National Academies Press: OpenBook
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×

Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production

Committee on the Use of Treated Municipal Wastewater Effluents and Sludge in the Production of Crops for Human Consumption

Water Science and Technology Board

Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources

National Research Council

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
1996

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance. This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.

Support for this project was provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Grant No. CX820717-01-0, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Grant No. 3-FG-81-19140, U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service Grant No. 59-0700-4-067, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, National Water Research Institute, Water Environment Research Foundation, Association of Metropolitan Sewerage Agencies, National Food Processors Association, Eastern Municipal Water District in California, Metropolitan Water Districts of Southern California, Bio Gro Division of Wheelabrator Water Technologies, and N-Viro International Corporation.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 96-67381

International Standard Book Number 0-309-05479-6

Additional copies of this report are available from:
National Academy Press
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Box 285 Washington, D.C. 20055 800-624-6242 202-334-3313 (in the Washington Metropolitan Area)

B-720

Copyright © 1996 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America

Cover depicts a farm field with a specialized truck for injecting sludge into the soil. A wastewater treatment plant is in the background. Art by Ellen Hill-Godfrey of Kensington, Maryland.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×

Committee on the Use of Treated Municipal Wastewater Effluents and Sludge in the Production of Crops for Human Consumption

ALBERT L. PAGE, Chair,

University of California, Riverside

ABATENI AYANABA,

Del Monte Foods, Walnut Creek, California

MICHAEL S. BARAM,

Boston University Law School, Massachusetts

GARY W. BARRETT,

University of Georgia, Athens

WILLIAM G. BOGGESS,

Oregon State University, Corvallis

ANDREW CHANG,

University of California, Riverside

ROBERT C. COOPER,

BioVir Laboratories, Inc., Benicia, California

RICHARD I. DICK,

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York

STEPHEN P. GRAEF,

Western Carolina Regional Sewer Authority, Greenville, South Carolina

THOMAS E. LONG,

Washington State Department of Health, Olympia

CATHERINE ST. HILAIRE,

Hershey Foods Corporation, Hershey, Pennsylvania

JOANN SILVERSTEIN,

University of Colorado, Boulder

SARAH CLARK STUART, Consultant,

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

PAUL E. WAGGONER,

The Connecticut Agricultural Experimental Station, New Haven

Staff

GARY KRAUSS, Study Director

MARY BETH MORRIS, Senior Project Assistant

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×

Water Science and Technology Board

DAVID L. FREYBERG, Chair,

Stanford University, Stanford, California

BRUCE E. RITTMANN, Vice Chair,

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

LINDA M. ABRIOLA,

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

PATRICK L. BREZONIK,

University of Minnesota, St. Paul

JOHN BRISCOE,

The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

WILLIAM M. EICHBAUM,

The World Wildlife Fund, Washington, D.C.

WILFORD R. GARDNER,

University of California, Berkeley (retired)

THOMAS M. HELLMAN,

Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, New York, New York

CAROL A. JOHNSTON,

University of Minnesota, Duluth

WILLIAM M. LEWIS, JR.,

University of Colorado, Boulder

JOHN W. MORRIS,

J.W. Morris Limited, Arlington, Virginia

CAROLYN H. OLSEN,

Brown and Caldwell, Pleasant Hill, California

CHARLES R. O'MELIA,

The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

REBECCA PARKIN,

American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.

IGNACIO RODRIGUEZ-ITURBE,

Texas A&M University, College Station

FRANK W. SCHWARTZ,

Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

HENRY J. VAUX, JR.,

University of California, Riverside

Staff

STEPHEN D. PARKER, Director

SHEILA D. DAVID, Senior Staff Officer

CHRIS ELFRING, Senior Staff Officer

JACQUELINE MACDONALD, Senior Staff Officer

GARY D. KRAUSS, Staff Officer

ETAN GUMERMAN, Research Associate

JEANNE AQUILINO, Administrative Associate

ANGELA F. BRUBAKER, Senior Project Assistant

ANITA A. HALL, Administrative Assistant

MARY BETH MORRIS, Senior Project Assistant

ELLEN DE GUZMAN, Project Assistant

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×

Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources

M. GORDON WOLMAN, Chair,

The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

PATRICK R. ATKINS,

Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

JAMES P. BRUCE,

Canadian Climate Program Board, Ottawa, Canada

WILLIAM L. FISHER,

University of Texas, Austin

JERRY F. FRANKLIN,

University of Washington, Seattle

GEORGE M. HORNBERGER,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville

DEBRA S. KNOPMAN,

Progressive Foundation, Washington, D.C.

PERRY L. MCCARTY,

Stanford University, Stanford, California

JUDITH E. MCDOWELL,

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts

S. GEORGE PHILANDER,

Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey

RAYMOND A. PRICE,

Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario, Canada

THOMAS C. SCHELLING,

University of Maryland, College Park

ELLEN K. SILBERGELD,

University of Maryland Medical School, Baltimore

STEVEN M. STANLEY,

The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

VICTORIA J. TSCHINKEL,

Landers and Parsons, Tallahassee, Florida

Staff

STEPHEN RATTIEN, Executive Director

STEPHEN D. PARKER, Associate Executive Director

MORGAN GOPNIK, Assistant Executive Director

GREGORY SYMMES, Reports Officer

JAMES E. MALLORY, Administrative Officer

SANDI FITZPATRICK, Administrative Associate

SUSAN SHERWIN, Project Assistant

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Harold Liebowitz is president of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Harold Liebowitz are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×

Preface

In early 1993, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Office of Wastewater Compliance and Enforcement suggested to the National Research Council's Water Science and Technology Board (WSTB) that it should consider undertaking a study of public health and public perception issues associated with the use of treated municipal wastewater and sludge in the production of crops for human consumption. At the time, EPA was just finalizing the Part 503 Sludge Rule, Standards for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge, and one of the major implementation concerns was with the food processing industry's reluctance to accept the practice. When EPA first promulgated criteria for land application of municipal wastewater sludges to cropland in 1979, some food processors questioned the safety of selling food crops grown on sludge-amended soils and their liability. In response, the principal federal agencies involved—EPA, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)—developed a Joint Statement of Federal Policy in 1981 to assure that current high standards of food quality would not be compromised by the use of high quality sludges and proper management practices. Nevertheless, the food processing industry remains concerned about safety and market acceptability, and at least one company has adopted an official policy that bans the purchase of any crops grown on fields receiving municipal sewage sludge or treated municipal wastewater. With the issuance of the Part 503 Sludge Rule in 1993, public concerns with a number of technical, regulatory, and environmental issues have surfaced. Because cropland application of both sludge and wastewater represent important management options, municipal wastewater management officials have a vital interest in the feasibility of these practices.

Therefore, in mid-1993, WSTB formed a committee representing diverse expertise and perspectives to conduct an independent study of the safety and practicality of the use of these materials for the production of crops for human consumption. The study sought to review (1) the historical development, rationale, and scope of the practice of treating municipal wastewater and sludge in the United States; (2) wastewater treatment technologies and procedures for agricultural use of these materials; (3) effects on soils, crop production, and ground water; (4) public health concerns about microbiological agents and toxic chemicals; (5) existing regulations

Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×

and guidelines; and (6) economic, liability, and institutional issues. The committee based its review on existing published literature and discussions with experts in the field. The committee was not constituted to conduct an independent risk assessment of possible health effects, but instead to review the method and procedures used by EPA in its extensive risk assessment, which was the basis for the Part 503 Sludge Rule.

The committee met five times over a 17-month period including field visits to the Irvine Ranch Water District in California, the CONSERV II Water Reclamation Program of Orange County and Orlando, Florida, and the Disney World, Florida reuse programs. The committee also held a one-day workshop at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey to hear from researchers, public interest groups, farm credit bureaus, farmers, and state and city planners on land application of municipal sludge in the Northeast.

The committee focused primarily on the issues surrounding the use of treated municipal wastewater effluents and treated sludge in food crop production, concentrating on the uptake of chemical constituents and pathogens by food crops. The study did not include an investigation of what happens after the crops are harvested (e.g., processing of food products). Further, the committee was not constituted to evaluate site-specific implementation of wastewater effluent and sludge reuse projects, or to compare the relative merits and risks of various other forms of disposal or beneficial uses. However, the committee recognized that in addition to the safety and practicality of using these materials on food crops, there are many implementation issues involved with the agricultural use of municipal wastewater and sludge including the degree to which the regulations are implemented and enforced, the public confidence in local reuse programs, local nuisance and traffic problems, environmental and product liability issues, and overall public perceptions. In several of these areas, this report notes particular findings that should receive the attention of federal, state, and local authorities responsible for implementing reuse projects.

It is hoped that this report will be particularly useful to food processors, states, and municipalities in assessing the use of treated municipal wastewater and sludge in producing crops for human consumption. It highlights public concerns and regulatory issues likely to be faced, and also identifies some additional areas for research.

The Committee on the Use of Treated Municipal Wastewater Effluents and Sludge in the Production of Crops for Human Consumption consisted of 14 members with experience in soil and crop science, agricultural engineering, wastewater and sludge treatment, soil microbiology, toxicology, ecology, infectious disease, public health, economics, law, and other relevant fields. The committee gained insights from a far larger group by inviting guests to its meetings, participating in field trips, and reviewing the literature. My great appreciation goes to the committee, each of whom gave significant time and energy to create this report. Additionally, I would like to thank Rufus Chaney and Richard Bord for providing their time and resources to the study. I want to thank the staff of the WSTB, especially Gary Krauss, study director, and Mary Beth Morris, project assistant. I would also like to thank the study sponsors: the EPA, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, the USDA, the FDA, the National Water Research Institute, the Water Environment Research Foundation, the National Food Processors Association, the Association of Metropolitan Sewerage Agencies, California's Eastern Municipal Water District,

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×

the Metropolitan Water Districts of Southern California, Bio Gro Division of Wheelabrator Water Technologies, and N-Viro International Corporation. Without this support, the study would not have occurred.

Albert Page

University of California, Riverside

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
This page in the original is blank.
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×

4

 

SOIL, CROP, AND GROUND WATER EFFECTS

 

63

   

Sludge as a Source of Plant Nutrients

 

63

   

Treated Municipal Wastewater as a Source of Plant Nutrients and Irrigation Water

 

66

   

Effects of Sludge and Wastewater on Soil Physical Properties

 

67

   

Effects of Sludge and Wastewater on Soil Chemical Properties

 

69

   

Effects of Sludge on Soil Microorganisms

 

76

   

Effects on Ground Water

 

78

   

Landscape-Level Considerations

 

81

   

Summary

 

82

   

References

 

83

5

 

PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERNS ABOUT INFECTIOUS DISEASE AGENTS

 

89

   

Infectious Disease Transmission

 

89

   

Infectious Disease Risk

 

92

   

Monitoring Infectious Disease Potential

 

93

   

Public Health Experience With the Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge

 

95

   

Summary

 

96

   

References

 

97

6

 

PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERNS ABOUT CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS IN TREATED WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE

 

100

   

Fate of and Exposure to Organic Chemicals

 

101

   

Fate of and Exposure to Trace Elements in Sludge

 

109

   

Nonspecific Health Effects of Sludge and Wastewater

 

111

   

Summary

 

113

   

References

 

114

7

 

REGULATIONS GOVERNING AGRICULTURE USE OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE

 

120

   

Regulatory Background

 

120

   

Federal Standards for the Control of Pathogens in Sewage Sludge

 

122

   

Approaches to Toxic Chemical Regulation in Sludge and Wastewater Land Application

 

125

   

Development of U.S. Chemical Pollutant Standards for Agricultural Use of Sewage Sludge

 

127

   

Evaluation of Federal Standards for Chemical Pollutants in Sewage Sludge

 

134

   

Regulations and Guidance for Agricultural Use of Municipal Wastewater,

 

139

   

Summary

 

147

   

References

 

149

Page xiii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
This page in the original is blank.
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R1
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R2
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R3
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R4
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R5
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R6
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R7
Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R8
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R9
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R10
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R11
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R12
Page xiii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R13
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5175.
×
Page R14
Next: Executive Summary »
Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production Get This Book
×
Buy Paperback | $73.00 Buy Ebook | $59.99
MyNAP members save 10% online.
Login or Register to save!
Download Free PDF

This book reviews the practice of reclaiming treated municipal wastewater for agricultural irrigation and using sewage sludge as a soil amendment and fertilizer in the United States. It describes and evaluates treatment technologies and practices; effects on soils, crop production, and ground water; public health concerns from pathogens and toxic chemicals; existing regulations and guidelines; and some of the economic, liability, and institutional issues. The recommendations and findings are aimed at authorities at the federal, state, and local levels, public utilities, and the food processing industry.

  1. ×

    Welcome to OpenBook!

    You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

    Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

    No Thanks Take a Tour »
  2. ×

    Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name.

    « Back Next »
  3. ×

    ...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

    « Back Next »
  4. ×

    Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

    « Back Next »
  5. ×

    Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

    « Back Next »
  6. ×

    To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter.

    « Back Next »
  7. ×

    Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

    « Back Next »
  8. ×

    View our suggested citation for this chapter.

    « Back Next »
  9. ×

    Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

    « Back Next »
Stay Connected!