Index
A
Accountability, model, 412, 420-427
Africa, 388, 392(n.6), 394, 468
Age factors
labor market, 188, 189, 233, 234, 252
research priorities, 484
retirement age, 371-372, 373, 375, 376, 378, 379-383
see also Children;
Elderly persons
Agricultural sector
Poland versus Russia, 86
Russia, 86, 126, 242, 461, 482
Soviet Union, 204
subsistence, 304-305
Transylvania, 103-116
Arbitration, Russia, 167
Asia, 290
Central, health care reform, 322, 324, 326, 327-348
see also specific countries
B
Baltic countries, see specific countries
Bankruptcy, 93
Czech Republic, 249
Banks and banking, 126
central banks, 3, 460-461, 463
Russia, 144, 147, 149-151, 170, 464
see also Credit;
Savings
Russia, 85
Belarus, 455, 456, 457, 463, 464
Big-bang policies, see Shock policies
Black market, see Underground economies
Bolivia, 266, 389-390, 391, 392(n.6), 393
Brazil, 391
Brezhnev, Leonid, 120
price controls and, 208-209, 210
Budgets, see National budgets
Bulgaria, 252, 456, 457, 458, 463
inflation, 455
corruption to circumvent, 26, 137-138, 142-143
evaluation criteria, 421, 422-423
health care services, 338
privatization, impacts on, 46-47, 217-218
research priorities, 482-483
rule of law, 420-421
Russia, 91, 135, 136, 140, 153, 218, 219, 229, 236
social welfare, 278, 282, 285, 338, 390
Soviet Union, 135-136, 139, 142-143, 217-218
C
Capital markets, see Investment
Central Asia
health care reform, 322, 324, 326, 327-348
immigration, Russia, 324-325
see also specific countries
Central banks, 3, 460-461, 463
income differentiation, 458, 467
pensions, 370
poverty, 351-366
privatization, 217-219, 220, 467
rent seeking, 462
social policy, 266, 305, 307, 309, 310, 465
unemployment, 458
see also specific countries
Central planning, general, 135, 432
China, 437
Czech Republic, 86-87
formal versus informal institutions, 22, 161, 165
health care services, 327-330, 334
industrial sector, 86-87, 225, 437
labor market and, 223-226
models, 433-436
Poland, 86-87
social policy, 254, 272-273, 285
Soviet Union, 120, 121, 134, 136, 137, 138-139, 142, 161-165, 225, 226, 228, 436-437
variation across regimes, 436-437
see also Decentralization
Children
research priorities, 484
social policy, 249, 250, 252, 254, 307-309, 311-312, 361, 365
Chile, 260, 263, 386, 389-393, 397, 427
China
incentives, 438, 440, 443-444, 448
industrial sector, 437-438
investment, 437, 443-444, 446-447
local factors, 16-17, 208, 437-438, 440-442, 445-446
managers and management, 443, 444-445
market reforms without democratic reforms, 436-448
price controls, 208
property rights and civil rights, 141
regional factors, 437-438, 440-442
small businesses, 437, 440-442
Colombia, 392(n.6)
Commonwealth of Independent States, see specific countries
Constitutional law
Soviet Union, 142
Construction sector
Consumer goods, 87, 267, 303, 364
bureaucracy, evaluation, 422
enforcement credibility, 45-46, 50, 89, 91, 152, 156, 167, 173
health care, 344
group cohesion, impact on costs, 40-41
private enforcement, 43-44, 153
Russia, 89, 91, 147, 148, 152, 153, 166-167, 170, 173, 229
see also Transaction costs
individual versus organizational, 125(n. 16)
pretransition economies, 31
research priorities, 480-481, 487
Russia, 91, 123, 207, 462, 482
social welfare systems, 253
Soviet Union, 27, 137-138, 142
see also Bribery;
Rent seeking
Cost-benefit analysis
health care, 346
property rights and, 141
social safety nets, 389
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, see Comecon
Courts, 156, 418, 420(n.8), 486
Hungary, 217
Russia, 147, 150, 153, 203, 204, 460-461
safety net programs, 390
Ukraine, 181
see also Interest rates
Soviet Union, 25, 42, 162, 205
Crime
sentences and penalties, 25, 27, 28, 31, 119, 123, 125, 142, 162, 205
see also Bribery;
Corruption;
Organized crime;
Underground economies
Croatia
inflation, 455
pensions, 377-378
Cultural values, see Sociocultural values
Currency and currency exchange, 256, 261, 386, 387, 454
Bulgaria, 463-464
household income estimates, 250-251
inflation and, 30, 121, 226, 455-456
NIS, common currency, 226
pretransition economies, 31, 136
research priorities, 481
Russia, 84, 85, 121, 147-148, 226, 460
internal versus external ruble, 29
Soviet Union, 136
Ukraine, 181
voucher trading, 148, 300, 461
Czechoslovakia, 355, 358, 395, 396, 455
Czech Republic, 17, 205, 216, 456, 457
bankruptcy, 249
social welfare policy, 255, 352-366 (passim), 396
D
Debt, see Bankruptcy;
Public debt
Decentralization, general
bureaucracy, evaluation, 422-423
China, 437-444
Russia, 158
social services, 254, 255, 259, 285, 287, 311
see also Liberalization of markets;
Local factors;
Regional factors
Decollectivization, see Land reform
Defense sector, Russia, 136, 157, 166-167, 174
Demographic factors, 14, 273, 276
Central Asia/Russia, 323-326
disadvantaged persons, 278, 280, 286, 483
epidemiological factors, 323, 326-327, 328, 372
health care, 323-326
social policy, 300
see also Age factors;
Immigration and emigration;
Poverty;
Women
Denationalization, see Privatization
Deregulation, see Government regulation/deregulation;
Liberalization of markets
Disability pensions, 372, 373, 380
E
Eastern Europe, 3, 17, 21, 133, 135, 467
inflation, 251
labor unions, 262
price controls, 205
property rights, 109
rent seeking, 462
social policy, 252, 262, 264, 267, 291, 305, 307, 309, 310
unemployment, 252
see also specific countries
Education and training, 3, 253, 254, 257-258, 259-260, 269, 291, 310-313
ethical considerations, 280, 285-286
health care personnel, 328, 347
pension credits, 380
research priorities, 484
safety nets versus, 387, 388, 391, 392, 393
skilled workers, 141, 224, 238, 262, 311, 312, 361, 483
women, 322
Efficiency incentives, 9, 47, 283-284
health care, 337, 341, 347-348
social welfare policy, 283-285
Elderly persons, 249, 254, 266, 361, 365
see also Pensions
Elections, 209, 419-420, 424-426, 464, 485
social policy and, 287-288, 395(n.8), 396
Emigration, see Immigration and emigration
central planning, 223-226
deindustralization, 394
employee ownership, 143-144, 149
full/overemployment, 87, 89, 97-98, 145, 146, 225, 226, 228, 229, 231, 273
labor costs, 228
property rights, 103, 106-107, 141
regression analysis of labor market, 184, 187-189, 187-189, 193-197
research priorities, 483-485, 487
retirement age, 371-372, 373, 375, 376, 378, 379-383
Russia, 224-242
globalized markets, 224, 225, 242
indices of conditions, 233
managerial hegemony, 96-97, 231
overemployment, 87, 89, 97-98, 145, 146
privatization, employee ownership, 143-144, 149
productive versus unproductive sectors, 91
sectoral composition of workforce, 235, 236
supply/demand, 224, 225, 228, 233, 237
unemployment, incl. benefits/services, 229, 232, 233-237, 242
skilled workers, 141, 224, 238, 262, 311, 312, 361, 483
social services, 223-242, 253, 259-260, 380, 390
Ukraine, 179, 180, 181, 184-201
under/unemployment, 248, 251, 252, 261, 273, 301, 304, 361, 457-459
globalization of markets and, 300
pensions and, 373
Russia, 229, 232, 233-237, 242
safety nets, 389, 390, 394, 396
survival strategies of, 178, 179-180, 182-184, 185-198, 304-305, 441-442
training to address, 311
unemployment insurance, 229, 380, 388, 390
women, 363
Ukraine, 179, 186-187, 189, 196, 199
Entrepreneurship, 6, 14-15, 134, 156-157, 457
Chinese officials, 444
Soviet Union, 120-121, 156, 160-166, 205
Transylvanian property rights, 108-109
see also Managers and management;
Underground economies
Environmental protection, 346
Russia, 90-91
Epidemiological factors, 323, 326-327, 328, 372
Estonia, 376-377, 395, 455, 456, 462, 465, 468
Ethnicity and ethnic groups, 2, 7, 9, 458, 474, 477
research priorities, 481, 484, 485, 486
social policy, 264, 268, 306, 484
transaction costs and cohesion, 41-42
Exchange rates, see Currency and currency exchange
Exports and imports, see International trade
F
Financial institutions and services, 3, 135, 147-151, 261
see also Banks and banking; Credit; Insurance
Food products and production, 249, 329, 364
Soviet Union, 204
see also Nutrition policies
Foreign exchange, see Currency and currency exchange
France, 406
G
Georgia, 376, 458, 463, 465, 468
Globalized markets, 103, 153, 481
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 120-121, 122, 136
Gosplan, 225
Government officials
China, 444-447
price controls and rent seeking, 208
research priorities, 485
Soviet Union, wages, 27
Transylvania, decollectivization, 105
see also Corruption
Government regulation/deregulation, general
corruption and increased regulation, 138
model, 411-412, 416-420, 456, 458
onerous regulation and noncompliance, 26
pensions, 375
Russia, 125
see also Bureaucracy;
Liberalization of markets;
Prices and price controls
Government role, 407-490
agency versus participant management, 41-42
agents interaction with, 412, 416-420
economic policy, 62-63, 68, 403-410, 411-428, 432-448, 453-468
principal/agent models, 415-428
see also Bureaucracy;
Central planning
Grey markets, see Underground economies
Gross Domestic Product
cash transfers as share of, 249
globalization and, 300
inflation and, 455
input markets and, 90
manufacturing labor force, 225
output and, 458
private sector share, 457
social welfare funding and, 249, 300, 304, 311, 330-332, 372-373, 395, 465
state revenues as percentage, 465
trends, 304
Bulgaria, 463-464
Commonwealth of Independent States, 133
Ukraine, 181
Gross National Product
H
Health care professionals, 253, 260, 327-328, 333, 335, 343-345, 347, 348
Health care services, 226, 253, 254, 256, 258, 259, 263, 285-286, 291, 322-348
Central Asia, 322, 324, 326, 327-348
central planning, 327-330, 334
contracts, 344
demographic factors, 323-326
efficiency incentives, 337, 341, 347-348
epidemiological factors, 323, 326-327, 328, 372
Kazakhstan, 333, 335, 339, 340, 343, 344, 346
Kyrgyz Republic, 333, 335, 339, 340, 342, 343, 344, 346
local markets, 337, 340, 344, 346
pharmaceuticals, 329, 337, 339, 345, 347, 348
research priorities, 484
safety nets versus, 387, 388, 391, 392
Tajikistan, 330, 334, 335, 340
Uzbekistan, 330, 332, 334, 335, 339
see also Hospitals and hospitalization
Health insurance, 280, 282, 285, 337, 338-341, 343, 345
Historical comparisons, 496-487
England, contract credibility, 45-46
epidemiological factors, 326
government role, models, 403-410
Sicilian land reform, 42-44
tax policies, 405-406
Historical factors
general importance of, 48
path dependence, 16-17, 21, 48, 75, 157, 173, 404, 408, 477
Russia, 84, 119-122, 135-136, 219
social welfare insecurity, 314
see also Soviet Union
Hospitals and hospitalization, 253, 263, 327, 329, 334, 335, 336, 337, 344, 345, 346
Household income, 250-251, 273, 361-363
see also Poverty
Household surveys, 7, 250, 332-333, 351-366, 483-484, 487
Housing, 186, 329, 354, 363, 364, 482
pensioners, 374
property rights, 137, 138, 483
rent control, 67, 123, 205, 249
central planning, 86-87, 436, 437
decentralization, 436, 437, 439
social welfare, 249, 250, 255, 256, 261, 291, 292, 315, 352-366 (passim), 465, 468
I
Ideology, see Politics and political parties
Immigration and emigration
Central Asia/Russia, 324-325
individuals' rights, 408
property rights, 112-113
Imports and exports, see International trade
Incentives, general, 13, 22, 23-24, 48, 68, 139
bureaucracy, 421
economists' research preferences, 50(n.25), 54
health care reform, 337
labor market, 225
principal/agent relations, 415
profit, 438
property rights and, 47, 141, 476
regulations, 417
Russia, 82, 89, 95, 126, 140, 146, 153, 169, 211, 220
social policy change, 249, 261, 283-285, 334
Soviet Union, 27, 33, 136, 137, 138, 142
telecommunications industry, 46(n. 16)
see also Efficiency incentives
Income, see Household income;
Personal income;
Poverty;
Redistributive systems;
Wages and salaries
India, 464
leadership, 266
pensions, 371
social welfare policy, 278, 281, 282, 284, 294(n.11), 299, 300, 306 -310, 314-315, 371, 485
Industrial sector
central planning and, 86-87, 225, 437
labor market, 225
China, 437-438
deindustralization, 394
Romania, 87
Russia, 242
Soviet Union, 138-139
Inflation, 251, 261, 455-456, 463-464, 466-467
barter and, 45
currency exchange and, 30, 121, 226, 455-456
GDP and, 455
output declines, 454-455
privatization and, 32
Russia, 84-85, 89, 92, 95, 455
labor/social policy and, 226-227, 231
social policy, general, 249, 251
Information scarcity, 62, 66-69, 404, 414, 427-428
Soviet Union, 136
Input markets, general, 218, 219
health care services, 334
Hungary, 217
Russia, 87-91, 93, 97, 99, 145, 203, 204, 334
Transylvanian land reforms, 107
see also Employment issues;
Investment
Insolvency, see Bankruptcy
Institutions and institutional approach, 7-9, 133, 139-140, 475-479
bureaucracy, evaluation, 422
economic policy, 61-75
incentive structures and, 13, 14
informal versus formal, 5, 21, 22, 24, 29, 156, 159, 160, 161, 165 , 476, 478, 479, 485
path dependence, 16-17, 21, 48, 75, 157, 173, 404, 408, 477
poverty and, 386-387
radical reform and noncompliance, 25
research,
historical preferences, 50-53, 62, 67-68
priorities, 479-490
social welfare policy, 288-289, 389, 390, 392-394
underground activity and change, 22, 23-26
see also specific institutions
see also Health insurance;
Pensions;
Social welfare policy
Intellectual property, 14, 166, 305
Interest rates, 45, 256, 386, 390
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, see World Bank
International Monetary Fund, 264(n. 12), 466, 467
International trade, 3, 466, 467
Comecon, 86-87
price controls, 210, 460, 462, 466-467
globalization and, 300, 302, 303-304
Russia, 90-91, 145, 152, 168, 210, 230, 460, 462
globalized markets, 224, 225, 242
Ukraine, 181
see also Globalized markets
Investment, 7, 38, 126, 148, 157, 166, 435
coercive power versus capital concentration, 405
Commonwealth of Independent States, 135
Eastern Europe, 135
enterprise learning, 160
Hungary, 217
research priorities, 482
Russia, 88-89, 124, 135, 146, 147-151, 153, 157, 167-168, 171-172
social spending and, 255, 290-293
Soviet Union, 163-164
post-dissolution, 133-154
Ukraine, 198
venture capital, 159
see also Pensions
K
Kazakhstan, 465, 467, 468, 482
health reform, 333, 335, 339, 340, 343, 344, 346
Know how, see Intellectual property
Kuchma, Leonid, 181
health reform, 333, 335, 339, 340, 342, 343, 344, 346
L
Labor issues, see Employment issues
Labor unions, 268
Eastern Europe, 262
Latin America, social services, 260, 262
research priorities, 481-482
Russia, 232
Land reform
industrial privatization versus, 109
political factors, 103, 107, 113
research priorities, 481
Romania, 105
Sicily, 1800s, 42-44
Transylvania, 103-116
grupos economicos, 159
social sector reforms, 261-262, 266-267, 302
see also specific countries
social safety nets, 395
Liberalization of markets
communist institutions dismantled, 5-6
economic policy, 3, 9, 22, 62-63, 68, 157, 403-428, 432-448, 453-468, 474
indices of, 456
Russia, 81, 84, 85, 121, 122-123, 143, 145-146, 157
perestroika,83
social policy, general, 248, 250, 262-263
stabilization and, 456
Ukraine, 456-457
underground economies, 29, 121
Yugoslavia, 264(n. 12)
see also Globalized markets;
Prices and price controls;
Privatization
Living standard, see Standard of living
Loans, see Credit;
Interest rates
China, 16-17, 208, 437-438, 440-442, 445-446
cooperatives, 75
health care, 337, 340, 344, 346
poverty, 305-306
production/transaction costs, 41-42
banking, 150
price controls, 123, 136, 206-216, 220, 230
social welfare policy, 256, 259, 305-306, 337, 390, 484
M
Mafia
economies of scale, 30
Sicilian land reform, 43-44
Managers and management, 7, 178
employee interaction with, 96-97, 178-179, 182-185, 199, 231
health care services, 329, 346
managerial learning, 156, 166-173
network versus hierarchical, 159-172
Poland, 146
political power, 466-467
price controls, rent seeking, 208
research priorities, 481-482, 487
Russia
corporate governance, 89, 96-97, 138-139
employee ownership, 143-144, 149, 461
enterprise learning, 156, 166-174
managerial hegemony, 96-97, 231
privatization, 144, 145, 146, 149, 151, 219, 462
salaries, 238
Soviet Union, 136, 138-139, 161-166
Transylvanian land reform, 105
see also Bureaucracy;
Production infrastructure/organization
Medical services, see Health care services
Military, see Defense sector, Russia
Models and modeling, 9, 453-468
central planning, 433-436
communist state, 433-436
economic policy, 62-63, 68, 403-428, 432-448, 453-468
incomplete/competing, 74-75
information scarcity, 66-67
labor market adjustment, 177-184
political factors, 65
polities, 17
price controls, 210-211
principal/agent relations, 415-428
private versus public policy, 67, 70
social service reform, 257-258, 265, 277
welfare state, 71-72
Western, applicability, 4, 168
Monetary policy, 3, 7, 135, 263, 414, 439, 466, 478
inflation and, 30
Ukraine, 181
see also Currency and currency exchange;
Prices and price controls
N
National budgets
health care services, 327, 329, 330-334, 336, 337, 340-342
inflation and, 455
pension financing, 380
price liberalization and, 30
research priorities, 486
Russia, 95, 227, 327, 329, 330-334, 341-342
defense, 136
social welfare services, 259, 293-294
state ownership and, 39, 435-436
see also Public debt;
Taxation
Natural resources, Russian exports, 90-91
see also Environmental protection
New Independent States, 3, 21, 467
bribery, 31
common currency, 226
incentive systems, 27
income differentiation, 458
inflation, 455
pensions, 370-383 (passim), 394
privatization, 217-218
rent seeking, 462
social sector reforms, 264, 465
state revenues, 465
unemployment, 458
see also specific countries
Nomenklatura,28, 139, 461, 467, 478, 482
Nongovernmental organizations, social welfare, 301, 306, 424, 484
O
OECD countries
education, 311
social welfare, vulnerable populations, 352-366 (passim), 395-396, 397
Optimization models, 178-179, 182-183, 419-420
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development pensions, 371
poverty, definition, 353-354
see also OECD countries
economies of scale, 30
property rights enforced by, 26, 30
research priorities, 481
Russia, 91, 119, 124, 152, 206, 213, 216, 239, 461
see also Mafia
P
Path dependence, 16-17, 21, 48, 75, 157, 173, 404, 408, 477
Pensions, 3, 179, 189, 253, 254, 255, 256, 258, 261, 280, 285, 292 , 307-309, 361, 370-383, 395, 465
age factors, 289, 307, 308-309;
see also retirement age infra
Baltics, 376
Central Europe, 370
central planning, 371-375, 377
cost factors, general, 370, 372-378, 380-381, 382
Croatia, 377-378
housing, 374
Lithuania. 376-377
national budgets and, 380
public debt, 372-374, 378, 395(n.9)
taxation, 370, 372, 373, 374-376, 381
OECD
policy, 371
Poland, 372, 373, 376, 378, 395
political factors, 370, 371, 375, 394
prices and, 308, 373, 379, 381
privatization, 282-283, 308, 371, 375, 376, 378
retirement age, 371-372, 373, 375, 376, 378, 379-383
social values, general. 371, 373, 374-375
taxation, funding, 370, 372, 373, 374-376, 381
wages related to, 308, 370, 371, 372, 378, 379, 381
women. 308, 310, 371, 378, 379, 380, 381-382
World Bank, 375-376
Personal income
health care access, 323
regional factors, 363, 422-423
Russia, 239-240
Ukraine, under/unemployment, survival strategies, 178, 179-180, 182 -184 , 185-198
unemployment benefits, 229, 232, 233-237
see also Pensions;
Poverty;
Wages and salaries
Pharmaceuticals, 329, 337, 339, 345, 347, 348
Planned economies, see Central planning
Poland, 198, 216, 217, 405-406, 454, 458, 462, 467
agricultural sector, 86
central planning, 86-87
managerial approaches, 146
pensions, 372, 373, 376, 378, 395
political capitalism, 137, 219
poverty, 251-252
price controls, 205
production infrastructure/organization, 146, 198
small and medium-sized enterprises, 146, 217, 236
social welfare, 249, 250, 255, 261, 352-366 (passim), 395, 468
Politics and political parties, 9, 65, 74, 408, 411, 413, 433-434, 436, 454, 466-468
bureaucrats' interaction with, model, 412, 420-425
citizens' interaction with, model, 412, 424-427
economic agents' interaction with, model, 411-412, 416-420
modeling, 65
research priorities, 485-486
rule of law versus, 142-143, 268
Russia, 80, 89, 91, 92-93, 96, 122, 126, 147, 219, 230, 268, 462-463
social welfare policy, 248, 249, 256-270, 278, 287-288, 289, 295, 301, 302, 370, 371, 375, 388-389, 390, 392-396
transaction costs, 47
Transylvania, decollectivization, 103, 107, 113
see also Elections
Pollution, see Environmental protection
Poverty, 250-252, 273, 274-275, 301, 303-304, 386-387
causes of, 386-387
Central Europe, 351-366
health care services, 329, 333
incentives/information, 69
Latin America, 267
local factors, 305-306
Poland, 251-252
political implications, 248, 260, 267-269
research priorities, 483-484
safety nets, 97-98, 126, 227, 329
underground economies, 304-305
see also Safety nets
Prices and price controls, 3, 65, 249, 256, 386, 414, 435, 439, 456 , 459, 466, 474, 478
China, 208
Eastern Europe, 205
education, 312
globalization, 300, 302, 303-304
housing, rent control, 67, 123, 205, 249
international trade, 210, 460, 462, 466-467
pensions related to, 308, 373, 379, 381
pharmaceuticals, 347
property rights and, 38, 203, 205-216
public debt, 30
rent seeking, arbitrage, 208, 209-210, 460, 462, 466-467
Russia, 84-85, 89, 122-123, 125, 136, 145, 148, 151, 203-216, 220, 229-230, 232, 237, 238, 460, 462, 464
Soviet Union, 27, 29, 121, 136, 226
state intervention model, general, 418
tax versus, 134
Ukraine, 181
underground economies and, 29
see also Inflation
Privatization, 22, 31, 83, 102, 134, 249, 413, 432, 454, 457, 458, 460, 463, 464, 466
bureaucracy, impacts on, 46-47, 217-218
Central Europe, 217-219, 220, 467
EBRD indices, 457
education, 312
employee ownership, 143-144, 149
health care, 332-334, 339-340, 341, 346
historical comparisons, 38, 47
inflation and, 32
New Independent States, 217-218
nomenklatura,28, 139, 461, 467, 478, 482
pensions, 282-283, 308, 371, 375, 376, 378
property rights and, 38, 216-220
research priorities, 480-482
rule of law and, 31-32
Russia, 36-38, 82, 83, 128, 133, 143-154, 158, 216-220, 235, 410, 457, 462, 482
bureaucracy, impacts, 46-47, 96, 135, 136, 140
employee ownership, 143-144, 149
management and managers, 144, 145, 146, 149, 151, 219,462
nineteenth century, 36-38
rule evasion and, 126-128
small businesses, 143, 144, 151-152, 216
Transylvania, 103-116
social security/services, 254, 257, 269, 282-283, 286, 288, 304, 386, 393, 396-397, 484-485
Soviet Union, 29, 120-121, 133, 137, 204-205
see also Land reform;
Small and medium-sized enterprises;
Underground economies
group cohesion, 41
labor, 228
Production infrastructure/organization, 7
Eastern Europe, 135
health care services, 329
regional factors, 86-87
research priorities, 481-482, 487
Russia, 87-89, 138-139, 144-146, 166-168
defense industry restructuring, 166-167
financial institutions, 147-149
foreign infrastructure imported, 153
see also Managers and management
Property rights, 6, 7, 14, 21-23, 35-57, 102, 139, 140, 409, 433, 476, 478
China, civil rights and, 141
collectivization, 103, 106-107
constitutional law, 39, 40, 44
defined, 29-30, 35(n. 1), 39, 103-105, 107, 112-116, 137
Eastern Europe, 109
employees' skills as, 141
entrepreneurship and, 108-109
immigration and emigration, 112-113
New Independent States, 31
organized crime, enforcement of, 26, 30
price controls and, 38, 203, 205-216
privatization and, 38, 216-220
public good versus, 111-113
religious influences, 40-42
rent seeking and ill-defined, 29-30, 39, 137
research priorities, 480-481, 485, 487
rule of law and, 22, 31-32, 108, 140
Russia, 39-42, 88-89, 95, 147, 203-220, 482
state intervention model, general, 418
Transylvania, entrepreneurship, 108-109
uncertainty, 29-30, 102-116, 138, 141
see also Intellectual property;
Land reform;
Privatization;
Real estate;
State ownership
Public debt, 466
Bulgaria, 463
decentralization and, 441
hidden, 455
individual lending, 45
pensions, 372-374, 378, 395(n.9)
poverty, safety nets, 386
price controls and, 30
Public enterprises, see Privatization;
Public services;
State ownership
Public good, 111-113, 412, 485
Public sector, see Defense sector, Russia;
Government role;
Social welfare policy
Public services, 135
tax base, 134
see also Social welfare policy
R
Racketeering, see Organized crime
Real estate, 464
see also Housing;
Land reform
Redistributive systems, general, 16, 23, 413, 439, 477
China, decentralized, 436-444
model of communist state, 433-435
pretransition systems, 30-31
research priorities, 479
see also Rent seeking;
Social welfare policy
Regional factors, 43, 48, 75, 486
health care, 337, 340, 344, 346
production concentrations, 86-87
Russia, 140, 144, 150, 170, 337, 340, 464
social policy, 259, 268, 337, 340
Soviet Union, 164
Regression analysis, labor market, 184, 187-189, 193-197
Regulation, see Government regulation/deregulation;
Liberalization of markets
Religious factors, 7, 39-43, 267, 268, 279, 467
Rent seeking, 8, 9, 22, 414, 434, 467, 477
defined, 460-461
Eastern Europe, 462
inflation and, 387
neoliberal interpretation, 413, 459-463
political control and, 47, 462-463
price controls and, 208, 209-210, 460, 462, 466-467
privatization and, 8, 460, 462
property rights, ill-defined, 29-30, 39, 137
research priorities, 481
stabilization policies, 462-463
Russia, 81, 89, 91, 92-93, 95-97, 98, 170-172, 206-207, 208, 460-463
social safety nets, 390
Research issues
age factors, 484
bureaucracy, 482-483
children, 484
currency, 481
economists' research preferences, 35-36, 48-55, 61-62
ethnic factors, 481, 484, 485, 486
funding, 489
health care, 484
incentives, 50(n.25), 54, 479, 483
information scarcity, 66-67
institutional approach, 50-53, 62, 67-68, 479-490
investment, 482
labor unions, 481-482
longitudinal panel studies, 479
national budgets, 486
quantitative versus qualitative approach, 64-68, 70-71
path dependence, 75
political factors, 485-486
polity models, 17
poverty, 483-484
priorities, 479-486
privatization, 480-482
property rights, 35-36, 50, 52-53, 480-481, 485, 487
production infrastructure/organization, 481-482, 487
program proposed, 486-490
rent seeking, 481
Restructuring of industry, see Production infrastructure/organization
Right to work, 87, 89, 97-98, 145, 146, 225, 226, 228, 229, 231, 273
see also Transylvania
Rule of law, 14, 26, 28, 118-119, 463
bureaucrats, 420-421
gradations of, 153
New Independent States, 31
political sanctions versus, 142-143, 268
privatization, 31-32
property rights, 22, 31-32, 108, 140
reform constituency, 31-32
Russia, 95, 98, 119-128, 152-153
Soviet Union, 28, 119-122, 135, 142
Rural areas, 251, 266, 351, 363, 437, 440, 441-442, 444
see also Agricultural sector
agricultural sector, 86, 126, 242, 461, 482
arbitration, 167
banking, 144, 147, 149-151, 170, 464
barter, 85
bureaucracy, 91, 135, 136, 140, 153, 218, 219, 229, 236
central planning, 82, 86, 226, 228
contracts, 89, 91, 147, 148, 152, 153, 166- 167, 170, 173, 229
corruption, 91, 123, 207, 462, 482
credit, 147, 150, 153, 203, 204, 460-461
see Organized crime infra
currency and exchange, 29, 84, 85, 121, 147-148, 226, 460
defense sector, 136, 157, 166-167, 174
employee ownership, 143-144, 149, 461
employment and labor market, 224-242;
see Wages and salaries infra
globalized markets, 224, 225, 242
indices, 233
labor unions, 232
managerial hegemony, 96-97, 231
overemployment, 87, 89, 97-98, 145, 146
privatization, employee ownership, 143-144, 149
productive versus unproductive sectors, 91
sectoral composition of workforce, 235, 236
supply/demand, 224, 225, 228, 233, 237
unemployment, incl. benefits/services, 229, 232, 233-237, 242
environmental protection, 90-91
financial institutions, 147-151;
see also banking and credit supra
food products, 91, 207, 230, 329
GDP trends, 80, 90-91, 460, 461
globalized markets, 224, 225, 242
health care reform, 322, 324, 327-348
historical influences, 84, 119-122, 135-136, 219;
see also Soviet Union
immigration, Central Asia, 324-325
inflation, 84-85, 89, 92, 95, 455
labor/social policy and, 226-227, 231
information scarcity, 89, 136, 145
input markets, 87-91, 93, 97, 99, 145, 203, 204, 334
institutional approach, 81-86, 93-95, 98, 157
international trade, 90-91, 145, 152, 168, 210, 230, 460, 462
investment, 88-89, 124, 135, 146, 147-151, 153, 157, 167-168. 171-172
labor market/social policy, 224-242
liberalization of markets, 80-99, 121, 122-123, 143, 145-146, 156, 157, 166-173, 409
perestroika,83
local factors, 140, 144, 170-171
banking, 150
price controls, 123, 136, 206-216, 220, 230
managers and management,
corporate governance, 89, 96-97, 138-139
enterprise learning, 156, 166-174
managerial hegemony, 96-97, 231
privatization, 144, 145, 146, 149, 151, 219, 462
salaries, 238
monetary policy, 85, 92-93, 460;
see also currency and exchange supra
national budget, 95, 136, 147, 227, 327, 329, 330-334, 341-342, 460
organized crime, 91, 119, 124, 152, 206, 213, 216, 239, 461
path dependence, 75
personal income, 239-240
political factors, 80, 89, 91, 92-93, 96, 122, 126, 147, 219, 230, 268, 462-463
poverty, 80, 229, 230, 234, 294(n. 11)
safety nets, 97-98, 126, 227, 329
price controls. 84-85, 89, 122-123, 125, 136, 145, 148, 151, 203-216, 220, 229-230, 232, 237, 238, 460, 462, 464
privatization, 36-38, 82, 83, 128, 133, 143-154, 158, 216-220, 235 , 410, 457, 462, 482
bureaucracy, impacts, 46-47, 96, 135, 136, 140
employee ownership, 143-144, 149
management and managers, 144, 145, 146, 149, 151, 219, 462
rule evasion and, 126-128
small businesses, 143, 144, 151-152, 216
production infrastructure/organization, 87-89, 138-139, 144-146, 166-168
defense industry restructuring, 166-167
financial institutions, 147-149
foreign infrastructure imported, 153
property rights, 39-42, 88-89, 95, 147, 203-220, 482
quasi-currencies, 8
redistributive systems, general, 85, 89-92
regional factors, 140, 144, 150, 170, 337, 340, 464
rent seeking, 81, 89, 91, 92-93, 95-97, 98, 170-172, 206-207, 208, 460-463
rule evasion, 119-128
rule of law, 95, 98, 119-128, 152-153
small and medium-size enterprises, 482
privatization, 143, 144, 151-152, 216
social welfare policy, 224, 226-232, 250
price controls and, 229-230
safety nets, 97-98, 126, 227, 329, 395(n.7)
taxes and, 227
stabilization policies, 84, 95, 462-463
labor market, 226
standard of living, 230, 239-240, 323, 324
accounting systems, 168
labor market, 227-228
organized crime, private, 216
payroll taxes, 227-228, 229, 337-338, 342
small businesses, 228
underground economies, 236
tax evasion, 119, 123-124, 125, 127, 227, 239, 240
uncertainty, 123-125, 127, 326
underground economies, 119-121, 123, 124, 230, 234, 236, 237, 239-240
wages and salaries, 225, 226(n.3), 237, 242
arrears owed, as policy, 239, 464
entrepreneurial income, 240
health care providers, 343-345
managerial power, 96-97
payroll taxes, 227-228, 229, 337-338, 342
sectoral differences, 237-238
structure of, incl. minimum, 232, 237-239
S
Safety nets, 97-98, 126, 135, 227, 253, 261, 285-297, 304-305, 329 , 371, 385-397, 484
Bolivia, 389-390, 391, 392(n.6), 393
cost-benefit analysis, 389
education/health care versus, 387, 388, 391, 392, 393
Latin America, 387-394, 396-397
Latvia, 395
political factors, 388-389, 390, 392-396
rent seeking, 390
Russia, 97-98, 126, 227, 329, 395(n.7)
unemployed, 389, 390, 394, 396
unemployment insurance, 229, 380, 388, 390
Salaries, see Wages and salaries
Savings, 32, 147, 226(n.3), 227, 465
social welfare policy and, 255, 279, 285, 289, 308, 371, 375, 376, 378, 379
see also Pensions
Second economies, see Underground economies
Senegal, 390
Service sector
see also Financial institutions and services;
Social welfare policy
Shock policies, 66, 157, 160, 207, 216, 233, 248-249
Slovak Republic, 205, 216, 255
pensions, 372
Slovenia, 255
inflation, 455
Small and medium-sized enterprises
Russia, 482
privatization, 143, 144, 151-152, 216
social welfare policy and, 253, 268
Soviet Union, 205
Smith, Adam, 35-37
Social welfare policy, 7, 65(n.3), 71-72, 134, 223-224, 247-319, 409, 465
benefit defined, 227(n.5)
Bolivia, 266
bureaucracy, 278, 282, 285, 338, 390
Central Europe, 266, 305, 307, 309, 310, 465
poverty, 351-366
central planning, 254, 272-273, 285
children, 249, 250, 252, 254, 307-309, 311-312, 361, 365
Chile, 260, 263, 386, 389-393, 397
corruption, 253
Czechoslovakia, 355, 358, 395, 396
Czech Republic, 255, 352-366 (passim), 396
decentralization, 254, 255, 259, 285, 287, 311
Eastern Europe, 252, 262, 264, 267, 291, 305, 307, 309, 310
elections, 287-288, 395(n.8), 396
employment, 223-242, 253, 259-260
entitlement ethos, 258-259, 269, 272, 273, 279, 289, 307, 327, 341 , 370, 377, 463, 465, 468, 485
ethical considerations, 277-281, 287
ethnic groups, 264, 268, 306, 484
fraud, 305
full employment as, 225, 226, 228
GDP and funding, 249, 300, 304, 311, 330-332, 372-373, 395, 465
Hungary, 249, 250, 255, 256, 261, 291, 292, 315, 352-366 (passim), 465, 468
incentives, 249, 261, 283-285, 334
individualism, 278, 281, 282, 284, 294(n.11), 299, 300, 306-310, 314-315, 371, 485
investment and spending, 255, 290-293
Latin America, 260-262, 266-267, 302, 387-394, 396-397
liberalization of markets and, 248, 250, 262-263
local factors, 256, 259, 305-306, 337, 390, 484
national budgets, 259, 293-294
OECD countries, vulnerable populations, 352-366 (passim), 395-396, 397
Poland, 249
political factors, 248, 249, 256-270, 278, 287-288, 289, 295, 301, 302, 370, 371, 375, 394, 395
privatization, 254, 257, 269, 282-283, 286, 288, 304, 386, 393, 396-397, 484-485
regional factors, 259, 268, 337, 340
religious influences, 267, 268, 279
research priorities, 483-485, 487
Russia, 97-98, 126, 224, 226-232, 250, 329, 395(n.7)
savings and, 255, 279, 285, 289, 308, 371, 375, 376, 378, 379
stabilization policy and, 248, 250, 262-263
taxation to fund, 227-228, 252, 253, 279, 285, 286-287, 293-294, 304, 307, 315, 463
uncertainty, 279, 283, 313-318, 374
unemployment insurance, 229, 380, 390
wages and salaries, 259-260, 311, 327, 343-345
Sociocultural values, general, 2, 5, 16-17, 69, 85, 305, 314, 477, 486
contract theory, 254, 259, 307, 308
path dependence, 16-17, 21, 48, 75, 157, 173, 404, 408, 477
property defined, 103, 107, 112-115
see also Ethnicity and ethnic groups;
Historical factors;
Individualism;
Religious factors
Soviet Union, 133
bureaucracy, 135-136, 139, 142-143, 217-218
central planning, 120, 121, 134, 136, 137, 138-139, 142, 161-165, 225, 226, 228, 436-437
construction sector, 161-162, 163
criminal penalties, 27, 28, 31, 142, 162, 205
decentralization, 136-137, 437
entrepreneurship, 120-121, 156, 160-166, 205
food products, 204
incentives, 27, 33, 136, 137, 138, 142
industrial sector, 138-139
investment, 163-164
managers and management, 136, 138-139, 161-166
officials' wages, 27
post-dissolution, 133-154, 180, 252, 262, 264, 267
prices and price controls, 27, 29, 121, 136, 226
privatization, 29, 120-121, 133, 137, 204-205
regional factors, 164
rule of law, 28, 119-122, 135, 142
small businesses, 205
see also New Independent States;
specific countries
Stabilization policies, general, 3, 13-14, 22, 454, 458, 464, 474
inflation, 456
liberalization and, 456
pensions and, 370
rent seeking, 462-463
research priorities, 481
labor market, 226
social policy and, 248, 250, 262-263
Ukraine, 182
Yugoslavia, 264(n. 12)
see also Shock policies
Standard of living, 186-187, 265, 273, 307, 457-458
Central Asia, 323
input/credit market access, 204
pensions, 374
research priorities, 483-484
Russia, 230, 239-240, 323, 324
underground economies, 120
see also Personal income;
Poverty
State ownership
China, decentralized, 440-444
employment and, 177
gradualism, 249
health care services, 327
national budgets and, 435-436
performance and reform, study, 47, 53
polity destabilization due to, 39
Russia, 216
socialist firm, institutional features, 137-138, 140
social welfare systems, 282-283
Ukraine, 181
see also Privatization
Supply/demand factors
communist state, model, 434
Russia, labor force, 224, 225, 228, 233, 237
T
Tajikistan, 456, 457, 463, 468
health reform, 330, 334, 335, 340
inflation, 455
Taxation, 33, 134, 143, 434-435, 465
decentralization, 423, 443, 447
historical models, 405-406
organized crime, private, 33, 44, 216
payroll taxes, 227-228, 229, 337-338, 342, 344, 370, 372, 373, 374-376, 405
pensions, funding, 370, 372, 373, 374-376, 381
price controls versus, 134
accounting systems, 168
labor market, 227-228
organized crime, private, 216
payroll taxes, 227-228, 229, 337-338, 342
small businesses, 228
underground economies, 236
state intervention model, general, 418
social welfare funding, 227-228, 252, 253, 279, 285, 286-287, 293-294, 304, 307, 315, 463
Soviet Union, 205
Tax evasion, 7, 9, 30, 119, 123-124, 125, 127, 227, 239, 240, 405
Telecommunications, 46(n. 16), 148
Trade, see Barter trade;
International trade;
Liberalization of markets;
Underground economies
Trade unions, see Labor unions
Transaction costs, 9, 14, 21-22, 23, 33, 44-45, 48, 61, 69, 74, 139-140, 412, 478
economists' research preferences, 50
entrepreneurship, 160
ethnic group cohesion and, 41-42
learning and, 173
political control, 47
price systems, 204
principal/agency model, 427-428
regulations, 26
Russia, 204
social engineering, 61
Transylvania, 103-116
Turkmenistan, 456, 457, 463, 464
health care reform, 332, 335, 339, 340
inflation, 455
U
credit, 181
investment, 198
labor market, 179, 180, 181, 184-201
liberalization, 456-457
managers and management, 182, 199
Uncertainty (decision-making), 33, 139, 326
competitors, about, 219
contracts, 44-47
health costs, 251
New Independent States, 31
noncompliance and, 26
pensions, 370
policy lags, 67
property rights, 29-30, 102-116, 138, 141
public debt financing and, 30
social welfare policy, 279, 283, 313-318, 374
structural policy, 66
see also Information scarcity;
Risk taking
Underground economies, 22, 23-26, 250, 478
Central/Eastern Europe, 29
globalized markets and, 300
liberalization of markets and, 29, 121
New Independent States, 29
poverty, 304-305
price controls and, 29
research priorities, 481
Russia, 119-121, 123, 124, 230, 234, 236, 237, 239-240
social welfare policy and, 253, 304-305
Unions, see Labor unions
United States, 15
Uzbekistan
health care reform, 330, 332, 334, 335, 339
liberalization, 457
V
Venezuela, 391
Venture capital, 159
Voucher trading, 148, 300, 461
W
Wages and salaries, 178, 183, 193
estimation of, 251(n.5)
globalization of markets, 303
health professionals, 343-345
payroll taxes, 227-228, 229, 337-338, 342, 344, 370, 372, 373, 374-376, 405
pensions related to, 308, 370, 371, 372, 378, 379, 381
Russia, 225, 226(n.3), 237, 242
arrears owed, as policy, 239, 464
entrepreneurial income, 240
health care providers, 343-345
managerial power, 96-97
payroll taxes, 227-228, 229, 337-338, 342
sectoral differences, 237-238
structure of, incl. minimum, 232, 237-239
social services, 259-260, 311, 327, 343-345
structure of, incl. minimum, 232, 237-239, 304, 389
women, 363
Welfare, see Social welfare policy
education, 322
labor market, 363
child care, 311
Ukraine, 179, 186-187, 189, 196, 199
wages, 363
pensions, 308, 310, 371, 378, 379, 380, 381-382
liberalization indices, 456
pensions, 375-376
Y
Yugoslavia, 264(n.12)
Z