Index
A
Aché people, 176, 178-179. 180, 183, 184, 185. 188, 193, 198, 213, 215-216, 221, 224
Actuarial science. 39-40
Age-specific death rate allelic effects in evolutionary demography , 97
among preagricultural peoples, 178-179
determinants of, 78
environmentally induced changes, 88
evolutionary demography model, 104
evolutionary theories of, 78-79
gerontogene role in, 122
individual age-related changes as factor in, 78
as measure of rate of aging, 82-85, 246
nematode genetics, 120-122
predictive modeling, 85-87, 90
research needs, 85
state-dependent life-history optimization. 90
See also Mortality trajectory
Aging. See Senescence
longevity assurance, 260
mutation-selection balance, 100
quantitative trait locus mapping, 112-113
studies of population distribution, 238-240
Altruism, 130-131
Alzheimer disease, 254-255
Aminoguanidine, 259
Anastrepha ludens,20-21
Antagonistic pleiotropy. 13. 118
allele rarity, 33
empirical evidence. 102
in evolutionary demography theory, 101
mortality trajectory patterns and, 33
Antibiotic drugs, 54-55
Atresia. 196-197
Automobiles. 28-31
B
Bacterium, 70
Behavioral ecology
dominance hierarchies. 131-132
evolutionary response systems, 200. 203
learning, 133
neglect of elderly in, 127-128
species life span differences. 152
territoriality, 132-133
Bequests, 170-171, 224, 228-230, 231
Biodemographics
research trends. 1
Biology
benefits of interdisciplinary collaboration. 33-34
cellular processes of aging, 255-258
generalizability of species studies, 19
molecular processes of aging, 258-260
relevance to demographic research, 2
theories of aging, 96
See also Reproductive biology
Bio-reliability theory, 27-31
Botryllus,257
Brain growth, 188
Bristlecone pine. 247
C
Caenorhabditis elegans. See Nematode worm studies
Calment, Jeanne, 14. 19, 24, 47, 250
Causes of death
demographic elimination, 53
in food-restricted rodents, 254
natural. 53
specificity among elderly, 9-10
U.S. mortality patterns. 54-55
Cellular processes
cell death, 255
life-history plasticity and, 255-258
vegetative propagation, 255-257
Ceratitis capitata. See Medfly studies
aging, 143-144
elderly, 144-146
postreproductive survival, 163-164, 165, 212
taxonomy, 142-143
Chickens, 132
Child/infant mortality, 54
Cloning
of gerontogenes, 118-119
quantitative trait loci, 119
Coale-Demeny life tables. 49, 50, 213-215, 216
Collagen, 258-259
Complex systems
biological assumptions for modeling, 10
bio-reliability theory. 27-31
living organisms as, 27
mortality trajectory in. 29n. 29-30
theoretical relevance, 10
Compression-rectangularization hypothesis, 48-51. 60
Contributions of elderly. 131, 221-222
altruistic behavior. 130-131
among cetaceans, 144-146
among elephants. 136-137
among primates, 139-142
caregiving. 140, 145-146, 152-153, 164-165, 167-168. 197, 222
eusociality among wasps, 147-148
feeding ecology. 189
fitness of populations, 127, 152
gender issues, 154
as repositories of knowledge. 217-218
resource transfer. 169-170
social dominance and leadership. 131-132, 136, 140, 141-142
social role concepts. 154
support of reproduction, 188-189
territorial dominance. 133
See also Natural selection, role of elderly in
Creosote bush, 247
Cultural factors in mortality, 55
Cynolebias,252
D
Decreasing hazard function
in compression-rectangularization hypothesis, 49, 51
empirical evidence, 5-6, 17-18
genetic heterogeneity and, 6-7
research trends, 14
selectivity effects, 6-7
See also Mortality trajectory
Demography
benefits of interdisciplinary collaboration, 33-34
classical theory of senescence, 69-71
future research, 14-15
goals of mortality research, 78
homeostatic process in, 10
notation of longevity, 39-40
notation of survival analysis, 39-40
relevance for ecological research, 75-76
relevance of biology to, 2
research challenges, 1-2
support for compression-rectangularization hypothesis. 50-51
support for limit-distribution hypothesis, 54-58, 61
support for limited-life span hypothesis, 45-48, 60
See also Biodemographics:
Evolutionary demography
Density function, 39
limiting distribution, 51-52
U.S. females, mortality of, 40
Developed societies
age at menopause, 213
death rate trends, 6
intergenerational transfers in, 223-227
Disposable soma theory, 3. 81, 258
worker castes in social insects, 151
Dolphins. See Cetaceans
Drosophila melanogaster,1, 5-6, 17
environmentally mediated aging effects, 87-88
evidence of mortality deceleration, 21, 24
experimental population genetics, 101-102
force of natural selection experiments, 98-99
Gompertz model correlations, 102-103
increased-longevity genes, 113, 116
mechanisms of mortality deceleration, 25-26
natural reversal experiments, 90
Drug reactions, 239
E
Economic theory, 189, 190-194, 200-201, 203
dementia and, 254-255
as intergenerational transfer, 226, 227-228
Efe people. 188
Elder care
genetic basis for, 8
intergenerational transfer, 223
Elephants, 7
reproductive biology and behavior, 134-136
role of elderly, 136-137
social organization, 134
Environmental heterogeneity evolutionary development and. 11- 12. 199-200
evolved norms of reaction, 199-200
individual variation and, 89
life-course dynamics and, 14
in life-history evolution, 79-80, 85-89
limit-distribution hypothesis of longevity. 52
long-term/short-term adaptation. 199-200. 203-204
modern environments. 200, 201-202, 203-204
natural reversal experiments, 89-90
phenotypic plasticity and. 88
selectivity and. 6-7
See also Fluctuating environments
Ethical issues, 241-242
Ethnographic research, 9
Eukaryotes, 247
Eusociality
evolutionary steps to, 148-150
extended longevity for. 147-148
Evolutionary demography
basic theory, 97-98
force of natural selection in, 98-100
genetic mechanisms. 100-101
goals, 96
resistance to, 96
See also Biodemographics
Evolutionary equilibria
genetic stability models, 67-68
for life-history phenotypes, 69-71
models of, 67-69
mortality-fertility tradeoffs. 71-72
phenotype distribution, 66
positive pleiotropy, 72
research significance. 65-66
size-structured model. 73-74, 75
stable strategy models, 67, 71, 74
strong selection dynamics. 75
Evolutionary theory. 2-5
age-specific death rate. 78-79
of aging, 1
altruistic behavior, 130-131
applications of quantitative trait locus mapping, 118
benefits of demographic approach, 33-34
bottleneck theory, 32
contributions of elderly, 154
decelerating mortality trajectory and, 32-33
effects of fluctuating environments, 11, 199-200
empirical support for theories of aging, 18-29
eusociality in wasps, 148-150
genetics of aging in, 91-92
life-cycle patterns of intergenerational transfer, 228
life history, 79-82, 175, 189-194
life-history plasticity in. 246n. 246
mechanism of adaptation, 199
menopause in, 8-9, 166-168, 175, 176, 196
norms of reaction, 199-200
opportunities for research. 92
phenotype plasticity, 199
pleiotropy in, 81
postreproductive survival, 84-85, 164-168, 194-195, 203
preadaptation, 147
research models, 65
scale of change, 152
of senescence, 80-81
settings for human research, 7-8
taxonomic evolution, 128
See also Evolutionary demography;
Natural selection
Extreme survival. 14
Gompertz model correlation, 103
mortality trajectory, 19
oldest man/woman, 47
plant clones. 247
range of, across species, 251-253
theoretical models for mortality patterns, 103-104
trends among humans, 45
F
Families
homeostatic process in, 10-11
intergenerational transfers within, 223-224
size. 10-11
studies of gene-disease relationships, 240
Fecundity
of elephants, 135-136
environmentally induced changes, 88
in measurement of aging, 83
in theory of evolutionary demography, 97
Feeding and nutrition
among preagricultural peoples, 175, 176. 193-194
food-restricted rodents, 251, 253-254
life-history consumption and production, 179-189
life-history evolution, 87, 88, 175, 176, 202-204
longevity and, 12
modern environment. 202
molecular processes of aging and, 259
reproductive ecology and. 186-189
Fertility
of elephants, 134-135
externally mediated evolutionary changes. 85
intergenerational transfers and, 227
in life history, 79
in measurement of aging, 83
mortality tradeoffs, 70
one-age-class life cycle, 70
quality vs. quantity of offspring. 190, 191-192, 201-202
size-structured model of evolutionary
Fluctuating environments, 11
evolution of mortality rates in, 72-73
life span of captive animals, 163
See also Environmental heterogeneity
Force of mortality
definition, 40
See also Hazard functions
Fruit fly
evidence of decreasing hazard functions, 5-6
evidence of life span plasticity, 247
evolutionary plasticity, 248-249
rate of aging. 249
See also Drosophila melanogaster:
Medfly studies
G
Gender differences
feeding ecology, 179
feminization of elderly. 154
inheritance of resources, 170-171, 229-230
Gene association, 110-111
Genetic heterogeneity
in evolutionary demography theory, 100-101
in evolutionary equilibria models, 67-69
limit-distribution hypothesis of longevity, 52
mortality trajectory and. 25-26
population genetics of life-history evolution, 101-102
selectivity and, 6-7
unobserved heterogeneity and, 14
Genetic mapping
conceptual basis, 111-112
of induced mutants, 115
rationale, 108-109
research value, 14-15
See also Quantitative trait locus mapping
Genetic markers, 238-239
ethical issues, 241-242
future demographic research, 14-15
of life-history traits, 117
in long-lived animals, 252
nematode point mutation and longevity, 23
for old-age survival, 13-14
in quantitative trait locus mapping, 112-113
Genetic preprogramming
life-history plasticity and, 246
longevity assurance genes. See Gerontogenes
number of genes involved in extreme survival, 14
quantitative trait locus analysis, 13-14
twin studies in longevity, 52
Genetic studies
applications, 238-239
designing population studies for, 242-243
ethical issues, 241-242
gene-disease relationship, 237, 238, 239-240
prospects for longevity genetics, 260-261
prospects for marrying with population surveys, 235, 237
rationale for marrying with population surveys, 234
specimen collection, 241
Genotype
definition, 237
evolutionary stable strategy models, 67
population distribution, 238-240
Germ-cell differentiation, 258
Gerontogenes
cloning, 118-119
concept of, 109
gene association, 109, 110-111
methods for identifying, 109-110
in nematodes. 114-115, 116-117, 119, 120-122
research prospects, 260-261
transgenic, 115
Glycation end-products, 258-259
Glycoxidation, 258-259
Gompertz distribution, 10, 17, 47
empirical evidence, 102-103
findings among oldest old, 103
Growth rate, 73-74
brain, 188
environmental effects, 87
H
Hadza people, 179, 182, 184-185, 188, 194
Hassan-Weiss life tables. 215
Hazard functions, 1
antagonistic pleiotropy theory. 3
decreasing with age, See Decreasing hazard function
definition, 40
evolutionary theories, 3-4
in finite life span model, 47
genetic heterogeneity, 6-7
genetically programmed, 13
leveling patterns, 5-6
limiting distribution, 51-52
mutation-accumulation theory, 3
U.S. females, 40
Health and morbidity
adaptive vs. nonadaptive menopause, 9, 166
determinants of behavior, 202
gene-disease relationship. 237, 238, 239-240
human patterns. 250
recent population surveys, 235
Homeostasis
demographic meaning, 10
family processes, 10-11
implications of human postreproductive survival, 166
Hormone-replacement therapy. 9, 166
Hunter-gatherers, 7-8
feeding ecology, 179-189. 193-194
life course, 175
life-history evolution, 2(X)
longevity, 176-179
postreproductive survival. 9, 166-168
reproductive ecology. 186-189
vs. modern environments, 200
See also Aché people;
Efe people;
Hadza people;
Hiwi people;
!Kung San peoples;
Yanomamo people;
Yora people
I
Income investment, 192. 193, 200-201
Individual differences
age-related changes, 79-82
in aging, 128-129
in frailty, phenotypic plasticity and, 90-91
in life-history evolution. 89-90
life-history plasticity, 246
mortality trajectory, 26
positional cloning, 119
Informed consent. 242
Intergenerational transfers, 8
as adaptive behavior, 171
bequests to children. 170-171, 224, 228-230
as contribution of elderly, 169
costs, 169
direction of flow, 219-220, 221-224, 230
environmental considerations, 219
gender differences, 170- 171, 229-230
measuring, 220
over life cycle. 219, 220, 228
patterns of, 169-171
repayment theory, 228
reproductive fitness and, 228, 230
through public sector, 224-227
within family, 223-224, 227-228
K
Kin selection, 7
!Kung San peoples, 166-167, 176. 179-180, 183, 185, 193-194, 213, 215-216
L
Lactation, 187-188
Life expectancy
among primitive peoples, 215-216
coefficient of variation of ages at death and, 49-50
compression-rectangularization hypothesis. 50
current beliefs, 38
definition, 45
for elderly, 216
evolutionary theories, 2-5
global disparities, 38
in high-mortality populations, 213-215, 216
in life tables, 215
modem female, 217
projections, 217
research needs, 1-2
See also Life spans:
Limits to longevity
Longevity
ancestral reproductive scenarios, 196
capital investment model of reproductive evolution, 190-194, 200-201, 202, 203
cellular processes, 255-258
cetaceans, 144
definition, 79
distinctive human characteristics, 175, 202
elephants, 134-136
evolutionary demography theory, 100-102
evolutionary theory, 78-82, 175, 189-194
externally mediated evolutionary changes, 85-89
feeding ecology, 175, 176, 179-189
genetic markers, 117
individual variation in evolution of, 89-90
intergenerational transfers across, 219, 220, 228
molecular changes, 258-260
mutation-accumulation theory, 81-82
phenotype evolution, 68-69, 74-76
phenotype optimization, 104
primate vs. human. 186-187
reproductive tradeoffs. 190, 195, 196-197
reproductive value measurement, 83-85
scope, 245-246
state-dependent optimization, 90-91
traits associated with increased longevity. 153
of wasps. 148-150
Life spans
of captive animals, 163
compression-rectangularization hypothesis, 50
contributions of elderly. 152-153
definition. 45
evidence of plasticity in, 247
evolution in eusocial wasps, 151
limit-distribution hypothesis, 53, 60
as measure of evolved rate of aging, 86
physiological determinants. 247-249
of primates, 139
range among living things. 246-253
rate of senescence and, 249
species differences. 152
support for limited-life span hypothesis, 45-48
Life tables
Coale-Demeny, 49, 50, 213-215, 216
Hassan-Weiss, 215
for high-mortality populations, 213-215, 216
Limit-distribution hypothesis, 51-58, 60-61
Limited-life span hypothesis, 40-48, 60
Limits to longevity
cause-elimination models, 53
cellular, 255-258
compression-rectangularization hypothesis, 48-51, 60
current beliefs, 38
demographic approach, 61
evolutionary theory, 246-247
limit-distribution hypothesis, 51-58, 60-61
limited-life span hypothesis, 40-48, 60
molecular, 258-260
relevance of Hayflick limit, 4, 255
theories of, 2-5
Longevity
among primates, 176-179
associated life-history traits, 153
consequences for individuals, 130
demographic notation for expressing, 39-40
gender issues. 154
genetic plasticity, 6, 260-261
genetically programmed. 13-14
gerontogene concept for, 109
nutritional factors, 12
postreproductive survival and. 196-198
of primates, 139
primitive peoples, 176-179
quantitative trait locus mapping of. 116-118
rationale for genetic research, 108
social consequences, 130
of wasps, 147-148
See also Life expectancy:
Life spans
Limits to longevity
Lotka growth equation, 67, 73, 127
M
Machiguenga, 180, 184, 185-186, 189
Markov chain, 27
Mathematical modeling
in evolutionary demography, 97-98
evolutionary equilibria, 66, 67-69
of evolutionary processes, 10
intergenerational transfers, 220
measures of aging, 83
research trends, 14-15
stochastic, 27
Maximum age at death
current computability, 47-48
limited-life span hypothesis, 48, 60
trends, 45-46
Mayflies, 248-249
Mechanical devices, 29-30
evidence of mortality deceleration, 18, 19-21, 24
mechanisms of mortality deceleration, 25-26
Mediterranean fruit flies. See Medfly studies
Menopause
age at onset. 213
evolutionary theory, 166-168, 175, 176
physiology, 196
Midlife, 250
Molecular life history. 258-260
Mortality
fertility tradeoffs, 70
high-mortality populations, 213-215, 216
nematode genetics, 120-122
prehistoric. 9, 87, 166-168, 213, 215. 230, 231
primate, 176-179
primitive peoples, 178-179, 194
research goals, 78
salmon limit, 70
See also Age-specific death rate
Mortality rate
Mortality trajectory
Mortality rate
doubling time. 246
Gompertz equation, 102-103
U.S. trends, 54
See also Age-specific death rate:
Mortality trajectory
Mortality trajectory
among oldest old, 19
of automobiles, 28-29
compression-rectangularization hypothesis. 48-51
evidence of deceleration at older ages, 5-6, 17-18, 19-25
evolutionary theory and, 32-33, 84
general pattern, 19
generalizability of species studies, 19
genetic heterogeneity and. 25-26
Gompertz distribution, 17
insect and worm patterns, 19-25
limit-distribution hypothesis. 51-58, 60-61
limited-life span hypothesis, 47-48
measures of fertility and reproduction and, 84
mechanisms of deceleration at older ages, 25-26, 31-33
nematode point mutation effects, 23
patterns among population subgroups, 26
population density effects. 25
reliability theory, 27-30
research goals. 78
stochastic modeling, 27
theories of aging, 18-19
U.S. patterns, 54-55
world patterns, 55-58
See also Decreasing hazard function
Mortality rate
Mutation
definition, 237
evolutionary demography theory, 100-101
evolutionary theory, 91
induced, in gerontogenes, 113, 115, 119
life-history optimization and. 80-81
mortality-fertility tradeoffs in evolutionary equilibria, 71-72
nematode gerontogenes, 114-115
phenotype evolution, 68-69, 74
positive pleiotropy, 72
reduced rate of aging through, 91-92
research needs, 85
salmon limit for mortality, 70
selection balance, 100-101
selection for early fertility, 70
Mutation-accumulation theory, 4, 13. 247
allele rarity, 32-33
conceptual basis, 3, 18, 81-82
empirical evidence. 102
mortality trajectory patterns and, 32-33
theoretical revisions, 11-12
N
National Institute on Aging. 234, 235
Natural selection
in demographic disequilibrium, 75
disposable soma theory, 258
evolutionary demography model. 97-100
historically contingent change in, 12
life-history interaction, 79, 80, 87
mutation-accumulation theory, 3, 18
phenotype mutation and, 68-69, 74
for physiological/psychological response system, 200, 203
for plasticity of response to food supply, 12
role of elderly in, 7, 8, 32, 127, 131, 152
Nematode worm studies, 17
evidence of mortality deceleration, 5-6, 21, 23, 24-25
genetics of age-specific mortality, 120-122
identification of gerontogenes, 114-115, 116-117, 119
large populations, 122
normal mortality rate, 120
point mutation effects on mortality, 23
rate of aging, 249
Net maternity function, 7
Neuronal life history, 250, 255, 259-260
NIA. See National Institute on Aging
Norms of reaction, 199-200
O
Oocyte endowment, 8-9, 161-162, 196-197
P
Phenotype
evolutionary equilibrium models, 66-69, 74-76
evolutionary genetic stability model, 67-68
evolutionary stable strategy models, 67
life history, evolutionary equilibria for, 69-71
optimization, 104
polymorphism, 73
population distribution, 240
quantitative trait locus mapping, 112-113
selection-mutation dynamic, 68-69, 74
Phenotypic plasticity, 12, 88, 199, 203
individual differences in frailty and, 90-91
Phenylketonuria, 238
Pioneer space probe, 27-28
Plant clones. 247
Pleiotropy, antagonistic. See Antagonistic pleiotropy
Pleiotropy theory, 72, 109, 118
definition, 81
population genetics of life-history evolution, 100, 101
Policymaking, 1
Polymorphic genes. 13-14
Population growth
of eusocial insect colonies, 151
evolutionary demography model, 97
homeostatic process in, 10
implications for longevity, 261
life-history evolution. 79-80
maximum age at death and, 45-46
Population surveys
applications of genetic research, 238-240
designed for genetic research, 242-243
estimates of phenotypic distribution from, 240
genetic specimen collection in, 241-242
prospects for genetic research, 235, 237
rationale for genetic studies, 234
recent efforts, 235
Positive pleiotropy, 72
Postreproductive survival among captive animals, 163
among cetaceans. 146, 163-164, 165. 212
among primates. 163
antagonistic pleiotropy theory. 3
behaviorally imposed reproductive cessation, 162-163
defining, 213
evolutionary theory, 84-85, 164-168, 194-195, 203
feeding ecology, 179-180
individual productivity and. 175
longevity and. 196-198
in men, 197-198
mutation-accumulation theory. 18, 70
in nature, 7, 127-128, 161-163, 168-169, 212-213
as nonadaptive artifact. 165-166
preadaptation model, 4-5
in preagricultural societies, 9, 166-167, 179, 213, 216, 230, 231
research needs. 85
trends, 217
See also Contributions of elderly
Preadaptation
conceptual basis. 4-5
for eusociality, 147-151
evolutionary theory. 147
for social evolution, 128
Predation
behavioral strategies. 192, 193
in life-history evolution. 85-86
Primates
altruistic behavior in, 131
contributions of elderly. 139-142
dominance hierarchies, 132
feeding ecology, 180-182, 186, 188
food-restriction effects, 254
postreproductive survival, 163
reproduction, 138, 139, 187, 188
social organization, 137-139
taxonomy, 137
Q
Quantitative trait locus mapping
conceptual basis, 111-112
genetic marker linkages. 113
for identifying gerontogenes. 109, 110
interval mapping. 113
of longevity. 116-118
positional cloning. 119
procedure, 112-113
recombinant inbred strains, 116-117
for research in life-history phenotypic evolution. 75
R
artificially postponed reproduction and, 253
polygenic genetic variation in, 91
range of, across species. 249-250, 251 -253
reduction through mutation, 91-92
See also Senescence
Reactive oxidation. 115, 258-259, 260
Recombinant inbred strains. 116-117
genetics of longevity in nematodes. 120-121
Relativistic mechanics, 103-104
Reliability engineers, 27-28, 39
Repair and maintenance, 27, 92
determinants of mortality in biology of. 247
Reproductive biology
ancestral life span scenarios, 196
artificial selection for late reproduction, 6
artificially postponed, senescence and, 98-99, 253
atresia, 196-197
behaviorally imposed reproductive cessation, 162-163
capital investment model of life-history evolution, 189-194, 200-201, 202, 203
effects of fluctuating environments, 11
of elephants, 134-136
environmental effects on life history, 90
feeding ecology and, 186-189
germ-cell differentiation. 258
homeostatic models, 10-11
human life span. 153
life history. 162
life-history evolution, 79-80
life-history tradeoffs, 190, 195, 196-197
of medflies, 20
nonsexually reproducing organisms, 247
old-age fertility, 32
oocyte endowment, 8-9, 161-162, 196-197
primate vs. human, 187-188
quality vs. quantity of offspring, 190, 191-192, 201
risks of old-age reproduction, 195
vegetative propagation, 255-257
Reproductive value, 83-85, 195
Rodent studies
cell proliferation, 257-258
food restrictions, 251
identification of gerontogenes. 114-115, 116
laboratory life spans, 250-251
quantitative trait loci cloning. 119
rate of aging, 249
S
Saturnid moth, 131
Senescence
altruistic behavior in, 130-131
among primates, 139
classical demography, 69-71
comparative biology, 1
contextual assessment, 129-130
evolutionary theories of, 3-5, 65, 80-81, 203
examples of species plasticity. 253-255
genetic basis, 91-92
germ-cell differentiation, 258
individual differences, 128-129, 246
mutation-accumulation theory, 81-82
in nature, 168-169
in nonsexually reproducing organisms. 247
predictive modeling. 85-87, 90
process conceptualization, 129
research needs, 76
in theory of evolutionary demography, 97-98
See also Rate of aging
Senility, 127-128
Social organization and behavior
altruistic behaviors, 130-131
consequences of individual longevity, 130
dominance relations, 131-132
of elephants, 134
intergenerational transfers and, 223, 224-227
longevity as preadaptation for, 128
of primates, 137-139
teaching and learning, 133, 137, 145
territoriality. 132-133
of wasps, 148-150
Survival analysis, 39-40
limited-life span hypothesis, 40-45
Survival function, 39
in compression-rectangularization hypothesis, 49, 50-51
limiting distribution, 51-52
U.S. females, 40
T
Teaching, 133, 137, 145, 217-218
Telomere DNA, 255
Territorial behavior, 132-133
intergenerational transfer, 170, 171
Transgenic gene lines. 115, 119
V
Vasopressin, 259-260
Vegetative propagation. 255-257
Violent death, 55
W
Waaler surfaces, 12
Wasps, 147-151
Whales. See Cetaceans
Y
Yora people, 184
Z
Zeus, 5
