personnel, including space for training and education of staff.

  • Showers, sinks, lockers, toilets, and break areas for personnel.

  • Security features, such as card-key systems, electronic surveillance, and alarms.

CONSTRUCTION GUIDELINES

Corridors

Corridors should be wide enough to facilitate the movement of personnel and equipment. Corridors 6-8 ft wide can accommodate the needs of most facilities. Floor-wall junctions should be designed to facilitate cleaning. In corridors leading to dog and swine housing facilities, cage-washing facilities, and other high-noise areas, double-door entry or other noise traps should be considered. Wherever possible, water lines, drainpipes, electric-service connections, and other utilities should be accessible through access panels or chases in corridors outside the animal rooms. Fire alarms, fire extinguishers, and telephones should be recessed or installed high enough to prevent damage from the movement of large equipment.

Animal-Room Doors

For safety, doors should open into animal rooms; however, if it is necessary that they open toward a corridor, there should be recessed vestibules. Doors with viewing windows might be preferable for safety and other reasons. However, the ability to cover viewing windows might be considered in situations where exposure to light or hallway activities would be undesirable. Doors should be large enough (approximately 42 x 84 in) to allow the easy passage of racks and equipment. Doors should fit tightly within their frames, and both doors and frames should be appropriately sealed to prevent vermin entry or harborage. Doors should be constructed of and, where appropriate, coated with materials that resist corrosion. Self-closing doors equipped with recessed or shielded handles, threshold sweeps, and kickplates are usually preferred. Where room-level security is necessary or it is desirable to limit access (as in the case of the use of hazardous agents), room doors should be equipped with locks. Doors should be designed to be opened from the inside without a key.

Exterior Windows

Windows are acceptable in some animal rooms and can constitute a type of environmental enrichment for some species, especially nonhuman primates, dogs,

Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×

some agricultural animals, and other large mammals. The effects of windows on temperature, photoperiod control, and security should be considered in design decisions. Where temperature cannot be regulated properly because of heat loss or gain through the windows or where photoperiod is an important consideration (as in breeding colonies of rodents), exterior windows usually are inappropriate.

Floors

Floors should be moisture-resistant, nonabsorbent, impact-resistant, and relatively smooth, although textured surfaces might be required in some high-moisture areas and for some species (such as farm animals). Floors should be resistant to the action of urine and other biologic materials and to the adverse effects of hot water and cleaning agents. They should be capable of supporting racks, equipment, and stored items without becoming gouged, cracked, or pitted. Depending on their use, floors should be monolithic or have a minimal number of joints. Some materials that have proved satisfactory are epoxy aggregates, hard-surface sealed concrete, and special hardened rubber-base aggregates. Correct installation is essential to ensure long-term stability of the surface. If sills are installed at the entrance to a room, they should be designed to allow for convenient passage of equipment.

Drainage

Where floor drains are used, the floors should be sloped and drain traps kept filled with liquid. To minimize humidity, drainage should allow rapid removal of water and drying of surfaces (Gorton and Besch 1974). Drainpipes should be at least 4 in (10.2 cm) in diameter. In some areas, such as dog kennels and farm animal facilities, larger drain pipes are recommended. A rim-flush drain or heavy-duty disposal unit set in the floor might be useful for the disposal of solid waste. When drains are not in use for long periods, they should be capped and sealed to prevent backflow of sewer gases and other contaminants; lockable drain covers might be advisable for this purpose in some circumstances.

Floor drains are not essential in all animal rooms, particularly those housing rodents. Floors in such rooms can be sanitized satisfactorily by wet vacuuming or mopping with appropriate cleaning compounds or disinfectants.

Walls

Walls should be smooth, moisture-resistant, nonabsorbent, and resistant to damage from impact. They should be free of cracks, of unsealed utility penetrations, and of imperfect junctions with doors, ceilings, floors, and corners. Surface materials should be capable of withstanding cleaning with detergents and disinfectants and the impact of water under high pressure. The use of curbs, guardrails

Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×

or bumpers, and corner guards should be considered to protect walls and corners from damage.

Ceilings

Ceilings should be smooth, moisture-resistant, and free of imperfect junctions. Surface materials should be capable of withstanding cleaning with detergents and disinfectants. Ceilings of plaster or fire-proof plasterboard should be sealed and finished with a washable paint. Ceilings formed by the concrete floor above are satisfactory if they are smoothed and sealed or are painted. Generally, suspended ceilings are undesirable unless they are fabricated of impervious materials and free of imperfect junctions. Exposed plumbing, ductwork, and light fixtures are undesirable unless the surfaces can be readily cleaned.

Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC)

Temperature and humidity control minimizes variations due either to changing climatic conditions or to differences in the number and kind of animals in a room. Air-conditioning is an effective means of regulating temperature and humidity. HVAC systems should be designed for reliability, ease of maintenance, and energy conservation. They should be able to meet requirements for animals as discussed in Chapter 2. A system should be capable of adjustments in dry-bulb temperatures of +1ºC (+2ºF). The relative humidity should generally be maintained within a range of 30-70% throughout the year. Temperature is best regulated by having thermostatic control for each room. Use of a zonal control for multiple rooms can result in temperature variations between the "master-control" animal room and the other rooms in the zone because of differences in animal densities within the rooms and heat gain or loss in ventilation ducts and other surfaces within the zone.

Regular monitoring of the HVAC system is important and is best done at the individual-room level. Previously specified temperature and humidity ranges can be modified to meet special animal needs in circumstances in which all or most of the animal facility is designed exclusively for acclimated species with similar requirements (for example, when animals are held in a sheltered or outdoor facility).

Brief and infrequent, moderate fluctuations in temperature and relative humidity outside suggested ranges are well tolerated by most species commonly used in research. Most HVAC systems are designed for average high and low temperatures and humidities experienced in a geographic area within +5% variation (ASHRAE 1993). When extremes in external ambient conditions that are beyond design specifications occur, provisions should be in place to minimize the magnitude and duration of fluctuations in temperature and relative humidity outside the recommended ranges. Such measures can include partial redundancy,

Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×

partial recycling of air, altered ventilation rates, or the use of auxiliary equipment. In the event of a partial HVAC system failure, systems should be designed to supply facility needs at a reduced level. It is essential that life-threatening heat accumulation or loss be prevented during mechanical failure. Totally redundant systems are seldom practical or necessary except under special circumstances (as in some biohazard areas). Temporary needs for ventilation of sheltered or outdoor facilities can usually be met with auxiliary equipment.

In some instances, high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are recommended for air supplied to animal-holding, procedural, and surgical facilities. Also, consideration should be given to the regulation of air-pressure differentials in surgical, procedural, housing, and service areas. For example, areas for quarantine, housing, and use of animals exposed to hazardous materials and for housing of nonhuman primates should be kept under relative negative pressure, whereas areas for surgery, for clean-equipment storage, and for housing of pathogen-free animals should be kept under relative positive pressure with clean air. Maintaining air-pressure differentials is not the principal or only method by which cross contamination is controlled and should not be relied on for containment. Few air-handling systems have the necessary controls or capacity to maintain pressure differentials across doors or similar structures when they are opened for even brief periods. Containment requires the use of biologic-safety cabinets and exhausted airlocks or other means, some of which are described in Chapter 1.

If recirculated air is used, its quality and quantity should be in accord with recommendations in Chapter 2. The type and efficiency of air treatment should be matched to the quantity and types of contaminants and to the risks that they pose.

Power and Lighting

The electric system should be safe and provide appropriate lighting, a sufficient number of power outlets, and suitable amperage for specialized equipment. In the event of power failure, an alternative or emergency power supply should be available to maintain critical services (for example, the HVAC system) or support functions (for example, freezers, ventilated racks, and isolators) in animal rooms, operating suites, and other essential areas.

Light fixtures, timers, switches, and outlets should be properly sealed to prevent vermin from living there. Recessed energy-efficient fluorescent lights are most commonly used in animal facilities. A time-controlled lighting system should be used to ensure a uniform diurnal lighting cycle. Timer performance and timer-overriding systems should be checked regularly to ensure proper cycling. Light bulbs or fixtures should be equipped with protective covers to ensure the safety of the animals and personnel. Moisture-resistant switches and outlets and ground-fault interrupters should be used in areas with high water use, such as cage-washing areas and aquarium-maintenance areas.

Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×

Storage Areas

Adequate space should be provided for storage of equipment, supplies, food, bedding, and refuse. Corridors used for passage of personnel or equipment are not appropriate storage are as. Storage space can be minimized when delivery is reliable and frequent. Bedding and food should be stored in a separate area in which materials that pose a risk of contamination from toxic or hazardous substances are not stored. Refuse-storage areas should be separated from other storage areas (see Chapter 2). Refrigerated storage, separated from other cold storage, is essential for storage of dead animals and animal-tissue waste; this storage area should be kept below 7ºC (44.6ºF) to reduce putrefaction of wastes and animal carcasses.

Noise Control

Noise control is an important consideration in an animal facility (see Chapter 2). Noise-producing support functions, such as cage-washing, are commonly separated from housing and experimental functions. Masonry walls are more effective than metal or plaster walls in containing noise because their density reduces sound transmission. Generally, acoustic materials applied directly to the ceiling or as part of a suspended ceiling of an animal room present problems for sanitation and vermin control and are not recommended. However, sanitizable sound-attenuating materials bonded to walls or ceilings might be appropriate for noise control in some situations. Experience has shown that well-constructed corridor doors, sound-attenuating doors, or double-door entry can help to control the transmission of sound along corridors.

Attention should be paid to attenuating noise generated by equipment. Fire and environmental-monitoring alarm systems and public-address systems should be selected and located to minimize potential animal exposure. The much-higher frequencies that are capable of being discriminated by some species make it important to consider the location of equipment capable of generating sound at ultrasonic frequencies.

Facilities for Sanitizing Materials

A dedicated, central area for sanitizing cages and ancillary equipment should be provided. Mechanical cage-washing equipment is generally needed and should be selected to match the types of caging and equipment used. Consideration should be given to such factors as

  • Location with respect to animal rooms and waste-disposal and storage areas.

Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×
  • Ease of access, including doors of sufficient width to facilitate movement of equipment.

  • Sufficient space for staging and maneuvering of equipment.

  • Provision for safe bedding disposal and prewashing activities.

  • Traffic flow that separates animals and equipment moving between clean and soiled areas.

  • Insulation of walls and ceilings where necessary.

  • Sound attenuation.

  • Utilities, such as hot and cold water, steam, floor drains, and electric power.

  • Ventilation, including installation of vents and provision for dissipation of steam and fumes from sanitizing processes.

FACILITIES FOR ASEPTIC SURGERY

The design of a surgical facility should accommodate the species to be operated on and the complexity of the procedures to be performed (Hessler 1991; see also Appendix A, "Design and Construction of Animal Facilities"). For most rodent surgery, a facility may be small and simple, such as a dedicated space in a laboratory appropriately managed to minimize contamination from other activities in the room during surgery. The facility often becomes larger and more complex as the number of animals, the size of animals, or the complexity of procedures increases, for instance, large-volume rodent procedures, the need for special restraint devices, hydraulic operating tables, and floor drains for farm animal surgery, and procedures that require large surgical teams and support equipment and thus large space. The relationship of surgical facilities to diagnostic laboratories, radiology facilities, animal housing, staff offices, and so on should be considered in the overall context of the complexity of the surgical program. Surgical facilities should be sufficiently separate from other areas to minimize unnecessary traffic and decrease the potential for contamination (Humphreys 1993). Centralized facilities provide important advantages in cost savings in equipment, conservation of space and personnel resources, reduced transit of animals, and enhanced professional oversight of facilities and procedures.

For most surgical programs, functional components of aseptic surgery include surgical support, animal preparation, surgeon's scrub, operating room, and postoperative recovery. The areas that support those functions should be designed to minimize traffic flow and separate the related, nonsurgical activities from the surgical procedure in the operating room. The separation is best achieved by physical barriers (AORN 1982) but might also be achieved by distance between areas or by the timing of appropriate cleaning and disinfection between activities. The number of personnel and their level of activity have been shown to be directly related to the level of bacterial contamination and the incidence of

Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×

postoperative wound infection (Fitzgerald 1979). Traffic in the operating room itself can be reduced by the installation of an observation window, a communication system (such as an intercom system), and judicious location of doors.

Control of contamination and ease of cleaning should be key considerations in the design of a surgical facility. The interior surfaces should be constructed of materials that are monolithic and impervious to moisture. Ventilation systems supplying filtered air at positive pressure can reduce the risk of postoperative infection (Ayscue 1986; Bartley 1993; Bourdillon 1946; Schonholtz 1976). Careful location of air supply and exhaust ducts and appropriate room-ventilation rates are also recommended to minimize contamination (Ayliffe 1991; Bartley 1993; Holton and Ridgway 1993; Humphreys 1993). To facilitate cleaning, the operating rooms should have as little fixed equipment as possible (Schonholtz 1976; UFAW 1989). Other features of the operating room to consider include surgical lights to provide adequate illumination (Ayscue 1986), sufficient electric outlets for support equipment, and gas-scavenging capability.

The surgical-support area should be designed for washing and sterilizing instruments and for storing instruments and supplies. Autoclaves are commonly placed in this area. It is often desirable to have a large sink in the animal-preparation area to facilitate cleaning of the animal and the operative site. A dressing area should be provided for personnel to change into surgical attire; a multipurpose locker room can serve this function. There should be a scrub area for surgeons, equipped with foot, knee, or electric-eye surgical sinks (Knecht and others 1981). To minimize the potential for contamination of the surgical site by aerosols generated during scrubbing, the scrub area is usually outside the operating room.

A postoperative-recovery area should provide the physical environment to support the needs of the animal during the period of anesthetic and immediate postsurgical recovery and should be so placed as to allow adequate observation of the animal during this period. The electric and mechanical requirements of monitoring and support equipment should be considered. The type of caging and support equipment will depend on the species and types of procedures but should be designed to be easily cleaned and to support physiologic functions, such as thermoregulation and respiration. Depending on the circumstances, a postoperative recovery area for farm animals might be modified or nonexistent in some field situations, but precautions should be taken to minimize risk of injury to recovering animals.

REFERENCES

AORN (Association of Operating Room Nurses). 1982. Recommended practices for traffic patterns in the surgical suite. Assoc. Oper. Room Nurs. J. 15(4):750-758.

ASHRAE (American Society of Heating. Refrigeration. and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Inc.). 1993. Chapter 24: Weather Data. In 1993 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals. I-P edition. Atlanta: ASHRAE.

Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×

Ayliffe, C. A. J. 1991. Role of the environment of the operating suite in surgical wound infection. Rev. of Infec. Dis. 13(Suppl 10):5800-5804.

Ayscue, D. 1986. Operating room design: Accommodating lasers. Assoc. Oper. Room Nurs. J. 41:1278-1285.


Bartley, J. M. 1993. Environmental control: Operating room air quality. Today's O.R. Nurse 15(5)11-18.

Bourdillon, R. B. 1946. Air hygiene in dressing-rooms for burns or major wounds. The Lancet :601-605.


Fitzgerald, R. H. 1979. Microbiologic environment of the conventional operating room. Arch. Surg. 114:772-775.


Gorton, R. L., and E. L. Besch. 1974. Air temperature and humidity response to cleaning water loads in laboratory animal storage facilities. ASHRAE Trans. 80:37-52.


Hessler, J. R. 1991. Facilities to support research. Pp.34-55 in Handbook of Facility Planning. Vol. 2: Laboratory Animal Facilities, T. Ruys, ed. New York: Van Nostrand. 422 pp.

Holton, J., and C. L. Ridgway. 1993. Commissioning operating theatres. J. Hosp. Infec. 23:153-160. Humphreys, H. 1993. Infection control and the design of a new operating theatre suite. J. Hosp. Infec. 23:61-70.


Knecht, C. D., A. R. Allen, D. J. Williams, and J. H. Johnson. 1981. Fundamental Techniques in Veterinary Surgery, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.


Reynolds, S. D., and H. Hughes. 1994. Design and optimization of airflow patterns. Lab Anim. 23(9):46-49.


Schonholtz, C. J. 1976. Maintenance of aseptic barriers in the conventional operating room. J. Bone and Joint Surg. 58-A(4):439-445.


UFAW (Universities Federation for Animal Welfare). 1989. Guidelines on the Care of Laboratory Animals and Their Use for Scientific Purposes: III Surgical Procedures. Herts, UK: UFAW.

Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×
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Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×
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Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Physical Plant." National Research Council. 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5140.
×
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Next: Appendix A: Selected Bibliography »
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A respected resource for decades, the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals has been revised by a committee of experts, based on input from scientists and the public. The Guide incorporates recent research on commonly used species, including farm animals, and includes extensive references. It is organized around major components of animal use:

  • Institutional policies and responsibilities. The committee discusses areas that require policy attention: the role and function of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, protocols for animal care and use, occupational health and safety, personnel qualifications, and other areas.
  • Animal environment, husbandry, and management. The committee offers guidelines on how to design and run a management program, addressing environment, nutrition, sanitation, behavioral and social issues, genetics, nomenclature, and more.
  • Veterinary care. The committee discusses animal procurement and transportation, disease and preventive medicine, and surgery. The Guide addresses pain recognition and relief and issues surrounding euthanasia.
  • Physical plant. The committee identifies design and construction issues, providing guidelines for animal-room doors, drainage, noise control, surgery, and other areas.

The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals provides a framework for the judgments required in the management of animal facilities—a resource of proven value, now updated and expanded. This revision will be important to researchers, animal care technicians, facilities managers, administrators at research institutions, policymakers involved in research issues, and animal welfare advocates.

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