NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the board responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
Support for this project was provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under Agreement No. 68C00082/C.
Copyright 1994 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Cover by John Eberhard, Pittsburgh, PA.
Available from the Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology or Water Science and Technology Board, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418.
Printed in the United States of America
COMMITTEE TO REVIEW THE EPA'S ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT PROGRAM
RICHARD FISHER, Chair,
Texas A&M University, College Station
PATRICK L. BREZONIK,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul
INGRID C. BURKE,
Colorado State University, Ft. Collins
LOVEDAY L. CONQUEST,
University of Washington, Seattle
THURMAN L. GROVE,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh
JOHN E. HOBBIE,
Marine Biological Laboratory Ecosystems Center, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
TIM K. KRATZ,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
ANNE E. MCELROY,
State University of New York, Stony Brook
JOHN PASTOR,
University of Minnesota, Duluth
JAMES N. PITTS, JR.,
University of California, Irvine
SAUL SAILA,
University of Rhode Island, Kingston
TERENCE R. SMITH,
University of California, Santa Barbara
SUSAN STAFFORD,
Oregon State University, Corvallis
MICHAEL J. WILEY,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Liaison from the Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology
KRISTIN SHRADER-FRECHETTE,
University of South Florida, Tampa
National Research Council Staff
SHEILA D. DAVID, Study Director,
Water Science and Technology Board
DAVID J. POLICANSKY, Study Director,
Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology
ANITA A. HALL, Senior Project Assistant,
Water Science and Technology Board
SHIRLEY F. JONES, Project Assistant,
Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology
BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
PAUL G. RISSER, Chair,
Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
MICHAEL J. BEAN,
Environmental Defense Fund, Washington, D.C.
EULA BINGHAM,
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
EDWIN H. CLARK,
Clean Sites, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia
ALLAN H. CONNEY,
Rutgers University, New Jersey
ELLIS COWLING,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh
JOHN L. EMMERSON,
Eli Lilly & Company, Greenfield, Indiana
ROBERT C. FORNEY, Consultant,
Unionville, Pennsylvania
ROBERT A. FROSCH,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
KAI LEE,
Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts
JANE LUBCHENCO,
Oregon State University, Corvallis
GORDON ORIANS,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
FRANK L. PARKER,
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
GEOFFREY PLACE, Consultant,
Hilton Head, South Carolina
DAVID P. RALL, Consultant,
Washington, D.C.
LESLIE A. REAL,
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
KRISTIN SHRADER-FRECHETTE,
University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
BURTON H. SINGER,
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
MARGARET STRAND,
Eckert Seamans Cerin & Mellot, Washington, D.C.
GERALD Van BELLE,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
BAILUS WALKER, JR.,
University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City
Staff
JAMES J. REISA, Director
DAVID J. POLICANSKY,
Associate Director
and
Program Director
for
Applied Ecology and Natural Resources
GAIL CHARNLEY, Acting Project Director
for
Human Toxicology and Risk Assessment
WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BOARD
DAVID L. FREYBERG, Chair,
Stanford University, California
BRUCE E. RITTMANN, Vice Chair,
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
LINDA M. ABRIOLA,
University of Michican, Ann Arbor
J. DAN ALLEN,
Chevron U.S.A., Inc., New Orleans, Louisiana
PATRICK L. BREZONIK,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul
WILLIAM M. EICHBAUM,
The World Wildlife Fund, Washington, D.C.
WILFORD R. GARDNER,
University of California, Berkeley
WILLIAM L. GRAF,
Arizona State University, Tempe
THOMAS M. HELLMAN,
Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, New York, New York
CHARLES C. JOHNSON, Jr.,
U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D.C. (Retired)
CAROL A. JOHNSTON,
University of Minnesota, Duluth
WILLIAM M. LEWIS, JR.,
University of Colorado, Boulder
CAROLYN H. OLSEN,
Brown and Caldwell, Atlanta, Georgia
CHARLES R. O'MELIA,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
IGNACIO RODRIGUEZ-ITURBE,
Texas A&M University, College Station
HENRY J. VAUX, JR.,
University of California, Oakland
Staff
STEPHEN D. PARKER, Director
SHEILA D. DAVID, Senior Staff Officer
CHRIS ELFRING, Senior Staff Officer
GARY KRAUSS, Staff Officer
JACQUELINE MACDONALD, Staff Officer
JEANNE AQUILINO, Administrative Specialist
COMMISSION ON GEOSCIENCES, ENVIRONMENT, AND RESOURCES
M. GORDON WOLMAN, Chair,
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
PATRICK R. ATKINS,
Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
JAMES P. BRUCE,
Canadian Climate Program Board, Ottawa, Canada
WILLIAM L. FISHER,
University of Texas, Austin
EDWARD A. FRIEMAN,
Scripps Institute of Oceanography, LaJolla, California
GEORGE M. HORNBERGER,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville
W. BARCLAY KAMB,
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena
PERRY L. MCCARTY,
Stanford University, Stanford, California
RAYMOND A. PRICE,
Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario
THOMAS C. SCHELLING,
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
ELLEN K. SILBERGELD,
Environmental Defense Fund, Washington, D.C.
STEVEN M. STANLEY,
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
VICTORIA J. TSCHINKEL,
Landers and Parsons, Tallahassee, Florida
EDITH BROWN WEISS,
Georgetown University Law Center, Washington, D.C.
Staff
STEPHEN RATTIEN, Executive Director
STEPHEN D. PARKER, Associate Executive Director
MORGAN GOPNIK, Assistant Executive Director
JEANETTE SPOON, Administrative Officer
SANDI FITZPATRICK, Administrative Associate
ROBIN ALLEN, Senior Project Assistant
COMMISSION ON LIFE SCIENCES
THOMAS D. POLLARD, Chair,
Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Maryland
BRUCE N. AMES,
University of California, Berkeley
JOHN C. BAILAR, III,
McGill University, Montreal, Canada
J. MICHAEL BISHOP,
University of California Medical Center, San Francisco
JOHN E. BURRIS,
Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
MICHAEL T. CLEGG,
University of California, Riverside
GLENN A. CROSBY,
Washington State University, Pullman
LEROY E. HOOD,
University of Washington, Seattle
MARIAN E. KOSHLAND,
University of California, Berkeley
RICHARD E. LENSKI,
Michigan State University, East Lansing
EMIL A. PFITZER,
Hoffmann-LaRoche, Inc., Nutley, New Jersey
MALCOLM C. PIKE,
University of Southern California School of Medicine, Los Angeles
HENRY C. PITOT, III,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
JONATHAN M. SAMET,
University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque
HAROLD M. SCHMECK, JR.,
Armonk, New York
CARLA J. SHATZ,
University of California, Berkeley
SUSAN S. TAYLOR,
University of California, San Diego, LaJolla
P. ROY VAGELOS,
Merck & Company, Inc., Whitehouse Station, New Jersey
JOHN L. VANDEBERG,
Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio,Texas
Staff
PAUL GILMAN, Executive Director
SOLVEIG PADILLA, Administrative Assistant
