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Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. Marine Mammals and Low-Frequency Sound: Progress Since 1994. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9756.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. Marine Mammals and Low-Frequency Sound: Progress Since 1994. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9756.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. Marine Mammals and Low-Frequency Sound: Progress Since 1994. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9756.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. Marine Mammals and Low-Frequency Sound: Progress Since 1994. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9756.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. Marine Mammals and Low-Frequency Sound: Progress Since 1994. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9756.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. Marine Mammals and Low-Frequency Sound: Progress Since 1994. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9756.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. Marine Mammals and Low-Frequency Sound: Progress Since 1994. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9756.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 2000. Marine Mammals and Low-Frequency Sound: Progress Since 1994. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9756.
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r References Aburto, A., D.J. Rountry, and J.L. Danzer. 1997. Behavioral Response of Blue Whales to Active Signals. Technical Report 1746. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA. Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). 1995. Final Environmental Impact Statement for the California Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate Project and Its Associated Marine Mam- mal Research Program. Marine Acoustics, Inc., Arlington, VA. Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- tion (NOAA). 1995. Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Kauai Acoustic Thermom- etry of Ocean Climate Project and Its Associated Marine Mammal Research Program. Marine Acoustics, Inc., Arlington, VA. Ahroon, W.A., R.P. Hamernik, and S.F. Lei. 1996. The effects of reverberant blast waves on the auditory system. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1009:2247-2257. Andre, M., M. Terada, and Y. Watanabe. 1997. Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) behavioral response after the playback of artificial sounds. Reports of the International Whaling Commis- sion 47:499-504. ATOC Consortium. 1998. Ocean climate change: Comparison of acoustic tomography, satellite altimetry, and modeling. Science 281: 1327 - 1332. Au, W.L.L., P.E. Nachtigall, and J.L. Pawloski. 1997. Acoustic effects of the ATOC signal (75 Hz, 195 dB) on dolphins and whales. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 101 :2973-2977. Baggeroer, A., and W. Munk. 1992. The Heard Island Feasibility Test. Physics Today 45:22-30. Banner, A., and M. Hyatt. 1973. Effects of noise on eggs and larvae of two estuarine fish. Transac- tions of the American Fisheries Society 102:134-136. Bowles, A.E., M. Smultea, B. Wursig, D.P. DeMaster, and D. Palka. 1994. Relative abundance and behavior of marine mammals exposed to transmissions from the Heard Island Feasibility Test. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 96:2469-2484. Burgess, W.C., P.L. Tyack, B.J. LeBoeuf, and D.P. Costa. 1998. A programmable acoustic record- ing tag and first results from free-ranging northern elephant seals. Deep-Sea Research 45: 1327- 1351. Calambokidis, J. 1996. Preliminary (Quick-Look) Analysis of Aerial Survey Data Surveys Con- ducted Through March 1996. ATOC Program Office, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA. 9

92 MARINE MAMMALS AND LOW-FREQUENCY SOUND Calambokidis, J. 1999. Aerial surveys conducted off Pioneer Seamount for the ATOC Marine Mammal Research Program. Unpublished report to MMRP Advisory Board. Clark, C.W. 1995. Application of U.S. Navy underwater hydrophore arrays for scientific research on whales. Reports of the International Whaling Commission 45:210-212. Clark, C.W., and J.M. Clark. 1980. Sound playback experiments with southern right whales. Sci- ence 207:663-665. Corwin, J.T., and J.C. Oberholtzer. 1997. Fish 'n chicks: Model recipes for hair-cell regeneration? Neuron 19:951-954. Costa, D.P., D.E. Crocker, J. Gedamke, P.M. Webb, D. Houser, and S. Blackwell. 1999. Effects of the ATOC sound source on the diving behavior of northern elephant seals, Mirounga angustirostris. Unpublished paper, University of California, Santa Cruz. Costa, D.P., and T.M. Williams. 1999. Marine mammal energetics. Pp. 176-217 in Biology of Marine Mammals, J.E. Reynolds III and John R. Twiss, Jr. (eds.), Smithsonian Press, Washing- ton, DC. Crane, N.L., and K. Lashkari. 1996. Sound production of gray whales, Eschrichtius robustus, along their migration route: A new approach to signal analysis. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 100:1878-1886. Crum, L.A., and Y. Mao. 1996. Acoustically enhanced bubble growth at low frequencies and its implications for human diver and marine mammal safety. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 99:2898-2907. Dahlheim, M.E., and D.K. Ljungblad. 1990. Preliminary hearing study on gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) in the field. Pp. 335-346 in Sensory Abilities of Cetaceans: Laboratory and Field Evidence, J.A. Thomas and R.A. Kastelein (eds.). Plenum Press, New York. D'Amico, A. 1998. Summary Record, SACLANTCEN Bioacoustics Panel, La Spezia, Italy, June 15-17, 1998 (available at http://www.saclantc.nato.int/whales/). Decory, L., A.L. Dancer, and J-M Aran. 1992. Species differences and mechanisms of damage. Pp. 73-88 in Noise-Induced Hearing Loss, A.L. Dancer, D. Henderson, R.J. Salvi, and R.P. Hamernik (eds.). Mosby, St. Louis, MO. Demski, L., G.W. Gerald, and A.N. Popper. 1973. Central and peripheral mechanisms in teleost sound production. American Zoologist 13: 1141 - 1167. Department of Commerce (DOC). 1995. Small takes of marine mammals; harassment takings incidental to specified activities. Federal Register 60(104):28379-28386. Department of Commerce (DOC). 1996. Small takes of marine mammals; harassment takings incidental to specified activities in arctic waters; regulation consolidation; update of Office of Management and Budget (OMB) approval numbers. Federal Register 61 (70):15884-15891. Dolphin, W.F. 1995. The envelope following response in three species of cetaceans. Pp. 147-172 in Sensory Systems of Aquatic Mammals, R.A. Kastelein, J.A. Thomas, and P.E. Nachtigall (eds.). De Spil Publishers, Woerden, The Netherlands. Dolphin, W.F. 1996. Auditory evoked responses to amplitude modulated stimuli consisting of multiple envelope components. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 179:113-121. Dolphin, W.F. 1997. Electrophysiological measures of auditory processing in odontocetes. Bio- acoustics 8:79-101. Dolphin, W.F., W.W.L. Au, P.E. Nachtigall, and J. Pawloski. 1995. Modulation rate transfer functions to low-frequency carriers in three species of cetaceans. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 177:235-245. Edds, P.L. 1982. Vocalizations of the blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus, in the St. Lawrence River. Journal of Mammalogy 63 :345-347. Edds, P.L. 1988. Characteristics of finbackBalaenoptera physalus vocalizations in the St. Lawrence Estuary. Bioacoustics 1(2/3): 131-149. Edds-Walton, P.L. 1997. Acoustic communication signals of mysticete whales. Bioacoustics 8(1&2):47-60.

REFERENCES 93 Edds-Walton, P.L. 2000. Vocalizations of minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) in the St. Lawrence Estuary. Bioacoustics, in press. Erbe, C., and D.M. Farmer. 1998. Masked hearing thresholds of a beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) in icebreaker noise. Deep-Sea Research II 45:1373-1388. Fluur, E., and J. Adolfson. 1966. Hearing in hyperbaric air. Aerospace Medicine 37:783-785. Frankel, A.S., and C.W. Clark. 1998a. Results of low-frequency playback of M-sequence noise to humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, in Hawaii. Canadian Journal of Zoology 76:521- 535. Frankel, A., and C.W. Clark. 1998b. Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate: Quick-Look Report of the Hawaiti ATOC-MMRP Hawaiian 1997/98 Results. Unpublished paper. Frankel, A., and C.W. Clark. 1999a. Behavioral responses of humpback whales to operational ATOC signals. Unpublished paper, Cornell University. Frankel, A., and C.W. Clark. l999b. Factors affecting the distribution and abundance of humpback whales off the north shore of Kauati. Unpublished paper, Cornell University. Frankel, A.S., J.R. Mobley, Jr., and L.M. Herman. 1995. Estimation of auditory response thresholds in humpback whales using biologically meaningful sounds. Pp. 55-70 in Sensory Systems of Aquatic Mammals, R.A. Kastelein, J.A. Thomas, and P.E. Nachtigal (eds.). De Spil Publishers, Woerden, The Netherlands. Frantzis, A. 1998. Does acoustic testing strand whales? Nature 392:29. Gisiner, R. (ed.). 1998. Proceedings. Workshop on the Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment. Office of Naval Research, Arlington, VA. Gordon, J.C.D., D. Gillespie, L.E. Rendell, and R. Leaper. 1996. Draft report on playback of ATOC-like sounds to sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) off the Azores. Unpublished manuscript submitted to the ATOC Marine Mammal Research Program, Bioacoustics Research Program, Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. Hall, J.W., III. 1992. Handbook of Auditory Evoked Responses. Allyn and Bacon, Boston. Harvey, J.T., and T. Eguchi. 1997. Effects of ATOC sounds on the harbor seal, Phoca vitulina Richardsi, in Monterey Bay. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA. Hastings, M.C., A.N. Popper, J.J. Finneran, and P.J. Lanford. 1996. Effect of low-frequency under- water sound on hair cells of the inner ear and lateral line of the teleost fish, Astronotus ocellatus. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 99:1759-1766. Hunter-Duvar, I.M., and G. Bredberg. 1974. Effects of intense auditory stimulation: Hearing losses and inner ear changes in the chinchilla. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 55:795- 801. Joint Oceanographic Institutions (JOI). 1994. Dual Use of IUSS: Telescopes in the Ocean. Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Inc., Washington, DC. Kastak, D., and R.J. Schusterman. 1996. Temporary threshold shift in a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina). Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 100: 1905-1908. Kastak, D., and R.J. Schusterman. 1998. Low-frequency amphibious hearing in pinnipeds: Meth- ods, measurements, noise, and ecology. Journal of the acoustical Society of America 103:2216- 2228. Kastak, D., R.J. Schusterman, B.L. Southall, and C.J. Reichmuth. 1999. Underwater temporary threshold shift induced by octave band noise in three species of pinniped. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 106:1142-1148. Ketten, D.R. 1994. Functional analyses of whale ears: Adaptations for underwater hearing. Insti- tute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Proceedings in Underwater Acoustics 1:264-270. Ketten, D.R. 1997. Structure and function in whale ears. Bioacoustics 8(1&2):103-136. Ketten, D.R., J. Lien, and S. Todd. 1993. Blast injury in humpback whale ears: Evidence and implications. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 94:1849-1850.

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Sound has become a major tool for studying the ocean. Although the ocean is relatively opaque to light, it is relatively transparent to sound. Sound having frequencies below 1,000 Hertz (Hz) is often defined as low-frequency sound. The speed of sound is proportional to the temperature of the water through which it passes. Therefore, sound speed can be used to infer the average temperature of the water volume through which sound waves have passed. The relationship between water temperature and the speed of sound is the basis for the Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate (ATOC) experiment. The ATOC experiment is designed to monitor the travel time of sound between sources off the coasts of Hawaii and California and several receivers around the Pacific Ocean in order to detect trends in ocean temperature and for other research and monitoring purposes.

Some whales, seals, and fish use low-frequency sound to communicate and to sense their environments. For example, baleen whales and some toothed whales are known to use and respond to low-frequency sound emitted by other individuals of their species. Sharks are not known to produce low-frequency sound but are attracted to pulsed low-frequency sounds. Therefore, it is possible that human-generated low-frequency sound could interfere with the natural behavior of whales, sharks, and some other marine animals.

Marine Mammals and Low-Frequency Sound is an updated review of the National Research Council 1994 report Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs, based on data obtained from the MMRP and results of any other relevant research, including ONR's research program in low-frequency sound and marine mammals. This report compares new data with the research needs specified in the 1994 NRC report, focusing on the strengths and weaknesses of the data for answering important outstanding questions about marine mammal responses to low-frequency sound and identifies areas where gaps in our knowledge continue to exist.

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