Index
A
Active matrix electro luminescent display, 66
Alertness monitoring, 154
Alphanumeric presentations, 157, 163
Amblyopia, 91-92
Anthropometric design, 37-38
Apache helicopter pilots, 93
Armed Forces Qualification Test, 27, 28-29
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery, 27, 28
Army Reserve, 10
Attention allocation, 47-48
arousal-related measures of capacity, 146
for auditory processing, 124
capacity models, 145-146
design principles, 160-161
dual-task performance, 145-147, 153, 154
filter model, 145
goal-directed, 49
incipient performance failure, 143
limits of attentional capacity, 145
measures for assessment of, 149
multiple resource model, 146-148
physiological measures of, 153-154
predictive modeling, 155-156
primary task measures, 152
secondary task measures, 146, 152-153, 154
subjective measures, 149, 150-152
working memory model, 148-149
Auditory displays
controls, 126
head trackers for, 125
headphone/speaker design, 117-118, 124-125, 128
indications for, 117, 122, 128
Land Warrior System conceptualization, 117-118
message storage, 122
selection of presentation format, 122
sound detectability thresholds, 118-119, 122-124
speech recognition systems, 126-128, 129
speech signals, 120-122
three-dimensional, 122-126
tonal range for signals, 119-120
Automation, situation awareness and, 52
Aviation operations/technology
generalizability of research, 156, 184-185
monocular vs. binocular display, 93
B
Binocular display, 87
advantages/disadvantages, 93-94
depth perception, 92-93, 97, 102, 103
design considerations, 90
recommendations, 4. 6, 113, 184-185
visual rivalry effects, 91, 113
Biocular display, 90
Buddy system, 21
C
Camouflage, visual detection of, 92, 98
Circadian rhythms. 140-141
Cognitive functioning
acceptance of technology, 39-40
alertness monitoring, 154
capacity to use Land Warrior System, 36-37, 40-42
confidence and fear in combat, 8, 21
current personnel selection criteria, 28-30
for defensive operations, 17
group operations, 17-22
heat stress, 136-137
information sampling, 52-53
limits of human information processing, 145
measurement methodology, 166
object recognition, 111
overload/underload stress, 133-134, 145
physical performance and, 144, 171
research needs, 42, 156-157, 162, 170
stress-effects model, 131
in stressful environments, 52-53
training for Land Warrior System, 33
workload assessment, 144-145, 149-150
See also Attention allocation
See also Decision making processes;
Information management;
Situation awareness
Cold environments, 137
Combat operations
cognitive processing, 6, 17-21
command and control operations, 22-24
communications system for, 21-22
confusion in battle, 157-158
critical battle tasks, 12
depth perception tasks, 107-108
determinants of, 12
extended duration, 140-141
flexible response, 9
future prospects, 8-10
individual soldier's self-confidence in, 8, 21
information presentation in, 158
low-intensity conflict, 8
Land Warrior System design for, 12-17
noise-related stress, 138-140
operational environments, 3, 7, 11-12
situation awareness, 44-45, 52-53
sources of stress, 133-142
system performance criteria, 7-8, 11-12
workload stress, 133-134
Communications systems ambient noise problems, 138-140
auditory augmentation, 125-126
chain of command information flow, 11, 158
in combat environment, 21-22
for defensive operations, 17
limits of human attentional capacity, 145
multiple resource model of cognitive processing, 146-148
overload, 134
photographic reporting, 40
process indices for analysis of, 57
significance of trust in, 134-135
as strategic target, 134
team situation awareness, 53-54
verbal, 57
Complex systems
capacity model of human attention, 145-146
situation awareness in, 51-52
transmission of information in, 158
Complexity study, 30
Cost considerations, embedded training, 35
D
Data entry
design considerations, 37-38
vs. speech recognition, 126
Decision making processes chain of command information flow, 11, 158
in combat settings, 9
elements of, 23
heat stress effects, 137
implications of individual tactical information systems, 3, 10-11, 22-24
organizational functioning, 23
premature closure, 53
squad leadership, 23-24
during unit attack, 13
Defense operations
critical tasks, 12
Land Warrior System design, 17
Dependence on technology, 39
Depth perception, 90
augmented task performance relative to action zones, 99-108, 113
binocular/monocular vision, 92, 102, 103
collimation effects, 101
cues, 96-98
display resolution effects, 105-108
effects of helmet-mounted displays, 108- 110
limitations of visual displays, 93
stereopsis, 92-93, 97, 108-109
target size and shape in, 95, 101-102, 104, 109-110
textural gradient effects, 109
use of two-dimensional displays, 95-97, 109
Design and development
attentional principles, 160-161
cognitive workload measures for, 152
cost-benefit analysis, 69
critical human factors issues, 169
cross-cutting issues, 171
ergonomics, 25, 67, 156-157, 187
experimental approach, 5-6, 185-186
field tests, 56-57
human performance measures, 166-167, 181
implications of combat operations, 13
implications of threat changes, 9
individualization vs. standardization, 37-38
information-processing/decision making considerations, 24, 149
mental model principles, 48-49, 160
operational testing, 171-172
perceptual principles, 160, 162-163
proximity compatibility, 160-162
recommendations for design guidelines, 6, 187-188
situation awareness considerations, 4-5, 43, 55-56, 63-64, 169-170
training considerations, 35-36
user perspective, 37-38, 159-160, 164, 165-166, 167, 168-169
visual display issues, 65-66, 88, 112-113
See also Evaluation and testing of Land Warrior System
Dual-task performance, 145-147, 153
predictive modeling, 155-156
E
Educational requirements, 29
Egocentric displays, 49
Electrocardiography, 154-155
Electroencephalography, 153-154
Embedded training system, 35, 41
Enlistment trends, 29-30
Ergonomic design, 25, 67, 69, 113, 135, 171. 187
Evaluation and testing of Land Warrior System command and control issues, 22
conceptual approach, 3-4, 164-165, 173
human performance assessment, 166-167, 168, 172-173
human performance factors, 169-171
measurement of situation awareness effects, 54-62
measures of effectiveness, 173-175
performance criteria, 7-8, 11-17, 164, 167
performance-shaping factors, 172-173
physical exertion effects, 156-157
simulation techniques, 167-168
strategic plan, 167-168
stress effects, 142
subsystem performance requirements, 173
user acceptance as element of, 142
visual display performance, 98-100
weapons operations, 5-6
Event-related potentials, 153-154
Executive process-interactive control model, 155-156
Expectations influence on situation awareness, 47
of technology, 39
Eyeblink frequency, 154
Eyeglasses, 32
F
Fatigue
definition, 142-143
as stress outcome, 142-143
Field of view, 89, 92-93, 94, 103-104
effects of helmet-mounted displays, 110-111
image resolution and, 106
limits of object recognition, 111
Field testing, 56-57
binocular/monocular displays, 93-94
for evaluation of helmet-mounted displays, 165-166, 171-172
for visual displays, 90
G
Geon theory, 107-108
Global positioning system, 54, 66
H
Hand-held/wrist-mounted display, 5, 63, 68, 185
Head dimensions, 38
Head motion, 87
depth perception and, 102, 103, 108, 112
field of view enhancement, 110-111
Headphone/speaker design, 117-118, 124-125, 128
Heat stress, 136-137
Helmet-mounted display
advantages/disadvantages, 66-67, 68-87
attention allocation, 47-48, 157
aviation applications, 67
compatible with mental models, 48-49, 160
decision making authority and, 3, 10-11, 22-24
depth perception, 95-98
effects on depth perception, 108-110
effects on field of view, 110- 111
ergonomic considerations, 69, 113
heat stress related to, 137
individualized vs. standardized design, 37- 38
limits of soldier's working memory, 48
operational environments, 3, 7
perceptual trade-offs, 47
potential limitations, 4, 13-17, 23-24, 67-68
real-time simulations, 55-56
research and evaluation issues, 3-4, 24-26
situation awareness and, 45, 54-57, 62-64, 68-69, 169-170
soldier acceptance, 39-40
training issues, 34-35, 63, 159
virtual environment applications, 69-87
visual display, 65-66
visual presentation formats, 95-97
Human factors
cognitive testing, 28-30
critical research questions for design, 169
in design and development, 164, 167, 172
evaluation guidelines, 166-167
measures of effectiveness, 173-175
obstacles to performance evaluation, 168
significance of, 25
in speech recognition systems, 128
I
Individual differences, 13, 37-38, 41
research needs, 186
situation awareness, 45-48, 49-50
in use of helmet-mounted displays, 159
workload response, 156
Infantry soldier
attitudes toward Land Warrior System prototype, 39
capacity to use Land Warrior System, 36-37, 41-42, 51-52
challenges for helmet-mounted display design, 67-68
cognitive screening, 28-30
combat environments, 11-12
combat performance criteria, 11
confidence in technology, 8, 21, 39
critical battle tasks, 12
decision making autonomy, 10-11
future role of, 8-10
information overload/underload, 133-134
Land Warrior System users, 38
physical requirements, 30-32
training and readiness, 10
Information content/processing
chain of command issues in, II, 158
in combat, 21-22
in complex systems, 158
disinformation effects, 134-135
egocentric presentation, 49
elements of situation awareness, 44-45
goal-directed, 49
implications of tactical information systems, 24
individual autonomy, 10-11
information processing ability of Land Warrior System users, 41-42, 51-52
limits of human information processing, 145
limits of working memory, 48
Land Warrior System goals, 1, 10
needs during unit attack, 13
overload/underload stress, 133-134
team effort, 53-54
visual processing, 88
See also Cognitive functioning;
Situation awareness
Integrated Helmet and Display Sighting System, 67
L
Land Warrior System
auditory display, 117-118
battle task components, 12-17
cognitive requirements, 30, 36-37, 41-42
critical issues, 25-26
implications for training, 33-35, 41-42
information load distribution, 134
operational concept, 1, 10, 112
operational tasks, 12-17
potential users, 38
rationale, 2
significance of human factors issues, 25
as source of stress for user, 130, 132, 135
stress assessment in, 132
See also Evaluation and testing of Land Warrior System;
Helmet-mounted display
Location identification, 2
in combat operations, 13
elements of, 44-45
Land Warrior System operation goals, 66
M
Memory
attention allocation processes, 145
response bottleneck in dual-task performance, 147-148
situation awareness and, 47. 48-49
stress effects, 53
use of mental models, 45-47, 48-49
working memory models of cognitive capacity, 148-149
Military occupational specialties, 36, 37
Model human processor, 155
Monocular display depth perception, 102
design considerations, 90
field tests, 93-94
long-term use, 113
recommendations, 4, 6, 113, 184-185, 187
N
NASA task load index, 151
National Guard, 10
Night vision
binocular rivalry effects, 91
functions of helmet-mounted display, 66, 86
interpretation and perception, 88
monocular vs. binocular viewing, 92
recommendations for research, 6
technological advances, 2
visual display, 2
Noise stress, 138-140
vibration, 140
O
Object recognition, 11
cognitive functioning for, 111
display fidelity, 88
as element of situation awareness, 44
narrowed focus of attention and, 68-69
predictive modeling, 98
priming effects, III
ORD, 37
Organizational structure of tactical forces
for combat operations, 21
critical battle tasks, 12
decision making processes, 23
future prospects, 9-10
threat assessment and, 9
P
Packet switching, In.
Performance-shaping factors, 172-173
Personnel selection and training
acceptance of technology and, 39
adaptive response to stress, 144
age demographics, 29-30
challenges for Land Warrior System performance design. 40-41
cognitive entry requirements, 28-30
cost considerations, 35
current practice, 27
educational requirements, 29
embedded training system, 35, 41
enlistment trends, 29
future prospects, 10
goals of training, 32-33
human performance taxonomy, 30
implications of helmet-mounted display, 63, 159
implications of Land Warrior System, 33-35, 36-37, 41
Land Warrior System operational requirements, 36, 37
mental workload performance and, 156
operational goals, 21
physical requirements, 30-32
situation awareness screening, 49-50
visual display interpretation, training for, 102, 103-104, 112
Physical ability
infantry requirements, 30-32
mobility affected by equipment, 13, 69
psychological effects of discomfort, 40, 135
Physical stress
adaptive response, 144
considerations in Land Warrior System design, 25, 113, 135
in defensive operations, 17
design implications, 156-157
measures of cognitive workload, 153-154
See also Stress
Platoon leader
critical battle tasks, 12
identification of incipient stress failure in soldiers by, 132, 143-144
measures of effectiveness, 175
Proximity compatibility, 160-162
R
Range finders, 95
Reconnaissance activities, 12
Redundancy gain, 160
Resolution of display
depth perception and, 105-108
field of view and, 106
measurement units, 114-116
trade-offs within image, 105-106 visual, 89-90
S
Shivering, as cold response, 137
Situation awareness
attention allocation. 47-48
auditory augmentation, 125
behavioral measures of, 61-62
critical combat tasks, 44
definition, 44
design implications, 4-5, 6, 169-170
elements of, 43
goal-directed, 49
implications of/for helmet-mounted display. 45, 62-63, 68-69, 185
individual factors, 45-48, 49-50
information-processing model, 45
measurement techniques, 43-44, 54-57
opportunities for technological improvement, 54, 63-64
performance measures of, 62
process indices. 57
questionnaires for assessment of, 60-61
real-time testing, 60
significance of, 43
stresses of combat environment and, 52-53
subjective measures, 59-60
task automation and, 52
task complexity and, 51-52
team efforts, 53-54
technology trade-offs, 45
temporal context, 44
use of mental models, 45-47, 48-49
workload factors, 50-51
Situation awareness global assessment technique, 61
Situation awareness rating technique, 59
Snellen fraction, 114
Soldier Integrated Protective Ensemble (SIPE), 68
Special forces sergeant, 32
Speech advantages of, in auditory displays, 120
presentation formats for auditory displays, 120-121
recognition systems, 126-128, 129
syllabic length, 121
synthetic, 121
for warning signals, 121-122
Squad functioning
decision making processes, 22-24
Land Warrior System support for, 17
potential negative effects of Land Warrior
System, 67-68
Squad leadership
critical battle tasks, 12
identification of incipient stress failure in soldiers by, 132, 143-144
implications of tactical information systems, 22, 23-24, 40
measures of effectiveness, 173-175
training for Land Warrior System, 23, 34
Standardized testing, 27
cognitive workload assessment, 150-152
situation awareness assessment, 59-60
Stereopsis, 92-93, 97, 108-109
Stress
adaptive responses, 144, 157-159
battlefield, 157-158
of cold environments, 137
coping strategies, 131-132
design consideration, 162-163
dual-task performance, 145-146
extended field operations, 140-141
fatigue effects, 142-143
heat tolerance, 137
of hot environments, 136-137
identification of incipient failure from, 132, 143-144
information disinformation effects, 134-135
information overload/underload, 133-134, 145
interactive effects, 141-142, 171
limits of predictive modeling, 132
noise effects, 138-140
in operational environment, 135-136
organizational support strategies, 132
perceived control and, 157-158
predictive modeling, 130-131
research needs for systems design, 171
as restricted cue utilization, 136
situation awareness affected by, 52-53
task requirements as source of, 133
tolerance, 132
See also Physical stress
Subjective workload assessment technique (SWAT), 151
Subjective workload dominance assessment, 59
Surveillance activities, 145
T
TACFIRE, 39
Thermal imaging, 66
binocular display, 93
interpretation and perception, 88
training for use of, 113
TOW missile system, 88
Training. See Personnel selection and training
U
User
perspective acceptance of technology, 39-40, 142
design considerations, 37-38, 159-160, 164, 165-166, 167, 168-169
perceived control of situation, 157-158
potential Land Warrior System users, 38
V
Vibration effects
as stress source, 140
visual display, 6
Video games, 159
Viewpoint offset, 103-104
Virtual environments, 69-87
Visual acuity/performance
ambient and focal systems, 110-111
amblyopia, 91-92
angular threshold, 115
eyeblink frequency as workload indicator, 154
fatigue, 143
measurement units, 114-116
normal performance, 90
probability summation, 92
pupil diameter as arousal indicator, 146, 149
requirements for infantry soldiers, 32, 91
research needs, 186
response bottleneck in dual-task performance, 147-148
working memory model, 149
See also Depth perception
Visual display
alphanumeric presentations, 157, 163
aperture problem, 103-104
binocular rivalry effects, 91, 113
binocular vs. monocular, 90
coherence, 90
contrast, 89-90
depth perception by zones of action, 99-105, 113
egocentric, 49
fidelity needs, 88
field of view, 5, 89, 92-93, 94 92-93, 94
field research, 93-94
graphic representation, 157, 162-163
gun sight, 103
hardware, 66
head motion correlation, 87, 186
Land Warrior System operational concept, 1-2, 10
off-center presentation, 68, 113, 163
perceptual principles for design, 160, 162- 163
perceptual principles for systems design, 160, 162-163
performance evaluation, 98-100. 170
physical stress engendered by, 69
potential negative effects, 13-17, 67-68
processing proximity, 160-162
proposed helmet-mounted system, 65, 86
recommendations for research and design, 4-5, 6, 112-113, 184-185, 187-188
research needs, 171
resolution, 89-90
resolution effects on depth perception, 105-108
sensory factors in design of, 88
symbology, 67
threshold values, 5
training for use of, 102, 103-104, 112
two-dimensional presentation, 95-97, 109
vibration effects, 6
viewpoint offset, 103-104
W
Warning signals
auditory, 119-120
redundancy, 163
spoken, 121-121
Weapons operations, rifle stabilization, 5-6, 186
Workload
capacity models of cognitive process, 145-146
cognitive, assessment of, 144-145, 149-150
cognitive, design considerations for, 160-162, 162-163
cognitive, physiological measures of, 153- 154
definition, 144
as determinant of situation awareness, 50- 51
determinants of, 150-151
extended operations, 140-141
interpreting photographic reports, 40
limits of working memory, 48
Land Warrior System effects, 23, 40
multiple resource model of cognitive process, 146-148
primary and secondary task measures, 152-153, 154
research needs, 156-157, 162, 170
squad leader management of, 34
subjective assessment, 59, 149, 150-152
technology drivers of, 40
